Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 4th Edition by Jeffrey Davis, Robert Johnson, Jan Stepanek, Jennifer Fogarty ISBN 0781774667 9780781774666 Download
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FOURTH EDITION
FUNDAMENTALS OF
AEROSPACE MEDICINE
EDITORS
Care has been taken to confirm the accuracy of the information presented and to describe generally accepted practices. However, the
authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for any consequences from application of the information
in this book and make no warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the currency, completeness, or accuracy of the contents of the
publication. Application of this information in a particular situation remains the professional responsibility of the practitioner.
The authors, editors, and publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in
accordance with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in
government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check
the package insert for each drug for any change in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly
important when the recommended agent is a new or infrequently employed drug.
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FOREWORD
Unlike most Forewords, I have elected to commence by going followed with the third in 2002 jointly edited with Dr. Jeff
backward. For the benefit of the reader of this fourth edition Davis.
of ‘‘Fundamentals’’ I begin with a very brief review of this Now we go forward to this the fourth edition; time and
texts’ progenitors. circumstance combined with age and wisdom to place the
The foundation for this series of textbooks was laid challenge of editorship into younger and willing hands to
by Dr. Louis Bauer in 1926 when he published the first move forward with the task. Dr. Davis had been requested to
volume on this topic in the United States—Aviation Medicine. assist as co-editor of the third edition with the commitment to
Dr. Bauer also played an important role in the development of take on the responsibility of the fourth edition as I withdrew.
Civil Aviation as well as the specialty of Aerospace Medicine This text is now in the hands of Dr. Davis and his co-editors.
and became a president of the American Medical Association. The reader will quickly note that while military topics fade
In 1939, building on the foundation established by Dr. they are replaced with more contributions found on space
Bauer, Dr. Harry Armstrong authored his first edition of medicine with commercial and general aviation holding
The Principles and Practice of Aviation Medicine. As Dr. their own. This reflects the changing allocation of research
Armstrong’s career progressed in the Army Air Corp: from commitments in the United States. From the first edition
laboratory commander, to General Officer, to Commander of Aviation Medicine through the current fourth edition
of the School of Aviation Medicine culminating as the Air of ‘‘Fundamentals’’ the goal has not changed—to provide
Force Surgeon General—his textbook progressed from the information on the physiology of flight, the hazards of flight,
second to the third editions. His next book carried a new and the selection and health maintenance of those who fly
title in 1961 reflecting the growing interest of ‘‘man in space’’ and those who facilitate such activities.
and was edited by Dr. Armstrong as he was joined by other New to this edition are chapters on Radiation, Toxi-
contributors to Aerospace Medicine. The second edition, the cology, Emerging Infectious Disease, Dental, and Women’s
mantle for editing which fell to Dr. Hugh Randel, a flight Health. The new section on the future discusses the govern-
surgeon and Preventive Medicine Specialist, was published ments’ role in Aerospace and Commercial space activities.
in 1971. This text is for the most part written from the
In 1980 as I departed the Armstrong Aerospace Medical perspective of the United States. This is not intended to
Research Laboratory at Wright-Patterson to take command be an international tome but it is anticipated that as with
of the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, a new edition was the prior editions other nations will find it useful. The
needed in response to the new research and developments audience has remained unaltered over time—physicians,
in the field that had occurred during the past decade since physiologists, researchers, residents, and interested readers
the last textbook had appeared. Unfortunately, it was not on the challenges to people in flight—whether in the
possible to use the title introduced by Dr. Armstrong due terrestrial environment or the vastness of space.
to issues of clearing the copyright restrictions. Although This edition proves the merits of my decision to leave
Dr. Randel had visions of a third edition, he found the stage for the next generation, and I thank readers for the
he had neither the time nor the resources to proceed. kind words offered to the contributors and me for our best
At this point, it became necessary to change both the efforts.
