CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
PREPARED BY TUTOR ': ISAAC KUNDA
1.0.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication is defined as the act of sending and receiving information between two or more
people. The person sending the message is referred to as the sender, while the person receiving the
information is called the receiver. The information conveyed can include facts, ideas, concepts,
opinions, beliefs, attitudes, instructions and even emotions.
Communication can also be defined as the process of transforming information and meaning between
senders and receivers using one or more written, oral, visual or electronic media. The essence of
communication is sharing in as far as providing data, information, insights and inspiration in an
exchange that benefits both you and people with whom you are communicating.
1.1.0 Importance of Communication
Improving communication skills may be the single most important step you can take in your career.
You can have the greatest ideas in the world, but they are no good to your company or your career if
you cannot express them clearly and persuasively. Certain jobs such as careers in sales, marketing and
customer support, are primarily about communicating. In fields such as engineering or finance you
often need to share complex ideas with executives, customers and colleagues and your ability to
connect with people outside your field can be as important as your technical expertise.
-Allows you to interact and convey information effectively to different relevant parties.
As you rise in your career, you spend less time applying your technical skills in your particular
profession and more time communicating. As an entrepreneur, you will be expected to communicate
with a wide range of audiences, from investors, bankers and government regulators to employees,
customers and business partners. Therefore, it is key to adapt your communication styles to a given
business environment at any given time. If you learn to write well, speak well, listen well, and recognize
the appropriate way to communicate in any situation, you will gain a major advantage that will serve
you throughout your career.
-in the business world, being able to adapt and use effective communication methods in different
situations and to different audiences is a major advantage.
1.2.0 Types of Communication
Methods of communication vary, and you are almost certainly familiar with all of them. Let's take a
look at some of the primary methods.
• Verbal communication is simply sending a message through a spoken language that is understood
by both the sender and receiver of the message. Examples of verbal communications include face-
to-face talking, listening to a lecture or seminar, and listening to a television program. In fact, if you
are listening to this lesson, you are engaged in a verbal form of communication.
• Written communication is sending a message by the use of symbols that are understood by both
the sender and receiver of the message. If you are reading the transcript of this lesson, you are
engaged in written communication.
• Body language is a form of nonverbal communication that can be used to send a message. You can
often tell if your boss is pleased or upset simply by looking at his facial expressions, posture and
gestures. For example, a flushed face may mean embarrassment; a clinched fist may indicate anger;
and the rolling of one's eyes may signal disbelief or annoyance.
 NOTE: the types of communication used must be understood by both the sender and the receiver
1.2.0 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication involves a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of ideas
towards a mutually accepted direction or goal. For this process to materialize, five basic elements of
communication are involved.
1. Sender/Encoder/Speaker
2. Receiver/Decoder/Listener
3. Message
4. Medium
5. Feedback
1.2.1 Sender/Encoder/Speaker

The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to as the sender. The sender
selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits them to the receiver. The communication process begins with
the sender, who is also called the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information—a
command, request, or idea —that he or she wants to share with others. In order for that message to be
received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood and then transmit it.

The entire burden of communication then rests upon the sender or encoder with regard to the choice of
ideas and words to use to compel the receiver to listen and understand. Therefore, it is very important to
have an understanding of the recipients and their needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance
with the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is higher.

-Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as sender.

-Encoding: The communicator of the information organizes his idea into series of symbols (words, signs, etc.)
which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers.

1.2.2 Receiver/Decoder/Listener

The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. In order to comprehend
the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then
decode or interpret it.

The receiver decodes the message and give an internal response to the perceived message. If the receiver
views a similarity in the goal of the sender there is high chance of success in communication. It is noteworthy
that the response is not in relation to the actual content, but rather

-Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the understandable
meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to derive meaning from the message.

The Message

The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
It is relayed between the parties. Put all three together (sender - message - receiver) and you have the
communication process as its most basic.

The Medium

Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text messages, for
example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

Feedback

The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted,
received, and understood.

The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a
written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.

CHAPTER TWO
ORAL COMMUNICATION
2.1.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication with others through speech is known as oral communication and it comes naturally to
all of us. We learn the skill from infancy and we rarely have to think too much about the processes
involved. Oral communication is invariably a two-way process involving an interaction of some sort
between two or more people. Like other forms of communication, oral communication demand
minimum principles of communication, purpose of communication, understanding the audience and
structuring the content. The examples of oral or verbal communication include face to face
chats/discussions, telephone conversations, lecturers, interviews, counseling, public speeches and
radio/TV presentations, audio-visual aids etc. however, for oral communication to be effective, it is
usually combined facial expressions, body language, gestures and visual aid.
2.1.1 Advantages of oral communication
Used properly and in the right place, oral communication has many powerful advantages:
• Comprehensive feedback – unlike written communication, oral communication provide for
opportunities to clarify certain points by giving the listener chance to ask where they do not fully or
immediately understand. Oral communication also provides a chance to read non–verbal aspect of
communication such as facial expression, movements and body language.
-listener can ask questions thereby eliminating any question marks.

• Immediate feedback – oral communication has the advantage of providing instant feedback and
provide an opportunity for everyone involved to express their views. This mean that they can avoid
the delay inevitable in written communication and views can be exchanged immediately. In business
context, where decisions have to be reached quickly, this is an obvious advantage.
- instant feedback since all interested parties are listening and contributing at the same time in real-
time.

• Courtesy – a personal meeting shows that you are genuinely interested in the other person and
helps to build a relationship of trust and understanding and this makes all the difference in obtaining
an important business contract or agreement. Personal meetings provides those in position of
authority within a company a chance to show that they are concerned about the ideas and feelings
of their staff.
-shows personal effort and care since you went through the trouble of showing up in person.

2.1.1 Disadvantages of oral communication

Not everything about oral communication is positive. The following are some of the setbacks:
• No written record – oral communication does not provide a written record of what has been said
or decided. At a later stage, misinterpretations are not easily resolved as there is no reference to
the exact nature of the message.
- hard to provide evidence of oral communication because not everyone was there to listen.

• Time consuming and costly – personal meetings are time-consuming, and can involve travelling
over long distances. This can be tiring and can defeat your aims in two ways, by wasting your time
and finances in travelling and by reducing your positive approach to the personal exchange due to
travelling fatigue.
- for oral communication, you might have to be their in person and travelling can be expensive and
exhausting.

• Emotional involvement – oral communication involves a personal element between parties. This
means that the relationship between two people may overshadow interaction and distort the
meaning. For example, a junior member of staff may hold back from questioning or disagreeing with
a senior manager. There may also be situations where no matter how hard you try to establish a
good working relationship, it will be impossible to do so because of personality clashes.
- you need to connect or else you might not be able to properly understand each other.

2.1.2 Basic Skills of Oral Communication

 It is very important to plan all kinds of oral communication where you know in advance that you engage
in some form of conversation such as when making formal presentations like speech, interview,
meeting etc. the demand for preparation vary depending on the kind of oral communication you are
engaged in. but there are principles that are common to all occasions:
• Clarity – ensure that you know exactly what you want to communicate. Check your facts properly
to ensure that they are accurate. If it is an opinion, make sure that it is completely defined in your
mind and that you are able to support it with proof.
- be clear in how you put the message across.

• Audience – know your audience and use the language which is accessible to your listeners. Consider
demographics such as age, background and relationship and be able to scan for reactions as you
speak and modify your language where necessary.
- use a language that is relevant and understandable by your audience, and check for reactions to make
sure they are getting you clearly.

• Relevance – ensure that you only talk about issues that are relevant to your audience. Therefore,
you need to thinks through carefully and stick to the point.
- don’t beat around the bush, get to the point and stick to the subject.

• Non-verbal elements – you must always be alert to non-verbal signals so that you convey the right
attitude throughout the meeting or speech.
- make sure your body language is in check so that you don’t make people uncomfortable.

• Define action to be taken – think about what action to follow and who should take it up. You may
not be able to do this precisely until the meeting is over, but always keep it in mind.
-conclude with what action must be taken in accordance with what you were saying.

2.1.4 Verbal Skills

Verbal communication is one among other activities through which we form actual and immediate
relationships with those with whom we communicate in a way that written communication cannot.
We do so through methods such as face-to-face encounters and over the telephone. The formed
immediate and personal relationships with our audience is one medium through which business
connections are established. Therefore, accuracy and appropriate choice of words and language plays
a significant role as we convey meaning in the manner intended. It is very important that we limit the
use of jargon or unnecessary technical words or the language which either is beyond the understanding
of the audience or appears to talk them down. In other words, verbal communication is not just about
words we choose, but encompasses a number of other factors.
• Pronunciation – it is essential use correct pronunciation for words and take time to say words and
phrases properly. Take care to speak slowly if the audience do not have the same accent as yourself
or may be unfamiliar with and avoid posh accents that makes you sound insincere. Failure to speak
clearly results in ambiguity and misunderstanding.
-Pronounce words correctly and clearly so that your words are not misinterpreted.

• Structure of argument – your ideas should follow a logical sequence and allow the listener the
opportunity to consider each point in turn.
-Build on your points gradually and in a sensible order, not jumping around within the topic.
 • Stress and tone – through the tone of your voice, add emphasis to important words or syllables.
The tone of your voice indicates your emotional response and enthusiasm for what you are saying.
-emphasize the more important parts of your speech.

• Volume – modulate your voice audible enough for people to hear you. This would depend on the
distance between the speaker and the listener and the nature of what is being said.
- don’t be too loud and don’t be too quiet.

• Rhythm and pace – there is no need to rush any oral presentation. Plan what you have to say for
the time allocated and adopt a pace which allows you to achieve this. Similarly, length pause
between points or phrases can be irritating.
- don’t be too fast and don’t be too slow, speak at a moderate pace and rhythm.

2.2.0 EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Developing your listening skills puts you in a better position to obtain the necessary and relevant
information in business situations. This is particularly important in minimizing misunderstanding and
also helps you avoid time-wasting by asking unnecessary questions and shows interest and
understanding to the speaker. This will help you maintain good relations with both internal colleagues
and external contact.
Many people use the terms listening and hearing interchangeably but the two are different and it is
important to draw a distinction between them. Hearing is a passive act and this can happen when you
switch on the radio whilst doing something else. Listening on the other hand is an active, not a passive,
activity. It requires understanding of the communication and the ability to make effective judgments
on what is heard. Many breakdowns in communication takes place because people don’t listen
attentively to what is actually said, but to what they would like to hear or expect to hear.
2.2.1 Active Listening
Active listening is characterized by positive body language and an attentive pose. It may be necessary
to summarize what has been said at key moments to ensure that both parties have understood the
communication. There are three levels of listening:
• Attentive listening, for important or highly relevant information.
• Empathetic listening, to attune oneself with the speaker and seek common ground in appreciation
of his or her attitudes, feelings and emotions.
• Casual listening for pleasure, where we may respond in a more light-hearted way and use puns and
double meanings as a means to enjoy the actual language used.

Most of us do not listen effectively for a variety of reasons.

• External distractions compete for our attention.
• We don’t take time to listen.
• We don’t know how to listen.
• We allow our own emotions and prejudices to filter what we hear.

On the other hand, effective listening can be achieved if we:

• Listen for facts and remember key words.
• Listen for feelings, interpret the speaker’s point of view, observe his or her non-verbal
communication, and listen to what isn’t said.
 • Do not tune to unpleasant messages that we are not keen to hear. But rather, duel on the positives
of what is being said.
• Clarify what is being said by asking questions where relevant.
• If necessary give a reflective summary, which briefly paraphrases what the other person has been
saying; you then know that you are both on common ground.

With this background on how we can be effective oral communicators, let us consider the following
four areas in which use oral communication in sharing and acquiring important business information;
• Effective questioning
• Public presentation and speaking skills
• Conducting meetings, seminars, conferences and interviews
• Negotiations skills

2.3.0 EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING

Questioning is primarily used as a primary technique for gathering data or information. This can be
done through interviews by way of unstructured questioning and through structured questioning using
questionnaires. Questioning is mostly employed when conducting surveys and interviews.
Before designing questions that are effective to draw out logical conclusions or help in effective
decision making, you need to start by identifying information gap and then break that information
gap into specific points, choosing an appropriate type of question for each point. When designing
the questionnaire for instance, the following guide lines will help you produce results that are both
valid and reliable.
• Provide clear instructions to make sure people can answer every question correctly.
• Do not ask for information that people cannot be expected to remember.
• Keep the questionnaire short and easy to answer.
• If possible formulate questions that provide for an easy way to analyze e.g. numbers and facts.
• Avoid leading questions that could bias the outcome.
• Avoid ambiguous descriptors e.g. often or frequently.
• Avoid compound questions e.g. do you read books and magazines?
• Adapt your administration of questionnaires to the environment.

Another method that can be adopted to gather information by way of questioning is through
interviews. Interviews are credited for providing in-depth collection of information as they can dig
deeper than the hands-off approach of surveys, and skilled interviewers can also watch for non-verbal
signals that provide additional insights. Interviews can take a variety of formats, from emails exchanges
to telephone conversations to group discussions.
As an interviewer, you need to be aware that the answers you receive in an interview are influenced
by;
• The type of questions you ask.
• By the way you ask the questions.
• Subjects’ cultural and language background. Therefore, an interviewer should take into account the
interviewee’s race, gender, age, educational level and social status.