publisher and the title if the book was to continue,
and I introduced Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine and Roy L. DeHart, MD, MPH, MS
proceeded to identify other contributors who willingly joined Colonel and Chief Flight Surgeon, USAF (Ret)
in writing the chapters. This textbook was published in Professor and Medical Director, Corporate Health Services
1985 under my editorship. In 1996, the second edition Vanderbilt University Medical Center
iii
FOREWORD TO THIRD EDITION
This third edition of the already classic textbook Funda- Over the years, aviation and medical authorities realized
mentals Of Aerospace Medicine reflects and covers in detail that research was needed and studies began to assess
contemporary trends in the evolution of a fascinating medi- human performance and limitations related to aerospace
cal discipline, which in many areas of the world has achieved environments and a need arose for a more precise definition
the level of a postgraduate university specialty. of the objective of the specialty.
Aviation medicine (later on, by natural extension, In relation to civil aviation, most of these studies were
Aerospace Medicine) started as an indispensable response conducted at national levels; it soon became apparent that
to a need to regulate the presence of humankind in aviation to achieve proper international standardization, medical
in relation to operational safety. More recently its scope has requirements for aviation duties had to be adopted by an
been broadened globally by giving emphasis to its preventive International Organization of the United Nations System,
aspect; greater attention is additionally given to all occupants namely the International Civil Aviation Organization.
of air and spacecraft, including passengers and space tourists. These requirements were incorporated in Annex 1
The magnitude of global air transportation of healthy and to the Chicago Convention and they include physical,
less well passengers established the need to have a continuous mental, hearing, visual and color perception requirements.
update of knowledge of operational and environmental As a result of these standards and recommendations and
conditions (potentially) affecting humans. Such need is of their evaluation in the context of flight safety, it became
paramount importance and this edition includes the most indispensable to further study in detail the proper assessment
current information available in contemporary Aerospace of human performance, limitations and the consequences of
Medicine. exceeding those limitations.
Humans have adjusted their biological systems to life at Paraphrasing two sentences of General Howard W.
or near sea level where they function at a given barometric Unger’s foreword to the first edition of this textbook, it
pressure and a given partial pressure of oxygen with a is worthwhile to emphasize that the specialty of Aerospace
normal hemoglobin range. Departure from this environment Medicine reflects a dynamic and progressive nature and that
to altitude brings about the need to have adaptation the need to openly share the wealth of information gathered
mechanisms, which encompass ventilatory, circulatory and is readily apparent.
hematological adjustments over time. Several definitions of Aerospace Medicine are available
Exposure to altitude conditions by aviation is almost to readers; it seems indispensable to emphasize that, as
immediate and does not allow the time for adaptation far as crew members are concerned, it should be viewed
mechanism to appear, therefore technological aids are as a multidisciplinary specialty related to valid mental and
indispensable and as such, a classical example is given by physical requirements in response to realistic operational needs
cabin pressurization systems. to properly perform duties with an optimum level of safety.
Proper interaction of humans, machines and environ- Related to passengers, clinical and environmental aspects are
ments is needed to achieve an optimum level of Operational significant in order to achieve a good level of safety, health,
Safety. Emphasizing again the need for proper interaction, we comfort and well being.
should remember that humans are necessary for the design, Summarizing, it is indispensable for practitioners of
operation and maintenance of aircraft. Aerospace Medicine to continuously assess the adequate
Every year, almost one quarter of the world’s population interaction needed between humans, machines and environ-
travel by air on scheduled flights with an optimum level of ments. Therefore, this edition of Fundamentals of Aerospace
safety compared to other means of mass transportation. In Medicine provides information and references useful to the
trying to satisfy the needs of the traveling public, experts are medical examiners as well as to specialists in all aspects of
working hard in providing solutions to problems, or even the discipline. The wealth of information presented in this
better in preventing the appearance of those problems. Our third edition allows practitioners, specialists and researchers
specialty, a significant contributor to such level of safety, has to acquire it in a very well organized presentation. Such ac-
seen a significant evolution of well defined and documented quisition will allow us to have optimum exchanges of views
periods: its beginnings were empirical and were followed by and to perform duties in line with the requirements.