A combination of open-ended and closed questions will help the interviewer to reach his/her objective.
Open ended questions helps to draw out opinions, insights and information. While closed questions
 elicit a specific answer, such as a yes or no. therefore, when drawing up questions, the interview would
be more effective if the following factors are taken into consideration:
• Learn about the person you will be interviewing.
• Formulate your main idea to ensure effectiveness.
• Choose the length, style and organization of the interview.
• Select question types to stimulate the specific information you want.
• Design each question carefully to collect useful answer(s).
• Limit the number of questions you ask.
• During the interview, be alert to new topics that you might want to probe.
• Consider recording the interview if the subject permits.
• Review your notes as soon as the interview ends.
The 7 Cs for effective communication
Consideration

Consideration means respecting your business audience and putting yourself in their shoes. A message
delivered in an empathetic fashion will usually stimulate a positive response. Talking down to subordinates
shows a lack of consideration, while showing real concern about a customer's poor health shows you care
about the relationship.

Consider whom the audience is when communicating in a business environment. If you are a medical
professional discussing health care matters with consumers, for example, you cannot expect them to
understand complex medical terminology or have a clinical attitude toward their own well-being. Choose
language that your audience will understand and use an approach that they’ll be receptive to hearing.

Correctness

Effective business communication is free from errors. Make sure your messages have no grammatical and
spelling errors and that there are no flaws with word usage or form. Mistakes reflect poorly on your
professional image and contribute to problems with interpretation.

Correctness means the message has been crafted using proper punctuation, spelling and grammar. A sales
letter with incorrect usage puts your company in an obviously bad light.

Clarity

Focus on one message at a time in business communication. While you may be dealing with complex
matters, you can’t solve them all with one email or conversation. If you don’t focus on clarity, it becomes
very easy to bounce from one issue to another, spending a lot of time talking or writing back and forth
without ever really solving anything. Stick to one issue at a time and verify closure before moving on.

Clarity puts the emphasis on a specific message rather than on too many messages at once. This lets the
audience assimilate information without having to decipher a garbled message. Clarity is especially useful
in instructing employees about complicated new processes or procedures.

Concrete

It’s important to avoid being vague when communicating in a business environment. Use concrete language
that leaves no room for misinterpretation. This can involve concepts as well as specific instructions. For
example, telling employees to “do better” does not provide actionable feedback. However, letting
employees know that tardiness is unacceptable or that their expense reports must be error-free provides
concrete information. Requesting that assignments be completed “as soon as possible” is also not concrete,
as that phrase can be interpreted many ways. If you need a report by 3 p.m. on Wednesday, state exactly
that.

Concise

Avoid writing long sentences that can be hard to follow or leading up to the point of what you are saying
with fluff or flowery language. The workplace is not the place to show off your creative writing skills or
dramatic flair. Focus on brevity, using as few words as possible to get your point across accurately.

Complete

Business messages should include all information needed to follow up on your request. If you are asking a
vendor to provide you with information, let the company know the best way to get that information to you.
Don’t just ask for it to be mailed; give the complete mailing address.

Any business communications should be complete and should convey all the facts needed by a given
audience. Complete communication saves costs as no backtracking need occur. It also helps in decision
making since the intended audience gets all of the information required. Secondly, communications should
be concise. Needless words can muddy the message, and a concise message is more comprehensible to the
audience.

Courteous

Business communication must be courteous. Be aware of the receiver’s feelings. Courtesy in an interchange
means both the sender and receiver of the message are polite at all costs and the viewpoints and feelings of
both are taken into consideration. Business people need to be courteous even in the face of disagreements,
as disagreements will not be resolved in a contentious atmosphere.

Even the most accurately formed messages will not be received well if they are not delivered in a manner
that demonstrates professional courtesy. Always keep the feelings and perspective of the receiver in mind. If
you come across as rude or offensive, the chances that you’ll accomplish your professional communication
objectives are slim.it goes beyond the words thank you and please.

Be sincere,

avoid anger/preaching/negative or discriminating words

2.4.0 PUBLIC PRESENTATION AND SPEAKING SKILLS

In this part of oral communication we shall be concentrating on the art of ensuring an effective
presentation. We shall also look at the links of public presentation to visual communication,
particularly the use of audio-visual aids. Public presentations offers opportunities to put
communication skills on display, including research, planning, writing, visual designs and interpersonal
and non-verbal communication. Presentations may take five minutes or two hours long, but the basic
precepts will be the same. Regardless of the length of the presentation, the principles conveying
specific message to an identified audience at a designated time and place must be observed. Similarly,
 the purpose and content of each and every presentation which you make will vary tremendously, but
the skills needed to ensure that they are all effective will be the same.

2.4.1 Planning the Presentation

When planning the presentation it is important to take into account your budget line and time-scale.
Within those constraints you need to identify and plan all those activities needed to organize, including
staffing levels and administrative procedures. As far as the budgeting is concerned, it would be sensible
set up a file with the following sections as headings and to include all internal and external
correspondences/relevant data:
• Choose a location.
• Select catering facilities.
• Interview speakers and brief them.
• Write press releases/programmes, etc.
• Liaise with the local press/media.
• Target a particular audience and make up your own database of potential participants.
• Check corporate requirements on promotional activities/color schemes, etc.
• Arrange printing
You may also need a chart showing planned activities on particular dates. For example, date of
presentation, team briefings, meeting with hotel managers, guest speakers, etc.
As presenter, oral presentation planning should involve analyzing the situation, gathering information,
selecting the right medium and organizing information.
a) Analyzing the situation – analyzing the situation for an oral presentation involves defining your
purpose and developing an audience profile. The purpose of most presentations will be to inform
or to persuade and at times they may be collaborative in nature when they involve problem-solving
or brainstorming sessions. When you develop your audience profile try to anticipate the likely
emotional state of your audience members and their members and the language preference. Also
estimate the expected size of the audience taking into account demographic and psychographic
variable and predict the audience probable reaction.
b) Gathering information – determine the audience needs and obtain the information necessary to
satisfy their needs.
c) Selecting the right medium – there are choices of making oral presentations ranging from live in-
person presentations to Webcasts or Webinars (online presentations or seminars that people view
live or download later from your website), screen-casts (recording of activities on computer displays
with audio voice over) or Twebinars (online events that combine a Webinar with the use of Twitter
as a back channel). It is therefore, very important to choose the best medium or combination of
media for delivering your presentation, including handouts and other support material.
d) Organizing information – at this stage you define your main idea, limit your scope, select the direct
or indirect approach and outline your content. Keep in mind that oral media have certain limitations
and audiences for live presentations are more or less trapped in your time frame and sequence,
apart from interrupting you, they have no choice but to listen to your content in exact order in
which you presented.

2.4.2 Developing your Presentation

• Adapt to your audience by tailoring your style and language.
• Compose your presentation by preparing an introduction, a body and a close.
• Use your introduction to arouse audience interest, build your credibility, and preview your message.
 • Use the body to connect your ideas and hold your audience’s attention.
• Close with confidence and clarity, restating your main points and describing the next steps.

2.4.3 Delivering your presentation

• Choose a presentation method, which should be speaking from an outline or notes in nearly all
situations.
• Practice until you can deliver your material naturally, without reading your slides.
• Prepare to speak by verifying the operation of all the equipment you would need to use.
• Determine whether you should use an interpreter.
• Overcome anxiety by preparing thoroughly.
• Handle questions responsively.

2.4.4 Embracing the Back Channel

• Integrate social media into the presentation process.
• Monitor and ask for feedback.
• Review comments to improve your presentation while you speak.
• Establish expectations with the audience.

2.4.5 Giving Presentation online

• Consider sending preview study materials ahead of time.
• Rehearse using the system alive, if possible.
• Keep your presentation as simple as possible.
• Ask for feedback frequently.
• Consider the viewing experience from the audience members’ point of view.
• Allow plenty of time for everyone to get connected and familiar with the screen they are using.

2.4.6 Effective Presentation in Summary

In order to present ourselves and our information effectively, we need to show evidence of the 8 Ps of
presentation:
• Planning – being prepared for presentation affects how the audience perceives you and your
organization and your confidence about your presentation. You will also need to know the location,
available technical equipment, timing, the running order, and the position from which you will be
presenting. It is equally important to know your role at this stage.
• Personal Preparation – consider the dress code, what additional material you will need and
rehearse as much as possible in a chosen location to maximize your impact and be comfortable.
• Presentation Itself – arrange your arguments in a logical sequence, using clear and appropriate
language for your audience. Have your data well researched and time the length of your
presentation. Ensure that you thoroughly understand your presentation.
• Purpose – purpose of the presentation must be clearly defined and your role in fulfilling that
purpose. Purpose varies from presentation to presentation and some presentations are for the
benefit of the internal audiences and others for external audiences.

Type of Purpose
Presentation
Product launch Communicate to external markets;
generate sales.
 Job interview Illustrate empathy and
understanding of corporate
objectives.

Exhibition Stand Raise awareness; communicate to

external market; generate sales.

To senior managers Generate support for an

idea/proposal; test market an idea;
establish presenter as the expert.

To colleagues Share ideas/proposals; establish

team hierarchy.

“Pitch” to potential Communicate corporate ethos and

clients attitudes to external market with
the objective of making future sales.

• Political sensitivity – presenters need to be aware of the potential impact and ramifications of the
content of their presentations. Some issues are political in nature (e.g. nuclear waste, closing
hospitals or schools). In other instances there could be internal politics which need to be changed
(e.g. reallocating workloads from one department to another). Presentations which politically
sensitive may need to take into account legislature or political change in the external sense and
planning and execution needs where internal politics are concerned.
• Personal commitment – the presenter should stay committed to extensive, thorough and relevant
preparation, professional delivery and their own sanity. Caution has to be taken because too great
a commitment may result in an inability to see the potential pitfalls or problems.
• Personal Communication Skills – establish a rapport with your audience and fellow presenters. This
can be achieved by dressing appropriately for a particular presentation, effective use of body
language and adapting your style of presentation to the audience.
• Polish – this is a most difficult element to achieve, it rarely comes naturally and is usually a result of
practice, rehearsal and experience. A truly polished presenter can attain professionalism with
friendliness. Even if you have to give the same information to a variety of audiences, vary your
presentation. Emphasize on the benefits for each particular audience and avoid jargons.

2.5.0 CONDUCTING MEETINGS, SEMINARS AND CONFERENCES

2.5.1 Meetings
Much of the communication you will participate in at the place of your work will take place in meetings.
Well-run meetings can help your company solve problems, develop ideas, and identify opportunities.
Meetings also contribute to effective team buildings through the experience of social interactions.
Meetings can also be a waste of time if they are not well planned and managed. Therefore, to ensure
productive meetings, careful preparation, efficient conduct of meetings and wise use of meeting
technology is needed.
Preparing for a meeting
The first step in preparing for a meeting is to make sure the meeting is necessary, otherwise, if other means
of communication can serve the same purpose effectively do not hold the meeting. But if the meeting is
truly necessary, proceed with the four planning tasks;
 • Define the purpose – meetings can focus on the exchange of information, reaching decisions, or
collaborating to solve problems or identify opportunities.
• Select participants for the meeting – invite everyone who really needs to be involved, and do not
invite anyone who doesn’t. For instance, in decision making meetings you can only invite those people
who are in direct position to help in the meeting reach its decision making objective. Note that the
more people you have the more it will be difficult and take long to reach consensus.
• Choose the venue and the time – online meeting can be the best option when the meeting is involving
people in multiple locations or the audience is large. For in-person meetings, consideration need to be
given with regards to the meeting facility in terms of seating arrangements, room temperature,
lighting, ventilation etc. if you have control over timing, meeting in the morning is more productive
because people are generally more alert and fresh.
• Set the agenda – distribute a carefully written agenda to participants, giving them enough time to
prepare as needed. A productive agenda outlines three key elements:
1) Activities lined up to achieve the goals of the meeting.
2) Outline of the primary issues of greater importance to all participants.
3) Description of the information to be made available to facilitate the discussion of matters of the
agenda.
2.5.2 Seminars
Seminars allow you an opportunity to connect in person with an audience of prospective consumers and
appeal to them and they have proved to be one of the keys to growing a business or increasing revenue by
increasing awareness of your products and services. This can be achieved through six-step process:
• Create a good seminar title; the title of your seminar will be the that attracts attendees, therefore,
ensure the title is eye-catching and interesting e.g. let the title of your seminar suggest how your
company offers different solutions to the needs of your prospective attendees so that they appreciate
the value of spending their time attending your seminar.
• Your seminar should have core basic points that you intend to convey. It’s important to cover these
essential business points during your seminar to get all the information across.
• Hold a seminar for the right people by deciding ahead of time who your target audience will be. Plan
your target audience first and structure the seminar around them to make sure you connect with them
effectively.
• Plan your seminar for a time of day when most members of your target audience will be able to
attend. If your target group consist of farmer for instance, plan your seminars for off-farming season.
Holding your seminar at a convenient time will make it easier for prospective attendees to fit your
seminar in their schedule.
• Find a good location and time; make your seminar feel friendly and inviting by choosing a location and
time that will appeal to your audience. You may select a popular restaurant with conference facilities
that can be reserved or a well-known local conference facility that you can adapt to suit your seminar.
• Anticipate questions; ensure that your seminar runs smoothly by anticipating as many questions or
counter-arguments to your points as you can. Audience members will have enquiries about what you
are offering and may disagree with some of the points you make. Being prepared to answer questions
quickly and effectively will increase confidence in you and your organization or product. Therefore, as
a presenter you need to be well researched and articulate and non-partisan.
2.5.3 Conference Call
Conference calls are an effective business tool for a myriad reasons from updating internal employees about
changes to keeping customers up-to-date on company happenings. Conference calls are one way of
communicating this kind of information. The key to running an effective conference call starts in the
preparations you do before the conference call begins. Following steps will be necessary to have an effective
conference call:
 1. Write a conference call agenda so that participants can follow you along as a conference call facilitator
and also for you to keep the call on.
2. Distribute the agenda; send the agenda to all participants via email the day before or on the actual
day of the conference call.
3. Gather your notes five to ten minutes before the scheduled call time.
4. Choose a quiet place to conduct the call.
5. Set the expectations of the call upfront. When you first start the call, let attendees know the rules of
the call. For example, tell them how to mute and unmute their lines.
6. Follow the agenda. Keep the call from veering off topic, stick to the agenda.
7. Near the end of the call, save a few minutes at the end of the conference call to recap the information
covered on the call.
8. Provide contact information for those on the call who have questions or need to follow up after the
call ends. If the attendees have something to do after the call ends, be sure to let them know the next
step.