observational, experimental, human factors and ergonomic
stages. More recently the legal implications attracted the Silvio Finkelstein, MD, MSc
attention of the experts and, in this respect, more studies Former Senior Official, International Civil Aviation Organization
are being conducted in jurisprudence and ethics before an Past President, International Academy of Aviation and Space
aeromedical decision takes place. Medicine
v
FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
In introducing this impressive volume, I believe it most of the pilot, relate this to the flying environment, and
important to begin with a definition of the subject. Aerospace render a decision regarding fitness for flying. Therefore,
medicine is that specialty area of medicine concerned with the Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine must cover a large
the determination and maintenance of the health, safety, and amount of information. Aerospace medicine is of necessity
performance of those who fly in the air or in space. This specialty very dynamic. It must keep pace with the ever-increasing
is necessary because such flight subjects humans, with their technology of both medicine and aviation. Increases in
earth-bound anatomy, physiology and psychology, to the fighter aircraft capabilities have forced a re-evaluation of
hostile environment of air and space. Humans must adapt a physiologic problem once thought to be solved. Current
to or be protected from the changes in total environment social assaults on the necessity of physical standards for
pressure, reduced partial pressures of vital gasses, accelerative those who fly have even forced a re-evaluation of med-
forces of flight, and changes in gravitational forces, to name ical standards. Aircraft are getting larger, and faster, and
just a few of the hazards encountered in flight. more and more people are flying. Such dynamic changes
Historically, the early balloon flights in the late 1700’s indicated the necessity for a current, comprehensive text.
produced reports of physical effects on the humans engaged Dr. DeHart built upon the efforts of his predecessors,
in such ascents, but they were treated as interesting such as General Harry Armstrong, in gathering material
physiological observations. The advent of powered flight for the first edition of Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine.
92 years later by the Wright brothers on December 17, In the second edition, he has assembled the aid of re-
1903 and then human spaceflight by Gagarin on April 12, spected authorities in their individual areas to add new
1961 revealed additional effects and potential obstacles to chapter, update others with recent data and completely
human performance in this new environment. However, rewrite others.
these obstacles were viewed as challenges to be solved by those We must understand our past if we are not to repeat
individuals supporting the explorers of these environments. the errors of the past. The section ‘‘Aerospace Medicine
They learned that the environments of air and space were a in Perspective’’ covers some of this important history very
continuum and that basic physiologic fundamentals applied well. The sections ‘‘Physiology of the Flight Environment,’’
throughout this continuum. It is these environmental and ‘‘Clinical Practice of Aerospace Medicine’’ and ‘‘Operational
vehicular stresses upon those who fly that are of ultimate Aerospace Medicine,’’ have chapters providing fundamentals
concern to the aerospace medicine specialist. with basic references. The section ‘‘Impact of the Aerospace
The specialty area of aerospace medicine is young Industry on Community Health’’ includes a chapter concern-
compared to some other medical specialties. Even though ing transmission of disease by aircraft with current concerns
physicians had supported those who flew from the beginning, about an old and nearly forgotten nemesis, tuberculosis.
the specialty was not recognized until 1953. Though relatively Fundamentals revisited again. New chapters have appropri-
young, aerospace medical research and extensive operational ately been added: ‘‘Thermal Stress,’’ ‘‘International Aviation
experience has been accumulated and well documented. Medicine’’ and ‘‘Management of Human Resources in Air
These dates are in numerous scientific journals, reports, and Transport Operations.’’
books. It is the rare individual today who does not have some
Specialized knowledge in many medical as well as non- contact with the aviation environment in some manner. All
medical areas is required of the practitioner of aerospace physicians should have some basic knowledge of aerospace
medicine. The medical specialties of otolaryngology, oph- medical problems they or their patients might experience,
thalmology, cardiology, neurology, psychiatry/psychology, as well as understand the breadth of knowledge possessed
and pathology are of particular importance. The human by the specialist in aerospace medicine. This text can serve
cannot be separated from the vehicle, therefore certain en- as the basis of this knowledge for the general physician, the
gineering principles are also important. The total support aerospace medicine specialist, the student, or anyone dealing
of those who fly becomes a team effort. The aerospace with the medical support of military, general, or airline
medicine specialist must be able to communicate with other aviation, spaceflight, or the aerospace industry.
specialists. He or she must be able to gather all of this It has been my privilege in 45 years of practice in
information and evaluate its impact on the health status Aerospace Medicine to participate in the Air Force, NASA,
vii
viii FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
and civilian areas. I congratulate Dr. DeHart and his authors achieving safe flight. This volume makes that knowledge
for their excellent coverage of all these areas. If we adhere available.
to the fundamentals and provide proper aerospace medical
support, the human will continue to be able to adapt to Charles A. Berry, MD, MPH
zero gravity and re-adapt to earth’s gravity with ever longer President, Preventive & Aerospace Medicine Consultants, P.A.
sojourns in space. I believe we will see many of earth’s Past President, Aerospace Medical Association
inhabitants experiencing spaceflight and even one day living Past President, International Academy of Aviation and Space
in far flung space stations and colonies. The fundamentals Medicine
will be the basic knowledge and the stepping stones making Past President, University of Texas Health Science Center in
such progress possible. This knowledge must be used Houston, Texas
by the planners, designers, operators, and participants in Former Director of Life Sciences—NASA
FOREWORD TO FIRST EDITION
This textbook reflects the dynamic and progressive nature moved a number of times and in 1959 finally arrived at
of the specialty of aerospace medicine. The aviation industry its present location at Brooks Air Force Base, San Antonio,
has been explosive in development since the early 1900s, and Texas. The institution is now known as the United States Air
the rapid advances in powered flight in military and civilian Force School of Aerospace Medicine.
aviation have demanded the development of parallel medical Almost from the beginning of aviation medicine as a
systems to serve those who fly. The technologic advances career field, it became apparent that a team effort was
that have occurred and continue to occur make it possible necessary so that an organized, multidisciplinary approach
to move crews, passengers, troops, patients, and cargo far could be best applied to the problems associated with
beyond all earlier expectations of time, size, weight, and flight. Physicians, physiologists, psychologists, veterinarians,
distance. Although aviation has proven to be an important nurses, dentists, and other scientists covering many diverse
and increasingly rapid mode of transportation, it also has skills and interests now contribute much time and effort to
provided new methods of warfare and manned exploration the men and women associated with flying.
beyond our planet. Although much of the emphasis initially was of a
Over the years, as the aviation industry grew, the military nature, the civilian aspects of aviation grew by leaps
stresses associated with flight, such as acceleration, speed, and bounds, and today there is a dedicated, cooperative,
and altitude, became increasingly apparent. Historic events worldwide military-civilian career field. Additional schools
resulting from the progressive expansion of the flight and laboratories are now devoted to the collection of scientific
environment were steadily being catalogued. The necessity data and the dissemination of vital information.
for research to study and explore the physiologic effects Typical of those involved in aviation or aerospace
imposed on man were recognized and vigorously pursued. medicine has been the need and response to share openly
Although research into the effects of unpowered balloon the wealth of information being gathered. The complex and
flights was important, the frequency and magnitude of the diverse data have been discussed by medical scientists of
stresses associated with powered flight increased the urgency many nations at meetings and conferences. Periodicals and
and sophistication of research efforts. textbooks also have been very helpful in documenting and
World War I provided the impetus for concerted disseminating the knowledge that has accumulated. This text
educational and investigative efforts in the field of aviation is a collection of the literary contributions of more than
medicine. Early in that war, human factors problems were 40 authors representing the broad spectrum of aerospace
strongly suspected as being the cause of many aircraft medicine. Each contributor is a recognized expert among the
accidents and deaths. A school to train physicians to care for many who practice within the specialty. These contributors
flyers and a medical research laboratory to consider urgent are continuing a tradition begun over 50 years ago by Dr.