2.6.0 NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is the process by which compromise or
agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute. As much as each party to the negotiation aim
to achieve the best possible outcome for their position or their organization, however, the principles of
fairness, seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.
The process of negotiation includes the following stages:
1. Preparation – before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where
a meeting will take place to discuss the matter at hand and who will attend. Setting a limited time-
scale can also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing. This stage also involves ensuring all
the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify your own position. Undertaking
preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict and unnecessary
wasting of time during the meeting.
2. Discussion – during this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see
it i.e. their understanding of the situation. Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening
and clarifying. Also take notes for clarity.
3. Clarifying goals – from the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the
disagreement need to be clarified. Clarification is an essential part of the negotiation process to avoid
misunderstanding, problems and barriers in reaching a beneficial outcome.
4. Negotiate towards a win-win outcome – a win-win outcome is usually the best result where each
side feel they have gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel
their point of view has been taken into consideration. In other words, compromise need to be
considered at this point in order to achieve greater benefit for all concerned.
5. Agreement – any agreement reached need to be made perfectly clear to both sides but this can only
be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have been considered.
6. Implementing a course of action – from the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to
carry through the decision.
7. Failure to agree – if the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then
re-scheduling a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated
discussion or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage future relations.
Note: in any negotiation, there are three elements that are important and likely to affect the ultimate
outcome of negotiations and these are attitudes, knowledge and interpersonal skills.
Ik

CHAPTER THREE
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Written communication is always in black and white. It is precise, permanent, and legally important and it
gives sufficient time to think and act upon. Written communication may take the form of letters, circulars,
minutes, reports, press statements, mails, telegraphs, telex, fax, notice boards, newspapers, magazines,
bulletins, pamphlets etc.
3.1.1 Written compared to Oral communication
The major difference between written and oral communications arise from the importance attached to
each. Oral communications forms the basis for almost all negotiations, liaison, briefs etc. but written
communication endorses oral statements, giving a permanence and contractual status. Written forms the
basis of evidence of previous discussions and arrangements, it provides the history of a particular matter,
justifies an activity and provide back-up proof. Therefore, we attach more value to written words compared
to oral statements. Once words are written, they are pinned down, selected, representative, deliberate,
permanent and important in their own right.
3.1.2 Merits of written communication
•Written information immediately available to unlimited audience.
•Written information can be referred to time and again (permanence).
•Written information binds.
•It provide sufficient time to think before writing.
•Written Information can be elaborated, justified and manipulated into particular phrases so that many
versions are made available.
• Written information can be translated into many languages.
3.1.3 Demerits of written communication
• It is time consuming to commit word to paper in writing.
• It demands of the knowledge of principles of letter writing.
• It is costly in terms of paper.
In this section we shall examine the main forms of written communication common in business
organizations. We shall look at the requirements of the particular form and when each should be used.

3.2.0 NOTE TAKING

Note taking is a way of formalizing ideas and research carried out at all times in order to function efficiently
at work and also be well informed. Note taking provides analytical skills as you gather back-up data for
ongoing relevant market research and helps you to keep an open mind to new information and connect
ideas and events in relation to projects you may be involved with. It can be applied in conversations, business
meetings, television or radio programmes, trade journals, newspapers, magazines etc.
The purpose of note taking include:
• To aid learning.
• To facilitate recall and /or retrieval of information.
3.2.1 Note Taking and Sources of Information
1. Taking notes from written sources
The key to effective note taking from written sources is to read in short sections and then pick out the
key points to record. You may also pick out certain phrases or sentences that the author uses as being
particularly significant. Also, ensure that you acknowledge all your sources of information and keep a
record from which to build a file of references.

2. Making notes from oral sources

This involves taking notes from what people say e.g. during lectures, discussions, interviews, etc. and
this has to be instantaneous. You need to take the information down as it is presented. This means
you have to try to pick out key points as the activity is going. Therefore, there is need for high
concentration and bale to write quickly. But many trainings, meetings, and some lectures and
interviews are usually structured around a prepared programme or agenda and this can provide the
basis for notes. At times, visual displays may be used by presenters and handouts, overhead projector
slides, flip-charts etc. can provide record of points. You should always take note of the date and overall
subject as well as the time and participants where these may be necessary for future recall.

3. Making Notes after the Event

Situations often arise which make it difficult, if not, impossible to take notes at the time of experience
e.g. during meeting or interview including casual encounters which result in acquiring information
unexpectedly. In such situations it is important to make notes as soon after the event as possible when
everything is still fresh in your mind.

3.2.2 Effective Note Taking Techniques

Everyone has their own individual styles of note taking. Some people take a lot, others very few. Some prefer
to make notes after the event, although most elect to make notes during it. There is no right or wrong way.
Whatever suits you, and achieves its purpose in terms of assisting learning and facilitating retrieval, should
be fine.
There are a number of general principles behind note taking, and some specific techniques which you can
use:
a) General principles – There are four general principles about note taking which apply irrespective of
the source of information, the nature of the research, or the technique you use.
• The fundamental principle is to be selective. Don’t try to write down everything, but pick out
the key points, words and phrases.
• Translate into your own words as much as possible. This involves reflection and
conceptualization and, thus, helps understanding and learning.
• Use abbreviations – common ones or your own system. As long as you can understand them
later, it doesn’t really matter how obscure they might be to someone else.
• Structure your note taking around the key points in a way which brings out the connections
between all the different points. This may involve identifying and highlighting the most
significant issues and linking subsidiary points to them.
• Listen for clues to the shape or structure of the lecture to help you to organise your notes, for
instance: "Today we shall be looking at…" "I am going to discuss three main aspects…" "Now I want
to move on to…" "I do want to emphasise…" "To sum up…"
 • Identify key words - for instance, notice when words or phrases are being repeated. Underline or
circle in your notes any words that seem to be really significant. Are there particular words that seem
to sum up the overall message? (For instance, 'oppression' or 'conflict' or 'solution'.)
• Be an active listener - not a sponge - try to connect what is being said to what you already know (this
is where the preparation bit comes in handy!). Ask yourself, do I agree? How does it fit in with what I
already knew? Am I surprised ? If not, why not? How did she get to that conclusion?

b) Linear notes – This is perhaps the most common technique for note taking, mainly because it mirrors
the way in which information is usually presented, but also often because no other techniques are
known. Linear notes consists of headings and sub-headings, often numbered, with subsidiary
information written in a linear fashion down the page. Particular points may be linked by arrows or
brackets, underlining may be used for emphasis, and the structure or organization of the notes may
be shown by rough indentation in places.

Use loads of HEADINGS for main ideas and concepts

Use subheadings for points within those ideas
Stick to one point per line
Underline key words
You can use numbering to keep yourself organised
Use abbreviations - and don't worry about using full sentences
Leave plenty of SPACE - for adding detail and for easy reading

c) Spider Diagram – This method diagrammatically identifies the most important point and everything
else is linked to this by means of branches and sub-branches. This technique helps you to be concise
and identify points in one word or very short phrases at the most.
Uses Procedures

Prints

PATTERNED
NOTES
Visual
Tips

Advantages

Figure 3.1: An example of a spider diagram

Spider diagrams are particularly well suited to recording unstructured interviews or where there is no
linear framework to the interaction.
As the above example shows, boundaries can be drawn around particular sections of the web in order
to highlight groupings. This can be done at the time or after the event, as the notes are reviewed. The
technique can actually be usefully applied to linear notes after the event in terms of reorganizing and
reinterpreting them, and then expressing them in a more graphic form.
3.2.3 Challenges Common to Effective Note Taking
There are challenges to overcome when it comes to effective note taking. With practice, few problems may
arise from your own inadequacies and more from the inadequacies of the presentation of the information
in, or by, the source. Number of factors have been identified that either facilitate or hinder the making of
notes. These factors can be divided into four categories, as follows:
 • The structure of the presentation – The clarity with which the information is organized and
presented, particularly with regard to introductory explanations.
• The tone and approach of the speaker – The extent to which this engages you as a listener and
draws you into the topic, or conversely, distances and excludes you.
• The variety of formats within the presentation – The use of different presentation effects, such as
graphics, which help to put the information over.
• Your own interest in the topic under consideration.

Of these, the most significant barrier to effective note taking is the first – if the structure is poor, it requires
you to work harder to establish a structure for your notes. The other points are mainly to do with motivation
of you the listener.
3.3.0 REPORT WRITTING
Reports are written accounts that objectively communicates information about some aspects of business.
The purpose and content of business reports varies widely, in some cases you will be expected to follow
strict guidelines, but, in others the organization and format will be up to you. Many of your reports will be
written for internal audiences, but you are also likely to write reports for a wide range of outside readers.
Reports are broadly categorized in three broad categories:
1. Informational Reports – These reports offer data, facts, feedback, and other types of information
which include but not limited to:
• Reports to monitor and control operations – Provide feedback and other information for
decision making such as plans, operating reports, personal activity report etc.
• Reports to implement policies and procedures – communicate organizational rules and
positions through guidelines and position papers.
• Reports to demonstrate compliance – Provide information to show regulators or other
authorities that the company meets formal requirements.
• Reports to document progress – Provide managers or customers with information on project
status.

2. Analytical Reports – these offers both information and analysis and can also include
recommendations. For example:
• Reports to assess opportunities – Explain the risks and rewards of choosing a course of action
e.g. market analysis reports and due diligence reports.
• Reports to solve problems – Analyze problems and (optionally) suggest solutions by for example
trouble shooting reports and failure analysis reports.
• Reports to support decisions – Judge the merits of the past or future decisions through feasibility
reports and justification reports.

3. Proposals – These are a special category of reports that combine information delivery and persuasive
communication such as:
• Internal proposal – They request decisions from managers within the organization. For example
funding proposals, general project proposals etc.
• External proposals – Request decisions from parties outside the organization. For example
investment proposals, grant proposals and sales proposals.

3.3.1 Writing Process for Reports

Report writing involves a three step process; Plan, Write and Complete.
1. Plan – The planning stage involve analyzing the situation, gather information, select the right medium
and organizing the information.

• Analyze the Situation – Clearly define your purpose before you start writing. If you need to
accomplish several goals in the report and identify them all in advance and prepare a work plan to
guide your efforts.

• Gather Information – Determine whether you need to launch a separate research project to collect
the necessary information. Re-use or adapt existing material whenever possible.

• Select the Best Medium – Base your decision on audience expectations or requirements and
consider the need for commenting, revising, distributing and storing. Remember that the medium
you choose also sends a message.
• Organize your Information – Use the direct approach if your audience is receptive and use the
indirect approach if your audience is skeptical. You may also consider using the indirect approach
when you do not want to risk coming across as arrogant. You may also consider combining the two
approaches if doing so will help build support for your primary message.

2. Write – The writing stage of the report including creating an audience profile and adapting the
information and this is followed by composing of the message.

• Adapt to your Audience – Be sensitive to audience needs with a “you” attitude, politeness, positive
emphasis and bias free language. Build a strong relationship with your audience by establishing your
credibility and projecting your company’s image. Control your style with a tone and voice
appropriate to the situation.

• Compose the Message – Choose strong words that will help you create effective sentences and
coherent paragraphs and throughout the introduction, body and close of your report or proposal.

3. Complete – this stage of writing involves revision of the message, production of the message, proof
reading the message and distributing the message.

• Revise the Message – Evaluate content and review readability, then edit and rewrite for
conciseness and clarity.

• Produce the Message – Use effective design elements and suitable layouts for a clean, professional
appearance, seamless combine text and graphical elements.

• Proofread the Message – Review for errors in layout, spellings and mechanics.

• Distribute the Message – Deliver your report using the chosen medium. Make sure all documents
and all relevant files are distributed successfully.