problems were established by the United States Air Service Louis H. Bauer, who laid the first foundation stones with his
at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, New York in 1917. Initial text Aviation Medicine. Dr. Bauer’s work has been expanded
efforts to reduce the number of accidents and the loss of by the contributions of Dr. Harry Armstrong and, most
human life centered on good health and the application of recently by Dr. Hugh W. Randal. Thus, this text holds to
more rigid physical standards for pilots and other aircrew the tradition of enumerating the basic principles of the
members. The first class of ‘‘flight surgeons’’ graduated in challenging field of aerospace medicine. This book will be
1918. A precipitous decrease in accidents and deaths was the both a practical text for the student and most valuable
direct result of these dedicated efforts. Since that time, flight reference source for the practitioner of aerospace medicine.
surgeons have been intimately associated with flyers and
their health and safety. As the list of medical responsibilities Howard W. Unger, MD
expanded, the industrial hygiene aspects of the developing Major General, USAF, MC (retired)
industry included ground operations as well as the aerial Past President of the Aerospace Medical Association
mission. The school and laboratory at Hazelhurst Field Former Trustee of the American Board of Preventive Medicine
ix
P R E FA C E
Twenty-five years ago, it was decided to revive the tradition efforts. In the US, the sport pilot certificate may stimulate
of Dr. Armstrong and edit a new textbook for the discipline of the general aviation industry.
aerospace medicine. This fourth edition of Fundamentals of Military aviation continues to be driven by speed, agility,
Aerospace Medicine continues the legacy of Dr. Roy DeHart and survivability. New aircraft with vectored thrust provide
who had the vision to develop this textbook many years ago. variable acceleration environments with new challenges to
We are indebted to his many years of service and volunteer human performance. The need to adapt to the ever increasing
hours for the first three editions, and to his foresight to stressors of flight has forced scientists and aviation system
recruit a new editor for the third edition. Dr. Roy DeHart designers to be ever more innovative in protecting the
trained a new generation of editors, and the field will always combat pilot. Chapters in this edition address not only
be indebted to him for his selfless service. Three new section advances in crew systems protection but issues of human
editors were added for this edition, and the efforts of Dr. factors in flight operational environments. Unmanned Aerial
Robert Johnson, Dr. Jan Stepanek, and Dr. Jennifer Fogarty Vehicles are now commonplace and the unique challenges
were critical to the scope and timeliness of this text. There of these flights are addressed in the chapter of human
are many returning contributors from the third edition, factors.
as well as many new chapters and new contributors. This The goal of the contributors to this edition is unchanged
fourth edition reflects the tremendous pace of change in that from a generation ago when the first edition was prepared
two chapters are devoted to the future at the dawn of the for those physicians providing professional care and advice
commercial space flight industry. to general aviation pilots, for the specialist in aerospace
In the last 25 years, many changes have occurred in medicine supporting the airline industry, the Department
spaceflight and the pace of change has accelerated. The of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space
Space Shuttle first flew in 1981 and its planned retirement Administration, and now the emerging commercial space
is on the horizon for 2010. The Mir Space Station was flight industry. The text is intended for students, residents,
deorbited and replaced by the International Space Station and perhaps many medical practitioners that may become
(ISS) with the active participation by five international more involved with global public health issues as well as
partners including the US, Russia, Japan, Canada, and the medical exams for commercial space flight. The text is not
European Space Agency. Since the third edition, a second intended to be a treatise on every subject introduced but
Space Shuttle accident resulted in the loss of Columbia and rather a general review of the major topics that comprise
her crew of seven; the ISS was sustained using Russian Soyuz the practice of aerospace medicine. The interested reader is
and Progress launches; and the first teacher in space flew provided with suggested readings and references to continue
completing the journey from the Challenger accident. Space learning beyond the scope of this text.
Flight Participants pay to visit the ISS, and commercial space The reader will find many new chapters in this edition
firms emerged after Space Ship One won the Ansari X-Prize. including chapters devoted to toxicology, radiation, dental,
Various firms plan both suborbital and orbital space flights. women’s health, unique aircraft, and commercial space flight.
Aerospace medicine practitioners of tomorrow may conduct Substantial rewrites have been undertaken of many of the
medical exams for many interested passengers. chapters from the third edition making this a substantially
Commercial aviation continues to expand with the first different text from the third edition. The pace of change is
flights of long-range, fuel-efficient aircraft substantially built so great that planning is already underway for techniques to
from composite materials. Large aircraft have flown capable make new information available as soon as possible to the
of carrying 550+ passengers. Both new types of aircraft practitioner.
may enter service in 2008. These new aircraft, and the As has been the case in the three preceding editions,
development of a global economy and travel, increase the proceeds from this text will be distributed to schools
potential for transmitting disease quickly around the Earth. and scholarship programs, nationally and internationally,
New challenges to global public health are recognized by the that educate and train physicians in the field of aerospace
international aviation authorities with sustained planning medicine.
xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As I mentioned in the preface, the current generation of of the value of an academic effort to one’s home organization.
practitioners of aerospace medicine owe a debt of gratitude So to the contributors and all of their outstanding technical
to Dr. Roy DeHart who had the vision and determination to contributions and volunteer efforts, one last grateful thank-
initiate Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine some twenty- you.
five years ago. I owe Dr. DeHart a heartfelt thank-you for There is a great deal of new material in this textbook
allowing me to become an editor of the third edition, and as rapid developments are now occurring in aerospace.
to learn from him the complex process of assembling a text New opportunities are emerging in suborbital and orbital
from content to contributors. Dr. DeHart not only revived commercial space flight, and there are plans for commercial
this textbook with the first edition, but also insured its flights to the moon. These new developments should produce
future by providing for new editors. His legacy to the field of new practice opportunities for the aerospace medicine
aerospace medicine has many components, but this textbook practitioner, and the future is as bright as perhaps at any time
may be the most significant in perpetuating the field. To Dr. in the history of the field. By the time of the fifth edition, I
Roy DeHart, thank you from the entire aerospace medicine hope we can look back on the successful flight of hundreds if
community. not thousands of space flight participants on suborbital and
For the fourth edition, I too brought new editors to the orbital flights.
textbook. We decided to divide the book into sections of It has been a pleasure to work with the Lippincott
physiology, clinical aerospace medicine, and operations, and Williams & Wilkins staff, and the assistance of Ms. Kerry
I chose a section editor for each. I am indebted to the hard Barrett, Senior Managing Editor, was invaluable to the
work and many hours that these new editors contributed, success of this edition. She was always available for
Dr. Jennifer Fogarty (physiology), Dr. Jan Stepanek (clinical sound advice, by email or phone, and would provide
aerospace medicine), and Dr. Robert Johnson (operations). timely assistance to the editors and contributors. She also
Dr. Bob Johnson also helped with the logistics of the textbook, saw the value of the timing of this fourth edition with
organizing conference calls and notes to authors. Ms. Diane the rapid changes in aerospace including long-range and
Ellison at the University of Texas Medical Branch also helped large commercial aircraft, global public health issues, the
with many of the textbook conference calls, letters, e-mails, expansion of government space programs to include space
and phone calls while preparing the book. This textbook was flight participants, the emergence of an exploration program,
truly a team effort, and they all put forth an outstanding and the rapid development of the commercial space flight
effort and countless hours of time in editing and assembling industry. As Dr. DeHart noted in the third edition, Williams
this text. and Wilkins was the publisher of the original aviation
I want to recognize the contributors who are the authors medicine text, edited by Dr. Harry G. Armstrong, and the
who wrote this volume. Without their technical expertise, tradition most definitely continues.