3.3.1 Report Content Elements in Summary

 1. Introduction - Establish the context, identify the subject, preview main ideas (if using the direct
approach), establish tone and reader relationship.
• Authorization – Reiterate who authorized the report, if applicable.
• Problem/purpose – Explain the reasons for the report’s existence and what the report will achieve.
• Scope – Describe what will and won’t be covered in the report.
• Background – Review historical conditions or factors that led up to the report.
• Sources and methods – Discuss the primary and secondary consulted and methods used.
• Definitions – List terms and their definitions, including any terms that might be misinterpreted.
Terms may also be defined in the body, explanatory notes or glossary.
• Limitations – Discuss factors beyond your control that effect report quality (but do not use this as
an excuse for poor research or a poorly written report).
• Report organization – Identify the topics to be covered and in what order.

2. Body – Present relevant information and support recommendations and/or conclusions.

• Explanations – Give complete details of the problem, project or idea.
• Facts, statistical evidence and trends – Lay out the results of studies or investigations.
• Analysis of action – Discuss the potential courses of action.
• Pros and cons – Explain advantages, disadvantages, costs and benefits of a particular course of
action.
• Procedures – Outline steps for a process.
• Methods and approaches – Discuss how you’ve studied a problem (or gathered evidence) and
arrived at your solution (or collected your data).
• Criteria – Describe the benchmarks for evaluating options and alternatives.
• Conclusions and Recommendations – Discuss what you believe the evidence reveals and what you
propose should be done about it.
• Support – Give the reasons behind your conclusions or recommendations.

3. Close – Summarize key points, emphasize benefits of any recommendations, list action items, label as
“Summary” or “Conclusions and Recommendations.”
• For direct approach – Summarize key points (except in short reports), listing them in the order in
which they appear in the body. Briefly restate your conclusions or recommendations.
• For indirect approach – If you haven’t done so at the end of the body, present your conclusions or
recommendations.
• For motivating action – Spell out exactly what should happen next and provide a schedule with
specific task assignments.
3.3.1 Production Elements of a Report
The number and variety of parts you include in a report depend on the type of report, audience
requirements, organizational expectations and report length. Formal reports may include a synopsis which
is simply a brief overview of a report’s key points and an executive summary which is a fully developed
“mini” version of a report. Further formal report may also contain production elements comprising prefatory
and supplementary elements as follows:
1. Prefatory Elements – These come before the introduction and may include:
• Cover – Include a concise title that gives readers the information they need to grasp the purpose
and scope of the report. For a formal printed report, choose high-quality cover stock.
• Title fly – Some formal reports open with a plain sheet of paper that has only the title of the report
on it, although this is certainly not necessary.
 • Title Page – Typically includes the report title, name(s) and title(s) of the writer(s), and date of
submission. This information can be put on the cover instead.
• Letter of authorization – If you receive written authorization to prepare the report, you may want
to include that letter or memo in your report.
• Letter of transmittal – “Cover letter” that introduces the report and can include scope, methods,
limitations, highlights of the report; offers to provide follow-on information or assistance and
acknowledges help received while preparing the report.
• Table of contents – List all section headings and major subheadings to show the location and
hierarchy of the information in the report.
• List of illustrations – Consider including if the illustrations are particularly important, and you want
to call attention to them.
• Synopsis or executive summary.
2. Supplementary elements – This comes after the close.
• Appendixes – Additional information related to the report nut not included in the main text
because it is too lengthy or lacks direct relevance. List appendixes in your table of contents and
refer to them as appropriate in the text.
• Bibliography – List the secondary sources you consulted.
• Index – List names, places and subjects mentioned in the report, along with the pages on which
they occur.

3.4.0 WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

Despite the great expansion of electronic means of communication, letters still form a very important
element in business communication. They are cheap to produce and deliver, can be written quickly, and
provide a permanent record for both sender and receiver. In the great majority of cases, they are the firm's
principal means of external communication with other firms or with individuals.
For this reason, a knowledge of the principles of letter writing, the correct layout of letters, and an
awareness of the main kinds and uses is essential to successful communication in business.
Common Features
Whatever their purpose, all letters have several features in common. Most of these are present in all letters,
although some will only be included according to the particulars of a specific letter.
1. Sender's address and other details – All letters must contain the sender's full address, usually
somewhere at the top of the first page. Most companies have printed letterheads – sheets of
stationery which are printed with the name and address of the firm.
However, if you're not using headed stationery, there are two important points to bear in mind.
• Make sure that the address is complete, and includes the post town and post code. You will probably
have your firm's full address; make sure that you copy it correctly and completely.
• When you are writing as a private individual, you should put only the address at the top of the letter,
and not your name. The name is only added by people who are in business as individuals, e.g.
consultants, artists or writers.
This section of the letter will also normally include the sender's telephone number, as well as other
communications information such as fax number and e-mail address. These allow the receiver to
contact the sender by other means if necessary, particularly if he/she feels an immediate or personal
response is required.
2. Receiver's name and address – You include this so that you have a record of the destination of the
letter, and also so that, should the letter become opened or damaged in transit, it can be forwarded
 promptly to the intended recipient. If you're writing to someone in their capacity as e.g. Sales Manager,
include their position, like this:
J Smith
Sales Manager
Bloggs & Co
If Mr Smith is away from the office, someone will open the letter and act upon it, rather than leave it
thinking it's personal.
3. "Confidential" heading – If a letter is particularly confidential, and you don't want anyone else – such
as the receiver's secretary or assistant – to read it first, you should type "CONFIDENTIAL" or "PRIVATE
AND CONFIDENTIAL" in capitals at the top of the letter. This is usually put above the recipient's name
and address. This expression must be clearly visible on the envelope – either by putting it on the
envelope itself or by ensuring that it can be seen through the window in the envelope through which
the address is shown.

4. Date – You should remember to date all correspondence. This puts the correspondence in a specific
time period and allows both you and the receiver to put letters in order, and have an idea of the
development of ideas which has taken place over a period of some months or even longer. Letterheads
usually have a caption for the date to be inserted somewhere near the top of the letter.

5. References – References are used to enable both the reader and sender to link the subject matter of
the letter to previous, related correspondence and other documentation. They allow correspondence
to be filed with such related material and, hence, retrieved and referred to at a later date.
Business letterheads usually contain captions for both "Our Ref" and "Your Ref".
• The most common form of "Our Ref" is the initials of the writer of the letter followed, after an
oblique stroke, by the initials of the typist, as shown in the sample letters later in this section.
Other references could be an account number, a customer reference number linking the letter
to an earlier file containing correspondence, or some other form of reference.
• "Your Ref" is usually the number or letter sequence given on a letter to which you are replying –
if this is the reason for your letter.

6. Salutation or greeting - This is the start of the actual letter. It usually contains the word "Dear", but
what follows depends on how well you know the receiver.
• When writing a general letter to a firm, begin "Dear Sirs".
• If writing to an individual whom you have not met or corresponded with, begin "Dear Sir" or
"Dear Madam."
• When writing to an individual member of a firm whose name you do not know – for example,
the "Personnel Manager" or the "Export Manager" – you should begin "Dear Sir or Madam".
• If you are writing to someone whom you have met or corresponded with for some time, you
should use "Dear Mr/Ms/Miss/Mrs" as appropriate.
It is now standard practice in many companies to begin letters to women with "Dear Ms". If you are
replying to a letter, you should use the title that is shown there. If none is shown, and you don't know
whether the woman is a "Miss" or a "Mrs", it is good practice to use "Ms".
7. Subject heading – This makes clear in a few words the subject of the letter. Its purpose is to save time
and space. It may state a general subject, such as Income Tax Returns 1987-8, or be more specific,
mentioning an account or reference number. The heading is usually underlined to make it more
prominent, and can either be central or on the left hand side.
 8. Substance of the letter – Letters should be brief, but they should also contain all the necessary detail
and be courteous. We'll be covering this in more detail shortly. You should write letters in fairly short
paragraphs, since this helps the reader to assimilate them quickly – an important matter where busy
people are concerned.

9. Complimentary close – This is the formal conclusion to the letter. There is a simple rule as to exactly
which form of expression should be used.
• If the salutation or greeting in the letter was to a named person, the closure should use the
expression "Yours sincerely."
• If the salutation or greeting was not personal (i.e. in the form of "Dear Sir"), the closure should
use the expression "Yours faithfully".
Thus, if you began with "Dear Madam", you should close "Yours faithfully"; if "Dear Mr Jones",
"Yours sincerely".
10. Signature – Typed letters will leave space for the writer to sign immediately
after the complimentary close. It is normal practice to also type your name under that space so that
the receiver won't have to decipher your signature in order to know exactly who you are. It is also
usual to put the sender's position within the company after his/her name. If you're writing by hand,
don't forget to print your name and position below your signature.
You may come across a letter which is signed not by the person whose name is typed at the end, but
by another person, with the initials "p.p." before or after it. This stands for "pro persona", and means
that someone else, usually a secretary or assistant, has signed the letter on behalf of the writer in his
or her absence.
11. Enclosures – It is quite common for letters to enclose other documents which
are related to the subject matter of the correspondence. This is often indicated by "Enc" or lines or
asterisks at the foot of the letter, with details of what the other documents are. Where the letter is
really only an introduction to the enclosures and has little or nothing else of substance to say, the letter
is referred to as a "covering letter".

12. Copies – The final point to cover in this section of common features is the
possible notification to the recipient that the letter has been copied to another person. This is denoted
by the letters "c.c." (Literally "carbon copy", from the days of carbon paper being used to provide
duplicates when typing documents) followed by the name of the person to whom the letter has been
copied. The expression will usually be set out at the very end of the letter, after the sender's name.
Layout
In order to accommodate the above features and show them clearly for the recipient, business letters follow
a series of principles in their layout and presentation. There are, of course, individual variations between
companies, and there are also different styles of layout. In general, however, just as the components of a
letter remain relatively constant, so does the style of presentation.
We show two such layouts in the two samples below. Note the positioning of the various common features
discussed above and the general form in which the text forming the substance of the letter is laid out.
Consider how your own organisation presents its letters.
Organising the Content of a Letter
The most effective letters are those which consist of three or four short paragraphs on a single sheet. It is
far easier to read a letter if it is in short paragraphs, especially if time is precious. By dividing your writing in
this way you are in effect offering a further courtesy to your reader by making it easier for him or her to
grasp the meaning of your writing. This will probably ensure that you receive a reply more promptly.
Although the division of the content between the paragraphs varies according to the nature of the individual
letter, you can follow some general principles to make arranging your material less haphazard.
1. Opening paragraph – Your main concern here is to establish the circumstances, background or reason
for your letter. You're half-way there with a good clear subject heading, but your first sentence should
expand on this by, for example:
• Thanking the reader for his or her letter (and including such items as date, reference and subject
to help the reader locate the original).
• Stating clearly and concisely the subject of the letter (expanding on the heading).
• Saying that you are writing to make an enquiry.
• Announcing the kind of business in which you are engaged.
This will make clear why you have written, and encourage the reader to go on. When you have
established the necessary circumstances, you should start a fresh paragraph. First paragraphs can be
very brief: sometimes a single sentence is enough – for example:
Thank you for your letter of 14 May concerning your income tax return for the year 20….
2. Main body of the letter – The second and subsequent paragraphs will go into more specific detail
about the general matter you established in the opening paragraph. This main body of the letter should
summarise the current position, offer alternative views, make clear what services are available,
establish what action is to be taken, or perform any similar role in extending and clarifying the bare
statement of the first paragraph.
Always remember that clarity is important here. You must give details where they are necessary, and
keep out irrelevant material. Planning the letter can often help you distinguish relevant facts from
superfluous details. Where the letter is quite long, it is always good practice to produce a draft before
finalising it.
3. Concluding paragraph – You should draw together the points made in the earlier part of the letter and
conclude in a courteous or friendly manner, according to how well you know the reader. For example,
you might:
• Select one course of action from a number of alternatives offered before.
• Ask for more information from the reader.
• Give a clear directive to be followed.
Types of Letter
We're going to look now at a number of different kinds of letter and highlight the different approaches and
considerations required for each. The examples included simply show the main body of the letter rather
than including all the introductory details.
A. Confirmation letters – A letter of confirmation follows up the conversation and ensures both parties
have a written statement of what was agreed. It can be useful for identifying any misunderstandings
early on, and for copying to anyone else who needs to be aware of the arrangements.
 Notice that the letter is very short, but ends in a courteous and positive manner, and that the overall
impression is of efficiency and optimism.
Note that this type of letter is now often sent via e-mail because of the speed of receipt.
B. Letters of acknowledgement – Letters of this kind are sent to acknowledge the receipt of items or
enquiries. If you receive a detailed enquiry which you know will take you two to three weeks to answer
in full, a letter of acknowledgment is not only polite, but can save the enquirer a lot of time-wasting
follow-up letters or calls.
Alternatively, you may acknowledge an enquiry from another company about your , and
enclose a brochure or leaflet giving further information about your own firm.
You could write that sort of letter like this:

Again the letter is short, simply saying a little about the document which is enclosed and offering
further help if it's necessary. The final paragraph is one which will be valuable in letters of many
different kinds, and you should remember its phrasing – or develop a similar brief, courteous
statement to the same effect – to use in your own letters.
C. Letters of enquiry – You may need to write letters to other firms to enquire about the supply of
particular goods or services. A letter of this sort might be worded as follows:
 Here again, the letter is brief but courteous, suggesting a course of action in a polite, but fairly forceful
manner which is appropriate to its reader – the sales director of a firm who will be anxious to develop
contacts of this kind.
D. Collection letters – Letters of this kind are less pleasant, since they concern the collection of
outstanding debts. They should be firm, but not offensive, making clear the kind of action which your
firm will have to take if payment is not made.

Here the tone is firm, but not impolite. The position is stated in a simple, factual manner, so that there
is no doubt about the position, and the communication is short and to the point.
E. Letters of apology – Even in the most efficient businesses, mistakes occur which need to be rectified
by making speedy and sincere apologies. In letters of apology, the best course is to accept
responsibility for mistakes honestly and without reservation.

F. Covering letters – A covering letter is written to explain what else is being sent. For instance, if you are
sending in a job application, your covering letter might read as follows:
 Covering letters are always brief, and to the point.
G. Standard letters – You may find that you will need to write to many people about similar things – the
renewal of an insurance policy, the submission of accounts for auditing, or any other matter which
occurs frequently in your own area of work. To save time, many companies have files of what are
known as standard letters. These are letters which may be used to write to any person when a
particular situation arises. Generally, they consist of a letter which has several gaps left in it, for the
insertion of the receiver's name and address and – in the actual body of the letter – the details about
an order number, item of information required or any other matter.
In the past, such letters were kept as single typed copies in a reference folder, but now they are
generally stored in a word-processor, where they can be called onto the screen, updated to include
the necessary details, and then printed. This has the advantage that they have the appearance of being
specially written.
If you have to prepare such a letter, always identify clearly which parts do not form part of the standard
and will, therefore, vary from individual letter to individual letter. You can do this by simply leaving
gaps, or by placing the information which will change for each use within square brackets.

Here, the information to be completed is identified in the "blanks" to make the insertion of the relevant
information easier. This is particularly useful if you're not the only person who's going to be using the
standard letter, so other users are clear about what to do.
 When drafting a standard letter, you have to take particular care that the wording chosen will fit all
the intended circumstances. So, suppose the "New for Old" scheme mentioned above didn't just apply
to house contents insurance. You could make your letter useful for a range of policies with a few extra
blanks, like this:

The use of standard letters with blank spaces for the insertion of individualised data has been greatly
enhanced by the development of "mail merge" facilities within word processing systems. Briefly, mail
merge allows the linking of the blanks in the letter with fields from a database of information about
people. The standard letter can then be "merged" with the database and a series of personalised
letters produced.
H. Circular letters – Circulars are letters which companies send to a number of people at the same time.
They may convey information about new facilities, offer the services of a company, or perform any
similar function.
Circulars are a further important form of external communication, constituting a form of publicity
which, although not cheap, is directed straight to individual people who may become customers. As a
result, they are increasingly used as a means of advertising or publicity. You should use them sparingly
though, as many people react to circulars by automatically destroying them.
This is an example of the kind of circular a firm might send.
I. Complaints letters – These types of letter are, unfortunately, very common in most business
organisations and are very important since they deal with matters at the heart of the business
transaction.
If you are making a complaint you should follow a four-step approach:
• Be specific about the facts by giving the information about the "who, what, when, where" aspects
of your complaint. In other words, avoid a very subjective, emotional approach which can distract
the reader from the facts of the situation.
• Explain the significance of the problem and how it affects you.
• Specify what outcome you want, but be flexible in your approach.
• Close politely and positively.
The following example shows these principles.

If you are replying to a complaint letter, you should not delay your response, even if it is only to confirm
receipt of the letter and to explain that you have to investigate the matter if it is a serious complaint.
 You should show empathy and concern for the customer and if you can make an adjustment, you
should apologise and do so. If the matter is not a legitimate complaint then you should explain your
reasons why there will be no compensation or adjustment.

Responding to complaints should:

a) Be as a result of careful investigation as to the facts/events which form the background or basis
for the complaint.
b) Involve checking the accuracy of statements made and potential responses.
c) Be viewed as an opportunity to re-establish good relations with the correspondent and his or her
organisation.
d) Be recorded as part of the ongoing evaluation process and internal market research.
e) Be recorded for the purpose of external market research.
f) Be proactive, not reactive.
g) Be viewed as an important function of the business communications process.
Using letters of complaint (or telephone calls) in this way can identify:
• Product issues
• Internal communication difficulties
• External communication difficulties
• Distribution problems
• Personnel and staff development requirements
• Re-evaluation of customer perception and later focus
• An improved system for dealing with external communications

Handwritten Letters
Whilst it is commonly perceived to be more acceptable to send typed or word-processed letters in business
correspondence, it is important to consider how handwritten text could be advantageous.
If you feel that you need to convey additional warmth in response, perhaps, to a letter of complaint or to
congratulate a colleague on the success of a joint venture, a handwritten letter may be appropriate. Do not,
however, be lulled into thinking that a handwritten letter is a less formal document than a typed letter
simply because it may be received more favourably, or that it allows less restrained and planned language
than a typed letter.
The style and phrasing of a letter must always be appropriate to its content and context irrespective of the
typeface or ink used.
3.5.0 CIRCULARS AND NOTICES
Circulars and notices are commonly used for intra – departmental communications. Informational messages
are transmitted to the members of an organisation through circulars or put up as notices for everyone to
read. The following components must be present on a circular or notice:
• Day
• Date
• Time
• Place of meeting
• Purpose of business to be transacted
Notices are displayed on a board and the same information is also circulated to all concerned within the
organisation. The tone of both the circular and the notice should always be objective, polite and courteous.
Avoid a direct tone.
Examples of circulars and notices

Example of Circular
Circular No.
07/16
Kakonko Mining Plc
15th Shaft, Kitwe

Dated : 30 July 2016

The Mining Safety Department would be visiting our organisation on

10th August 2016 to familiarise us with the changes to the National
Mine Safety Act of 2015. This will present us with an opportunity to
clarify certain critical matters as to how they affect our operations
going forward.

All sectional and departmental heads are requested to be present

and to observe time.

J.L. Careful
HR Officer
Example of Notice
Kakonko Mining Plc
15th Shaft, Kitwe

NOTICE

All staff in transport department are requested to gather in the

boardroom for an important meeting on Saturday, 30 July 2016 at
09:00 hours to be brief on the revised Transport Policy.

T.N. Bondate
Public relations officier

3.6.0 MEMORANDUM
Memorandum which is commonly abbreviated as MEMO forms part of inter and intra departmental
correspondence. It derives its name from the Latin word “memorare” which means to provide information.
A memo is a written statement that provides information by a person or committee of people. In other
words, it is a brief official note circulated to one or more than one person, depending on the nature of the
information to be circulated.
Just like a letter, the basic purpose of a memo is to inform, make requests, put on record, report and invite
suggestions. But it varies from the letter in the nature of tone as well as the style. A letter is more formal
in nature but a memo ensures that the tone is more conversational. The tone adopted is contingent upon
the topic under discussion and the relationship shared between the sender and the receiver.
Example of an internal memorandum
Kakonko Mining Plc
15th Shaft, Kitwe

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM

Dated: 30 July, 2016.

Ref: 146/14
To: Departmental and Sectional Heads
From: Chief Safety Officer

Subject: Update on the Amended National Mines Safety Act of

2015.

The Mining Safety Department would be visiting our organisation on

10th August 2016 to familiarise us with the changes to the National
Mine Safety Act of 2015. This will present us with an opportunity to
clarify certain critical matters as to how they affect our operations
going forward.

All sectional and departmental heads are requested to be present

and to observe time.

SIGNATURE
J.L. Careful

Cc Chief Operations Officer

Chief Superintendent – Personnel

3.7.0 AGENDA
An agenda is simply a list of things to be discussed in a meeting and this should be prepared well in advance.
The purpose of having the agenda circulated sufficiently in advance is that it enables the participants to
mentally prepare themselves for the meeting. Preparing the agenda and sending it ahead of time minimises
on the time wasted browsing over the issues during the course of the meeting. The agenda in such cases is
affixed to the circular and sent to all the members.
An agenda should contain the following components:
1. Name of the organisation and location.
2. Day, date, year, time and place of meeting to be convened.
3. Minutes of the previous meeting.
4. Various issues to be discussed.
5. Signature of the concerned authority or Secretary.
In case the agenda is one in a series for meetings held on any specific issue, the number of the meeting could
also be mentioned.
Example of an agenda:
Circular No. 08/16
Kakonko Mining Plc
15th Shaft, Kitwe

A meeting of the HR Department is scheduled to be held on

Thursday, August 28, 2016 at 2:30 p.m. in the boardroom. The
agenda for the meeting is:

1. Confirmation of the minutes of the last meeting.

2. Review of the recruitment process.
3. Finalisation of the training calendar.
4. Revision of pay scale.

All members of the HR Department are requested to be present for

the meeting

J.K. Muheena
Secretary

3.8.0 MINUTES
Minutes are a formal recording of the proceedings of a meeting. They are written to ensure all relevant
issues under discussion are taken note and kept as record for future reference. Minutes provide a detailed
record of discussion, they emphasise on the main points of the discussion, the conclusions arrived at and
the recommendations made. They are always written in reported speech form. Direct quotations are to be
avoided.
Minutes may be written by the Secretary to the company or any person assigned with the task. Minutes of
a previous meeting are circulated prior to or read aloud for everyone at the time of the meeting.
The chairman is the first to sign the minutes. In case there are issues to clarify, not until they are discussed
and everyone is satisfied, do they sign the minutes which acts as a seal indicating acceptance.
When jotting minutes, care should be taken to ensure that all relevant points are written in the right context.
Sentences need to be rephrased, restructured and given a logical ordering. The sifting, sieving and
positioning of issues discussed in the meeting are all part of the job of the person writing the minutes.
The details that should be present in the minutes are as follows:
1. Name of the organisation.
2. Specifications of the place, date, month, year and time.
3. Names of members, list in order of seniority. The designation of the officers may also be specified. In
flat organisations the names are written in alphabetical order.
4. Names of presiding officer should be listed above the names of the members for greater emphasis.
5. Names of members who were invited for the meeting and could not make it are also listed in a separate
column.
6. Specification of agenda.
7. Details of dissent, if any.
8. Record of details.
9. Signature of the secretary (which is in the right-hand column) and the presiding officer (which is in the
left-hand column).
 10. Vote of thanks
Kakonko Mining Plc
15th Shaft, Kitwe
Minutes

A meeting of the members of the HR Department of Kakonko Mining

Plc, Kitwe was held in the boardroom on 28th August 2016 at 2:30
p.m.

Presiding: Mr. Dag G. Borale, Chairman

Present: Mr. Kwangu Chimbala
Mr. Ishmail Rubby
Ms. Enela Guzman
Mrs Chadley Kayo
Mr Joao Tembo
Ms Mutinta Mwansa, Secretary
Absent: Mr. Bruno Kalonga
Mr. Muyi Muyi

1. Confirmation of the Minutes of the Previous Meeting

The minutes of the meeting held on 25th June 2016 were
approved and duly signed by the Chairman.

2. Review of Recruitment Process

Ms. Ishmail Guzman suggested that the recruitment process be
made more stringent. Five levels of interviews were proposed by
Mr Joao Tembo. The proposal was seconded by Mrs Chadley
Kayo.

3. Finalisation of the Training Calendar

The secretary reported that approximately twenty training
programmes/workshops were held in the previous year. If the
number was increased by ten, they would be able to cover the
entire workforce. Mr. Dag G. Borale agreed to this suggestion. Mr.
Kwangu Chimbala expressed his reservations about training the
entire workforce but was soon convinced on the feasibility of the
proposal, keeping in view the current international trends. Finally,
all the members agreed to increase the number of training
programmes.

4. Revision of Pay Scales

Mr Kwangu Chimbala proposed that the pay scales be reviewed
in the light of the prevalent pay scales of other organisations. Mr
Joao Tembo seconded the proposal. Mr. Dag G. Borale agreed to
study the revised pay scale pattern of other organisations before
taking a final decision.

5. Next Meeting
It was decided to hold the next meeting on 15th August 2016.

6. Vote of Thanks
The meeting ended with a vote of thanks to the Chairman.
Mr. Dag G. Borale Ms Mutinta
Mwansa
Chairman Secretary

CHAPTER FOUR
LITERATURE SEARCH
(SOURCE: DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY, LEICESTER)
4.1.0 INTRODUCTION
As part of your project or dissertation, you will need to undertake a literature search. This is a search
designed to identify existing research and information about your chosen topic. From the materials
you find you will produce a literature review. This is a written piece summarizing and analyzing the
literature you have found through your search.
With advances in technology, programs like the academic database have proved hand in facilitating
search for information through their storage and retrieval features. An academic database is defined
as a collection of information that is commonly used for research and writing, including access
to academic journals. An example of an academic database is Academic Journals Database.
Information on academic databases can be searched through two methods; the simple search and the
advanced search.
4.1.1 Simple Search
The simple search allows searches of the database by one or more keywords. This search is most useful
if you are looking for a specific topic. Simple Search lets you quickly enter search term and see a broad
list of results. A simple search looks for any match in an item's Title, Author, Keyword, Subject,
Description, Publisher, Date, Call Number, and more.
4.1.2 The advanced Search
The advanced search is most useful if you are looking at information using more than one parameters.
Advanced Search lets you specify more options for your search and gives you more control over the
results that you see. You can select a combination of specific fields like Author, Title, or Call Number,
and you can select a specific Material Type (format) or Publication Date.
4.2.0 EFFECTIVE LITERATURE SEARCH
The success of your research project is dependent on a thorough review of the academic literature at
the outset. It is therefore a fundamental element of the methodology of any research project. Effective
literature searching is a critical skill in its own right and will prove valuable for any future information
gathering activity whether in academia or not. Getting the literature search right will save hours of
time through the course of your research project and will inform and improve the quality of the
research you go on to do for yourself.
 In practice, in addition to academic texts, journals are the main source of information for most in-
depth literature searches related to an extended essay, dissertation or research project. However,
depending on your topic many other sources will prove equally valuable such as newspaper archives,
images, primary data and conference proceedings.
4.2.1 Importance of Literature Search and Review
Using the published literature is a core part of the academic communication process. It connects your
work to wider scholarly knowledge, demonstrates your understanding, and puts any research you have
done in a wider context.
You need to use the published literature in order to:
• Provide an academic basis to your research.
• Clarify your ideas and findings.
• Find data and research methods.
• Identify potential issues with the work you plan to do.
• Review existing critical opinions/theories.
• Identify current research findings on a topic.
• Identify potential research methods or models you could use.
• Having carried out research, enabling comparison with your own research findings.
Some projects involve conducting your own studies, in others you may be analysing the literature itself,
or other primary sources. In all these cases, the information you find in your literature search should
inform and underpin everything you do, including the methods you use and your discussion of your
findings.
4.2.2 Time Frame for a Literature Search
This depends on your topic. Bear in mind you will need to:
• Build in time to read and digest what you find.
• Allow time to get hold of materials that aren’t locally available.
• Do not leave it all until the last minute – it will only make life stressful and mean that you won’t
get the marks you deserve.
4.3.0 LITERATURE SEARCH PROCESS
A literature search can be a daunting process, but there are some simple steps which can help you plan
and manage the process:
1. Picking your research question
2. Planning your search
3. Evaluating and recording your results
4. Reviewing your search plan
5. Synthesizing your results
The diagram below shows how these steps interact as you move through the literature search and
review. This guide will look at each step in more detail.
 As you go through this process you may find you need additional help. You can get help from your
colleagues, your tutor, by going to an information desk or by arranging to see your subject librarian.
4.3.0 Picking Your Research Question
First you will need to decide what you want to find out. You will probably start with a fairly broad idea
of the area you want to look at, e.g. ‘The impact of television advertising’
Asking yourself some questions will help you focus down on the exact topic you want to study.
TIP: Reading a general text or doing some browsing on the Internet can be a helpful way of clarifying
your thoughts at this stage, and picking exactly what you want to research.
Being as specific as possible in the question you ask will make your literature search and your project
more manageable. For example, when looking at television advertising you would need to specify
whether you were interested in:
• Children – in terms of behaviour, eating habits, lifestyles, consumerism.
• Education – in terms of classroom behaviour, school meals.
• Households – in terms of changing shopping behaviour, changed cultural values, eating habits.
• Policy – in terms of health, advertising regulation, economic impact.
• Advertising – in terms of media channels, advertising revenues, creative design.
• Marketing – in terms of how to reach more children or adults.
You would also need to think about the limits to your investigation. You might want to restrict by some
of the following:
• Time – current issues, rather than historic trends.
• Province – Lusaka only, or country as well.
• Discipline – a Management studies, Human resources, Finance, Marketing, or Political
perspective.
• Gender – studying children, just boys, or only girls.
• Age – studying particular age groups like the under 5s or 8-12s.
• Type of material – using only research material or including popular and practitioner/trade
publications.
Focusing at an early stage is a good idea, as it helps you get an idea of how much information is out
there. You can always re-focus your question later if you find too little or too much information about
your topic.
4.3.2 Planning Your Search
You can take a number of approaches to your search:
 • Systematic – you try to find all relevant material.
• Retrospective – you find the most recent material and work backwards.
• Citation – you follow up references from useful articles, books and reading lists.
• Targeted – you restrict your topic and focus on a narrow area of the literature.
In practice, most people use a mixture of approaches. You might:
• Be systematic in looking at everything relevant in the library.
• Adopt a retrospective approach when looking at journal articles.
• Use citation searching to get useful leads if your topic crosses several disciplines.
• Be more targeted when you have a clear picture of what you need to find out.
Choosing your Sources
There are many different sources of information. You will almost certainly need to use both books and
journal articles, but you may need to use other information sources related to your subject, such as
government reports, or sources of statistical information.
TIP: Your Subject Guide, available from the Library web pages, highlights the most useful starting
points in your subject area. You can also consult related Subject Guides if your topic covers
multiple subject areas.
Finding books
Books are often a good starting point. Textbooks summarise key theories and more specialised texts
often present research findings in a clear and comprehensive way. There are three key places to look:
• The library catalogue lists what is available in university libraries.
• Other library catalogues list what is available in libraries elsewhere. Integrated catalogue of
various institutions.
• Internet booksellers (e.g. www.amazon.co.uk), may have the details of newly published books
which the university has not yet acquired.
Finding journal articles
In many subjects journals are the key resources for a literature search. They are the principal place
where research and practice are discussed and new work presented. This means a specialist or new
topic will often be better covered by journal articles than by books.
You will need to use databases to find journal articles on your topic. Some databases will give you
references so you can trace an article, others allow you to access the full text straight away. Your
Subject Guide will list the most useful databases for searching the journal and report literature, and
the ‘How to use Journals’ guide gives further guidance.
Keywords
When using either library catalogues or databases you need to pick your search terms carefully.
Search engines and library databases are not intelligent, and will match up words without considering
their meaning. This means a search for ‘apple’ will find information about both the fruit and company,
regardless of your intention.
Selecting keywords – words or phrases that describe your topic as simply and distinctively as possible
– can make searching much easier. Selecting keywords can be a straightforward process, if the words
describing your topic have a single meaning, but more often you need to think carefully about the
keywords you use to express your ideas.
Here are some approaches to try when selecting keywords:
 Specific terms – Start your search by using words that are specific to your research topic and, ideally,
not common elsewhere.
Similar and related terms – Are there other words with similar meanings? Using these alternative
terms will find a different set of results.
Spellings and terminology – Can your search term be spelt in different ways? UK and US spellings often
differ, e.g. behaviour vs. behavior. Some databases and search engines don’t automatically call up the
US spelling or terminology.
Singulars and plurals – Some databases don’t automatically look for single and plural versions of a
word. Try both. Usually people and things are plural, ideas are expressed as singular.
Combining terms – You can usually search for phrases using quotation marks e.g. “television
advertising”, and can combine terms using AND, OR and NOT, e.g. television AND advertising (will find
documents containing both words), television OR advertising (will find documents containing either
word), television NOT advertising (will find documents which do not mention advertising).
Truncating terms – Most databases will allow you to search for terms that begin with the same set of
letters, using a symbol such as * $ or? For example, politi* can search for politic, politics and political.
The symbol used will vary between databases so check the help screens to find out which one to use.
Locating the materials you need
There are three major routes you can use to get access to the materials you identify through your
searches:
1) Using the university resources including books and journals. You will need to use your Single Sign-
On to access most e-books, e-journals and databases.

2) Using the inter-library loans service to obtain material not held at university. This allows you to
request books, journal articles, and other literature from other libraries. Contact the Library or
check its webpages for further details.

3) Using the SCONUL Access scheme to access other university libraries. Sometimes another
university might have a special collection in the area you are researching. More information
about access schemes can be found at www.library.dmu.ac.uk/Services/Otherlibraries/ and
details of participating libraries are available at www.sconul.ac.uk/sconul-access.
4.3.3 Evaluating and Recording Your Results
Once you have an initial set of search results, have a look at the material you have found. This will give
you an overview of what you’ve found so far, helping you identify what kind of information is out there,
and whether you’re finding the right kind of material.
As you find materials, it is also important to record the outcomes of your search plan. This will save
you time and effort when you need to re-run a search or locate references at the end of your project.
You will definitely want to record the full reference of everything you find.
It is essential that you reference all items as it:
• Ensures good academic practice by acknowledging other people’s ideas.
• Enables your tutor to see what sources you have used.
• Gives more authority to your arguments.
• Shows the scope and breadth of your research.
• Avoids plagiarism.
 Referencing is important regardless of whether you are directly quoting or paraphrasing the original
source. All sources you use, regardless of format, need to be referenced so ensure you reference images
and diagrams as well as printed or online material.
Plagiarism (presenting someone else’s material as your own) is a serious academic offence and can
result in a reduction of the mark awarded or a module failure. In extreme cases you may be expelled
from the University. However, plagiarism is easily avoided by keeping track of where you get your ideas
and referencing appropriately.
Most Faculties recommend the Harvard System for referencing but do check your module or
programme handbook. For more advice and examples on how to correctly cite your sources, refer to
the Harvard system of referencing guide available at
www.library.dmu.ac.uk/Images/Selfstudy/Harvard.pdf.
4.3.4 Reviewing Your Search Plan
Once you have evaluated and recorded your initial results, you will need to review and revise your
search plan in order to fill in gaps in the material you have found, and address any other issues you
have noted.
Literature searching is a cycle and for a typical project you will need to go through the process of
evaluating and revising several times before you have found the right material. Here are some
commonly encountered problems and potential ways in which you might revise your search plan to
cope with them.
Finding too much
Sometimes you will find that there is just too much information. This might be because:
• Lots has been written on your main topic.
• Your topic has links with many other subject areas.
Returning to your research question and re-focusing can solve this problem by giving you a clearer idea
of what you really want to find out (see the section on Picking your research question for further
details).
If your research question is already specific, you may need to revise your search plan. Things to try
include:
• Using more precise terms (advertising rather than marketing).
• Adding in limits (television and advertising and Zambia).
• Concentrating on key authors and books.
• Using database features like the help menu, or subject headings (see Tip).
TIP: Using subject headings within library databases is a great way to narrow down your search.
These are labels which summarise the main themes of an article or paper in a few words. Every
article listed in the database covering the same topic will have the same subject heading, even if
different words are used to describe the topic within the article.

Subject headings may be suggested by the database when you search, or listed in the information
about the article alongside the article title, author and abstract.

Finding too little

Sometimes you will struggle to find much relevant material. You will need to think of ways of
broadening the scope of your project. In particular you can think about:
• Making the project (or just your keywords) more general.
 • Searching for comparative or related information, e.g. looking at all children, rather than a
particular age group.
Your tutor is a good source of advice: they can often tell you if a topic is very new, or little-studied, and
they may be able to suggest related areas of research to investigate.
Finding materials which are not ‘academic’ enough
You may worry that the materials you’ve found are not appropriate to your level of study, or your tutor
may have told you that you need to make your work more academic. This just means you need to be
more selective in your use of sources.
Two helpful ways of accessing scholarly material are:
• Limiting your search to the academic (or scholarly or peer-reviewed) journal search options
available on many of the databases, and making sure you are using academic rather than trade
journals.
• Limiting your Internet search to sites which end in .ac or .edu.
TIP: Make an appointment to attend a drop-in to see your subject librarian who is an expert at finding
information in your topic area and will help you with selecting the right sources and the best
search strategies.
Continue reviewing and revising your search plan and recording and evaluating your results until you
are happy with the materials you have found. It is a good idea to start this process early in your project,
and then re-run your search as the project progresses to update yourself on newly published material.

4.3.5 Synthesising Your Results

You will also need to present an analysis of the literature you have found: synthesising the results of
your literature search into a literature review.
In many projects and dissertations a literature review forms a chapter of the finished piece of work,
and may be assessed as a separate assignment, handed in at an earlier stage.
The literature review is a way of demonstrating two things:
• Literature search – the materials that you have found.
• Understanding and analysis – how you have put what you found into the context of your project.
TIP: Remember that the literature search underpins the whole of the work. You should also include
references to the literature when discussing your methods and findings.
The key elements of a literature review are providing an overview and argument, reading critically,
writing analytically, and identifying areas for further research. These are discussed further below.
i. Providing an overview and an argument – Start by discussing your research question and your
initial thoughts. It is a good idea to provide an overall summary of the literature you have found,
in particular highlighting any gaps in research and conflicts in theory.
Make sure that you also state your own research perspective and the scope of your investigation,
in particular what limits you established, and why you have chosen to approach the topic in a
particular way.
ii. Reading critically – The literature you find will not be unbiased. Think and read critically. For each
item you read, you might want to consider:
 • Has the author clearly defined the topic and question? Is it an effective analysis and account
of the subject?
• Is there any bias evident (political, ideological, disciplinary?)
• How scholarly is the piece of work? Trade and professional journal articles and websites are
often current but not scholarly.
• Is the argument coherent, or does the piece contradict itself?
• Are there references to sources the author consulted? Have any sources or theories been
ignored or omitted?
• Is the item as relevant to the topic which you are investigating as it initially appeared?
iii. Writing analytically – Try to summarise the arguments of different authors in relation to your
own research question or topic. Can you compare or contrast different authors or theories, or
identify any emerging themes? You will need to present an argument, or a series of points: do
not just describe what different authors have written.
TIP: For more guidance on writing there are a number of guides available from the Centre for
Learning and Study Support, which also offers group or individual study tutorials on writing.
For more information see www.library.dmu.ac.uk/CLASS or email [email protected].
Often you will find that your topic overlaps different subject disciplines, bringing in multiple
perspectives and different sets of literature. Pointing this out and discussing it emphasises the
thoroughness of your work.
iv. Identifying areas for further research – Finally, relate the literature review to the bigger
questions within the literature or subject. You should try and identify areas where not a lot of
literature existed, as opportunities for gaps to be filled.
v. Afterwards – Once you have completed your literature review, it is a good idea to use it as an
opportunity to reflect on your own progress, both in terms of finding information and in critical
reading. These are very valuable graduate skills, and often you do not see how well you have
worked until after the task is completed.
Remember that an understanding of the literature is a core part of the academic process; see it
not as a chore but as a key skill for study, research and life.
 CHAPTER FIVE
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SKILLS
5.1.0 INTRODUCTION
There has been a revolution in the communication of information in the last two decades. As
computers have become more powerful and sophisticated in what they can do, and at the same time
smaller, cheaper and easier to use, it is now commonplace for every business desk-top to comprise an
electronic workstation. Computers have, therefore, become central to communication, enabling vast
quantities of information to be conveyed at great speed.
In other words, computers are a tool allowing us to communicate much more efficiently than in the
past. However, this does not mean a change in the process of communication itself. The same rules
and principles of effective communication still apply, and we shall consider them in respect of the
opportunities that computer technology presents for enhancing the communication systems. In
addition, we shall look at how these communication methods can help us in business, particularly the
way in which new channels of communication are changing the way we work. However, first we
examine the basis on which the technology has opened up the ability to communicate, the common
types of hardware and software used in organisations.
5.2.0 Common Types of Hardware and Software used in Organisations
5.2.1 Hardware
Hardware comprises the physical components of the computer systems which are used in the process
of inputs, transform and produces outputs. The process is undertaken in the central processing unit
or CPU, contained within the computer itself. The inputs are made by a device such as a keyboard or
a mouse, and the outputs are displayed on the computer's monitor screen or on a document produced
by the computer's printer.
We are now going to consider a little more on input, process and output devices.
a) Input Devices
There are six main methods of input as follows:
• The keyboard – The keyboard is the most widely used device for inputting data into
computers. A keyboard can be used to enter any kind of alphabetical or numeric data, as
well as to issue commands and queries, often interacting with information from the
computer as displayed on the accompanying screen.
But the keyboard does have its drawbacks, mainly because it needs people to operate it
and people are slow, prone to making mistakes and expensive to employ and train.
• Pointing devices – Pointing devices enable the user to interact with items displayed on the
screen, but they cannot input any original data. This has to be done by some other device,
usually a keyboard. Pointing devices include a mouse, trackball and touch pad.
A mouse is a small hand-held device with a ball underneath and two or three buttons on
the top. When you move the mouse over a surface (such as a desk), the ball moves. This in
turn moves a "cursor" – a small arrow – on the screen in exactly the same direction. In this
way, the user can position the cursor easily and accurately at any point on the screen. The
 buttons are used to select an icon or menu item over which the cursor is positioned, and
then to execute an activity associated with the icon or menu item.
For portable computers, a mouse is generally inappropriate and is replaced by a trackball
or touch pad built into the keyboard. The trackball is a kind of upside – down mouse where
you move the ball directly with your thumb, rather than pushing it around on a surface.
Touch pads register the movement of a finger or thumb across the pad.
• Pen-based devices – These devices enable the user to point, write or draw directly on a
sensitive screen or other surface using something similar to a pen. A light-pen emits signals
which are picked up and interpreted by the screen, whereas other devices work by exerting
pressure on a sensitive surface like a graphics tablet.
Pen-based devices are mainly used in systems dedicated to graphics and design work, or
for inputting data in situations demanding equipment which can be handheld e.g. tablets,
on which marks can be made by mobile workers as they walk around.
• Scanners – Scanners are devices which can recognise printed or magnetic data and convert
it into electronic signals which are transmitted to the computer for decoding.
Scanners work, in essence, like a photocopier. The document or other item with data on it
is passed across a light source or magnetic-sensitive strip, and the resultant pattern –
instead of being output as a copy image on another piece of paper – is transmitted to the
computer. Among the type of scanners on the market are:
1. Image scanners
2. Optical character recognition scanners
3. Bar-code readers
4. Magnetic strip readers
5. Optical mark recognition

• Video and audio input – Video images and sounds can be inputs as well as outputs. They
can be electronically stored in a computer in the same way as text or still images, where
they can then be manipulated to change their characteristics – for example, to edit the
video, change colours, make sound louder or softer, or change their pitch, etc.
Apart from the use of computers to edit video images and sounds in the making of, say, TV
programmes or music, video and sound can also be combined with text and graphics to
produce "multimedia" presentation.
• Voice recognition – Systems using voice recognition are increasingly found where people
need to input data without using their hands, as in some product inspection lines or in
baggage and parcel handling and sorting at airports or by delivery companies. Development
of more general voice recognition for data input as an alternative to the keyboard is still
very slow, and error-prone, and this is unlikely to be a real possibility for some considerable
time.

b) The Central Processing Unit

The CPU is the heart of a computer. In a microcomputer it is a tiny component, not much bigger
than one square centimetre, but nevertheless comprises tens or hundreds of thousands of
components and circuitry to link them together. Two most important aspects of CPU are:
i. Type of processor and speed
ii. Main memory
 Type of processor and speed – Computers have grown in power – hence the ability to undertake
increasingly sophisticated applications – through the development of more and more powerful
processors. Processor power is measured mainly by the speed at which it can execute series of
instructions. The faster the speed, the faster the CPU can work. These speeds are measured in
megahertz, with 1 MHz equalling one million operations per second. Market leader Intel and its
Pentium series of processors together with other manufacturers such as Athlon, have pushed up
computing power from around 60 MHz in the early 1990s to well over 3GHz (3,000MHz) and
rising.
Main memory – Although not strictly part of the CPU, the computer's main or primary memory
is usually thought of as part of it because it is integral to its operation. Anything stored in the
main memory can be accessed and read by the CPU, and be changed (or overwritten) with new
data during the execution of the program instructions.
This type of memory is known as random access memory (RAM). (This can be contrasted with
read only memory (ROM) which, as its name suggests, comprises permanently stored
information which cannot be changed or overwritten.)
Main memory is only a temporary store. Data and instructions are only kept there as long as they
are needed. When they are not, or when the storage is getting full, the CPU passes them back
into secondary storage. Data and instructions cannot be kept in the main memory permanently.
That is because, when the machine is switched off, the main memory is erased.
Clearly, the larger the main memory, the more program instructions and data can be held there
for the CPU to access. This will also reduce the constant need to switch instructions and data to
and from secondary storage when they are not needed or are needed. As a result, processing will
be speeded up.
Modern CPUs are capable of working with increasingly large amounts of main memory.
Consequently, the amount of RAM on most PCs has now risen from the 4Mb common on
machines in the early 1990s to the 1024, 2048 or even 3072Mb commonplace on modern PCs.

Keyboard Signal Signal Monitor image

CPU
Typing

Secondary Storage
(programs and data)

Process summary
c) Output Devices
There are three main types of output device:
1) Screens – All computer systems have some form of screen output device. This is invariably a
monitor like a TV (and using the same cathode-ray-tube technology) which can produce very
clear, high quality resolution images virtually instantaneously. Monitors are also known as
visual display units (VDUs). Monitors come in a variety of sizes, as TVs do.
Portable computers use a different technology – liquid crystal display (LCD) – which has the
advantage of being flat, very thin and light. These screens can be incorporated into the lid of
a portable computer, and hence are reduced to the size of the machine's keyboard.
2) Printers – Virtually all computer systems have printers attached as output devices. These
enable permanent records of selected information to be produced. Such paper copies of
 information are also referred to as "hard copy", indicating their permanence as opposed to
the temporary nature of information on a screen.
The choice of what is the most appropriate printer will depend upon the user's requirements
in respect of such factors as print quality, range of fonts and type of graphics to be printed,
speed of printing and cost (of both purchase and operation).
There are basically three types of printer available, categorised according to how they produce
their output:
• Serial printers. These print one character at a time. The main types are inkjet and dot matrix
printers.

• Line printers. These work by memorising a line at a time and printing that line character by
character. They can be exceptionally fast, producing anything up to the equivalent of 30
pages per minute.

• Page printers, the main type of which is laser printers. They work by projecting an image
of the whole page onto a rotating drum inside the printer which then attracts ink from a
cartridge to form an inked impression which can be transferred to paper. They can produce
very high quality output in virtually whatever font and type size is desired, and can print
any kind of graphic perfectly. Certain laser printers can print in colour.

d) Storage
There are two types of storage in a computer:
• The main memory or primary storage, which is essentially part of the CPU.
• Secondary storage.
We have already touched on a number of points relating to the main memory, so we shall
concentrate here on the secondary storage. First, though, we shall consider a number of points
about computer memory in general and about the way data is stored.
• Memory (Primary Storage) – There are two types of memory available to a computer:
1) Random access memory (RAM).
2) Read only memory (ROM).
Data stored in RAM can be accessed and changed (or overwritten) as a result of processing
by the CPU. Data stored in ROM can only be read – it cannot be transformed and written
back into storage. This makes ROM storage ideal for instruction programs, since it is not
possible to alter them by mistake or by design.
Memory is measured in "bytes". A byte is a grouping of 8 bits which the computer can
operate on as a single unit. As the power of computers has increased, so has the amount
of data they process, which needs to be stored either in the main memory or in secondary
storage. These stores need to be capable of holding many, many bytes, and it is usual now
to talk not of individual bytes, but of thousands, millions or even billions of bytes. The
terminology is as follows:
1000 bytes = 1 kilobyte (or 1 Kb)
1000 kilobytes = 1 megabyte (or 1 Mb)
1000 megabytes = 1 gigabyte (or 1 Gb)
1000 gigabytes = 1 terabyte (or 1 Tb).
 Data and files – Individual items of data – say the character "z" – are not much use on their
own. They are combined with other items of data to form a meaningful whole – for
example, the word "zebra". Computers do not, generally, store the individual items, but
rather store the whole. They store combinations of data in a whole package called a "file".
Files have to be identifiable or the computer would not be able to find them, they therefore
have names. The name consists of two parts: a filename and an extension, the two parts
being separated by a full stop (called a "dot"). Thus, a file could be known as "MYFILE.DOC".
The file name is the part that the user identifies and the extension is an identifier of what
type of file it is – so ".DOC" identifies it as a file for the word-processing application
Microsoft Word. Generally the user does not need to add the extension, this is done
automatically by the program.
• Secondary storage – The role of secondary storage is to maintain a permanent record of data files and
programs which may be made available to the CPU.
There are a number of different secondary storage mediums, which can be classified in two
different ways:
1) Whether they are a permanent part of the computer's internal structure (the fixed
hard disk) or an external object which can be attached to the computer in order to
input or receive data.
2) The medium used for storage – magnetic tape, magnetic disks or optical disks.

5.2.2 Software
Software is the term used to describe the programs which instruct the computer to do things. There
are two types of these programs.
Systems software
These are the programs which control and manage the operation and performance of the computer
itself. The most important part of such software is the "operating system" – an integrated set of
programs which manage CPU operations, control input, output and storage activities and devices and
support the execution of applications programmes.

By far the most important aspect of this, from a user's perspective, is the management of files. The
operating system controls and manages the location and status of all the files stored within the
computer – principally, in secondary storage – and enables them to be copied, moved and deleted.

The operating systems of large mainframe computers tend to be specific to the particular
manufacturer. Thus, for example, IBM mainframes usually use an operating system called MVS,
whereas DEC mainframes use VMS. Whilst they perform the same roles, these operating systems are
not the same; and the applications which run on them have to be specially written to interact with
the particular operating system. So we say that machines with different operating systems are "not
compatible".

The issue of compatibility is very important for applications software. Since applications programmes
have to interact with the operating system, they can only run on machines using the operating system
for which they were written. If every computer manufacturer used its own operating system,
applications would have to be specific to particular machines. However, if they all used the same
operating system, then the same applications programs could be used on all machines.
This is what happened among microcomputer manufacturers in the 1980s. They all (or nearly all)
adopted a standard operating system known as MS-DOS. This was originally developed by IBM for
use on its own PCs, but was subsequently licensed to and further developed by Microsoft. The
standardisation of operating systems resulted in a huge expansion of the PC market and allowed
applications developers to devote massive resources to providing programs which could be used on
all the millions of compatible machines around the world.

Microsoft subsequently developed Windows as an extension of the MS-DOS operating system,

providing a very user-friendly graphical interface between the computer and the user. The dominance
of Windows as a common basis for almost all PCs has further stimulated the development of
applications software.
Applications software
Applications software is the programs which direct the computer to undertake specific information-
processing activities desired by the user.
It is usual to distinguish between general-purpose programs and application-specific or dedicated
programs.
Dedicated programs are those which have only one particular business purpose, such as payroll
processing or accounting, and can only be used for that specialised application in a business.
General-purpose programs are those which perform particular types of common information-
processing activity (such as word-processing or database management) and which can be used for a
variety of different purposes or applied in different ways. There are four main types of general-
purpose program:
(i) Word-processing – which allows the creation, editing and printing of documents by
electronically processing text data, and is a key element of office automation systems.
(ii) Spreadsheets – which allow the manipulation of figures according to their mathematical and
other relationships (for example, adding, multiplying, comparing, etc.), and are a key
element of decision support systems.
(iii) Databases – which allow the storage and retrieval of data and records and their
manipulation, and are a key element of transaction processing and management information
systems.
(iv) Graphics – which cover both the graphical representation of numerical data and the
creation, editing and printing of images for presentational purposes, and are an aspect of
office automation systems.
It is possible to obtain integrated packages combining all four main types into one "suite" of
programs, which all act in a similar way and facilitate sharing data.
 CHAPTER SIX
INFORMATION SYSTEM QUALITY AND SECURITY
6.1.0 INTRODUCTION
Caring about data quality is key to safeguarding and improving it. As stated, this sounds like a very
obvious proposition. Discovering whether data are of acceptable quality is a measurement task, and
not a very easy one. This observation becomes all the more important in this information age, when
explicit and meticulous attention to data is of growing importance if information is not to become
misinformation.
This chapter provides foundational material about ways to safeguard and improve data quality. After
identifying when data are of high quality, we give reasons why we should care about data quality and
discuss how one can obtain high-quality data.
Data are of high quality if they are “Fit for Use” in their intended operational, decision-making and
other roles. In many settings, especially for intermediate products, it is also convenient to define
quality as “Conformance to Standards” that have been set, so that fitness for use is achieved.
Unfortunately, the data of many organizations do not meet either of these criteria. With the wide
availability of sophisticated statistical software and many well-trained data analysts, there is a keen
desire to analyse such databases in-depth. Unfortunately, after they begin their efforts, many data
analysts realize that their data are too messy to analyse without major data cleansing.
High quality data will lead to valuable information and insights for your organisation, but obtaining
high quality data is easier said than done. Improving your data quality and sustaining a good quality
data output should be at the centre of your Big Data Strategy.
Data quality starts with the right Master Data Management processes within your organisation, as the
Master Data forms the basis of your Big Data analytics. Master Data of the right quality is data that is
• Complete
• Accurate & consistent
• Available
• Time-stamped
• Industry standards-based
Improving the data will results in reduced costs, improved efficiency, better insights and enables
collaboration across verticals.
Completeness
Complete data means that all relevant data for a particular subject is linked and entered in the
database. Often obtaining complete data records is a challenge for organisations. For instance, the
sales people often forget to ask certain information or customers do not see the benefit of providing
all required details in return for complete data records.
Accurate and Consistence
Accurate and consistent data is all about ensuring that the data entered, is entered correctly, without
misspellings, typos and/or random abbreviations. Of course, if you want to link all data, this should be
prevented.
Availability
The data should be available and easily accessible at all times for users and they should not need to
search for it manually.
 Time-stamped
In addition, the data should be time-stamped, which refers to that it is clear when the data was
created, changed and/or deleted and by whom as well that it should be sufficiently up-to-date for the
task at hand.
Industry standards-based
Finally, it should adhere to industry standards so that it can be exchanged among companies and
verticals. Especially for data related to the Internet of Things and the Industrial Internet this will be a
challenge to get this arranged in the near future.
In the end, if data is not managed correctly and the quality is not ensured, your data can become a
risky liability instead of a valuable asset. So, within a data-driven, information-centric organisation
everyone should be aware of the importance of high quality data to ensure customer engagement and
eventually a positive bottom line of the company.
6.2.0 IMPORTANCE OF DATA QUALITY AND SECURITY
6.2.1 Importance of Quality Data Management
• An organization can leverage data quality in order to achieve higher sales, improve customer
satisfaction and service, reduce time required on manual processes, and ensure the accuracy of
reporting and general business intelligence.
• Accelerate revenue.
• Achieve and sustain high performing marketing campaigns.
• Reduce frustration from poor data storage and retrieval systems.
• Reduce the need of marketing and sales professionals to spend time in the role of data
custodians, enabling them to focus on selling and marketing.
• Enable better analytics and all-around business intelligence facilitating better planning, decision
making and execution.
• Have fast and accurate data access, process and retrieval.
When data quality management is ignored a wide range of negative results inevitably occur in an
organization, such as:
• Bad decisions will be made due to poor quality of data and poor data management processes.
Peak revenue performance is impossible without success in quality data management. In
extreme examples, as in the case of airplanes that run out of fuel due to faulty data, true disaster
can ensue.
• Automated processes can halt or cannot be implemented if bad data is present in the
organization. Process automation in the organization relies on high quality data that is clean and
consistent. If the quality of data is poor it can disrupt these processes.
• Reporting is done poorly and inefficiently if the organization's data is poor. A common reporting
system cannot be implemented at various levels of the organization due to the absence of quality
data.
Great efforts will be required for improving data quality like deploying Salesforce data cleansing tools
and other quality initiatives.
6.2.2 Importance of Data Security
Data security is critical for most businesses and even home computer users. Client information,
payment information, personal files, bank account details - all of this information can be hard to
 replace and potentially dangerous if it falls into the wrong hands. Data lost due to disasters such as a
flood or fire is crushing, but losing it to hackers or a malware infection can have much greater
consequences.
6.2.3 Risk Assessment
Thorough data security begins with an overall strategy and risk assessment. This will enable you to
identify the risks you are faced with and what could happen if valuable data is lost through theft,
malware infection or a system crash. Other potential threats you want to identify include the following:
• Physical threats such as a fire, power outage, theft or malicious damage
• Human error such as the mistaken processing of information, unintended disposal of data or input
errors.
• Exploits from corporate espionage and other malicious activity.
6.3.0 COMMON THREATS TO DATA QUALITY AND SECURITY
6.3.1 Information Security Threat
Information security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized
access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction through implementation of
Information System Malware Security i.e. implementation of controls (policies and procedures). The
CIA aspect - Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability computer security is a branch of technology
known as information security as applied to computers in ensuring the availability and correct
operation of a computer system.
Information security threat is any circumstance or event with the potential to harm an information
system through unauthorized access, destruction, disclosure, modification of data, and/or denial of
service. Threats can be natural or human deliberate or accidental.
6.3.2 Internet security threats
There are basically four main types of Internet security threats. These are Malware Threat, Threats to
the Security of E-mail, SPAM Associated Threats and Social Engineering Threat (Phishing).
Malware threat - Malware is software designed to destroy, steal private information or spy on a
computer system without the consent of the user. Malwares involves use of malicious codes, malicious
programs or malicious software. The most popular categories are trojan horses, viruses, adwares,
spywares, spams, worms and root kits.
Security and productivity threats posed by malware include stolen user ID and passwords,
unauthorized access to confidential information, Loss of intellectual property, remote control of
company’s PC with the consequence of theft of customer data, reduced network performance and
bandwidth, increased internet traffic and changes to browser homes pages and search engines.
Threats to the Security of E-mail – Threats most common to email include disclosure of sensitive
information, loss of confidentiality, loss of integrity, exposure of systems to malicious code, denial of
service and unauthorized accesses.
Security threats from SPAM – SPAM provides a cover for spreading of viruses, worms, trojans, spyware
and phishing.
Social Engineering Threat (Phishing) – Social engineering is the art of manipulating people into
performing actions or divulging confidential information. “Employees without security awareness are
security liabilities” (Gartner Group, 2002).
Phishing is the criminally fraudulent process of attempting to acquire sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an electronic
 communication. Use of Email messages and Web pages that are replicas of existing sites to fool users
into submitting personal, financial or password data.

6.4.0 TYPES OF CONTROLS USED TO COUNTER THE THREATS TO DATA QUALITY AND SECURITY
The starting point is to identify areas of vulnerability and develop strategies for securing your data and
information systems. Here are several aspects that need to be considered:
• Justification of who has access to what data.
• Who uses the internet, email systems and how they access it.
• Who will be allowed access and who will be restricted.
• Whether or not to use passwords and how they will be maintained.
• What type of firewalls and anti-malware solutions to put in place.
• Properly training the staff and enforcing data security.
After the above analysis, you can then prioritize specific data along with your more critical systems
and determine those that require additional security measures. It is also a good idea to layout a
Business Continuity Plan (BCP) so that your staff is still able to work effectively if the systems happen
to fail. Company risks and security implementations should be reviewed frequently to support changes
such as the growth of your business and other circumstances.
6.4.1 Securing Data
Once you draw up a plan and assess your risks, it is time to put your data security system into action.
Since data can be compromised in many ways, the best security against misuse or theft involves a
combination of technical measures, physical security and a well-educated staff. You should implement
clearly defined polices into your infrastructure and effectively present them to the staff. Here are
things that you may do:
• Protect your office or data centre with alarms and monitoring systems.
• Keep computers and associated components out of public view.
• Enforce restrictions on internet access.
• Ensure that your anti-malware solution is up to date.
• Ensure that your operating system is up to date.
• Fight off hacking attacks with intrusion detection technology.
• Utilize a protected power supply and backup energy sources.
6.4.2 Mobile Data Security
Hand-held devices and laptop computers have become popular in the business environment.
However, mobile computers are at a much greater risk of data loss through damage and theft. For this
reason, different safeguards need to be implemented in addition to the security measures listed above.
• Regularly backup data on removable media and safely store multiple copies.
• Activate password protection whenever the device is left alone.
• Never leave the device alone and visible in a vehicle.
• Protect the device from physical damage by transporting it in protective casing.
Efficient data security involves numerous steps, many of which can be downright time consuming. On
the other hand, losing this important data could be much worse.
Further protective steps can be taken in relation to the internet security threats as follows;
• Protection against malwares include;
 I. Good user education is vital in fighting against malwares.
II. Keep your operating system up to date by installing OS security fixes and program patches.
III. Use firewall protection.
IV. Install anti-spyware software.
V. Also monitor logs for unusual traffic.

• Countermeasures to e-mail security include;

I. Secure the server to client connections.
II. Protection against insecure wireless access.
III. Secure the end-to-end email delivery.
IV. When using an e-mail, ensure you are addressing the right person prior to sending email.
V. Beware of e-mails from unknown parties (unsolicited e-mails). Do not open unsolicited
emails and do not click on links in unsolicited emails.
VI. Never respond to unsolicited emails. For example ‘You have won $1,000,000. Kindly send
your bank details for crediting your account.’ These are scams also known as social
engineering attacks.
VII. Suspicious attachments must NOT be opened e.g. Executable files (with .exe, .com, .bat,
.reg extensions).
VIII. Regularly purge unnecessary emails (including emptying the ‘Deleted Items’) to free
storage space.
IX. Do not open/reply to spam messages.
X. Avoid registering unnecessarily to mailing lists.
XI. Use properly configured & regularly updated spam filter, antivirus and antispyware
software.
XII. Use firewall

• Countermeasures for SPAM include;

I. Spam Filters
II. MS Outlook
III. Outlook Express (e.g. SPAMFight)
IV. Spamfighter for Outlook and Outlook express
V. Antivirus such as AVG, Symantec, McAfee, F-Secure
VI. VIRUSfighter, Antispyware, McAfee Antispyware module, S&D, Ad-Adaware SE personal
and SPYWAREfighter.

• Prevention to social engineering threats include

I. Don’t give out personal information.
II. Ensure you are on the right website with the right web address.
III. Use anti-phishing software – IE7 and Mozilla, McAfee, Firefox 2.0 (includes a form of anti -
phishing technology).
Research shows that employees who are sensitive and knowledgeable about information
security provide the most cost-effective countermeasure against information security violations
In conclusion, avoid giving unnecessary information online (e.g. subscribing to a newsletter
whereby your personal details are requested). Be sure you are dealing with someone or a site
that you know and trust before giving out personal information. Use regularly updated antivirus
and antispyware software. Use client filters.
Before you start: Five basic principles for a good CV
1. Concentrate on the essentials
• Employers generally spend less than one minute reading a CV before deciding to reject it.

• If applying for an advertised vacancy, always ensure that you comply with any application
process entirely.

• Be brief: two A4 pages are usually more than enough, irrespective of your education or
experience.

• Is your work experience limited? Describe your education and training first; highlight
volunteering activities and placements or traineeships.

2. Be clear and concise

• Use short sentences. Avoid clichés. Concentrate on the relevant aspects of your training and
work experience.

• Give specific examples. Quantify your achievements.

• Update your CV as your experience develops.

3. Always adapt your CV to suit the post you are applying for
• Highlight your strengths according to the needs of the employer and focus on the skills that
match the job.

• Explain any breaks in your studies or career giving examples of any transferable skills you
might have learned during your break.

• Before sending your CV to an employer, check again that it corresponds to the required profile.

• Do not artificially inflate your CV; if you do, you are likely to be found out at the interview

4. Pay attention to the presentation of your CV

• Present your skills and competences clearly and logically, so that your advantages stand out.

• Put the most relevant information first.

• Pay attention to spelling and punctuation.

• Retain the suggested font and layout.

5. Check your CV once you have filled it in

• Do not forget to write a cover letter.

• Correct any spelling mistakes, and ensure the layout is clear and logical.

• Have someone else re-read your CV so that you are sure the content is clear and easy to
understand.