willingness to volunteer many hours of research, writing and To you the next generation of practitioners, I hope
revisions, this textbook would not exist. As a community of this text gives you the foundation for success in aerospace
aerospace medicine practitioners, we owe a debt of gratitude medicine, and encourages you to become the next generation
to these authors without whom the underlying research, of practitioners, researchers, and teachers essential to the
clinical evaluations, and operational experience would not success of this field. I hope you enjoy the field as much as I
exist to be able to sustain the field. In all aspects of practice, in have, and find the time to pass along your expertise to the
operations, research, clinical medicine, and teaching, there next generation.
are many competing demands for time, and less recognition Jeffrey R. Davis
xiii
CONTRIBUTORS
Richard Allnutt, MD, MPH, Stephen A. Bernstein, MD, MPH, Paula A. Corrigan, MD
MS(EE) FAAFP, COL, MC, SFS Branch Chief
Biodynamic Research Corporation Director, US Army Aeromedical Activity Department of Internal Medicine
San Antonio, Texas US Army Aeromedical Consult Service
Enterprise, Alabama USAF School of Aerospace Medicine
Brooks City Base, Texas
Arnold A. Angelici, Jr., MD, MS
Occupational Medicine James W. Brinkley, BS Francis A. Cucinotta, MD
Federal Aviation Administration Former Director Chief Scientist
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Human Effectiveness Directorate NASA Space Radiation Program
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Air Force Research Laboratory Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio Houston, Texas
Melchor J. Antuñano, MD, MS
Clinical Associate Professor Jeffrey R. Davis, MD, MS
Department of Preventive Medicine and Stephen L. Carpenter, MD Professor, Preventive Medicine
Community Health Medical Officer, and Community Health
University of Texas Medical Branch Aerospace Medical Certification University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas; Division Galveston, Texas
Director Federal Aviation Administration
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Roy L. DeHart, MD, MS, MPH
Federal Aviation Administration Professor and Director
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Vanderbilt Center for Occupational
John W. Castellani, MD
and Environmental Medicine
Research Physiologist
Nashville, Tennessee
Michael Bagshaw, MB, FFOM, Thermal and Mountain Medicine
DAvMed USARIEM
J. Robert Dille, MD, MIH
Program Director Aviation Medicine Natick, Massachusetts
Consultant in Aerospace Medicine
School of Biomedical & Health Sciences
Norman, Oklahoma
King’s College London
Guy’s Campus Samuel N. Cheuvront, MD
Research Physiologist David F. Dinges, PhD
London, UK
Thermal and Mountain Medicine Professor and Chief
Division Division of Sleep and Chronobiology,
Denise L. Baisden, MD, MS U.S. Army Research Institute of Department of Psychiatry, and Center
Assistant Regional Flight Surgeon Environmental Medicine for Sleep and Respiratory
Southwest Region Natick, Massachusetts Neurobiology
Federal Aviation Administration University of Pennsylvania School of
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Medicine
Thomas F. Clarke, MD, MPH Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Robert D. Banks, BEng, MD Director General Preventive Medicine
Residency R. Key Dismukes, PhD
Principal Consultant
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief Scientist for AeroSpace Human
Biodynamic Research Corporation
Brooks City Base, Texas Factors
San Antonio, Texas
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California
Michael R. Barratt, MD, MS Curtiss B. Cook, MD, FACP
Physician/Astronaut Lieutenant Colonel W. R. Ercoline, MS, PhD
Johnson Space Center Professor of Medicine, Division of Manager, San Antonio Operations
National Aeronautics and Space Endocrinology Life Sciences Group
Administration Mayo Clinic College of Medicine Wyle Laboratories
Houston, Texas Scottsdale, Arizona San Antonio, Texas
xv
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Nils Erikson, MD, MPH Gary W. Gray, MD, PhD, FRCP (C) Robert Johnson, MD, MPH, MBA
Captain, U.S. Navy, Medical Corps Consultant in Medicine Associate Professor of Medicine
Director, Aerospace Medicine Residency Canadian Forces Environmental Preventive Medicine and Community
Naval Operational Medicine Institute Medical Establishment Health;
Pensacola, Florida Defence Research and Development The University of Texas Medical Branch
Canada Staff Physician
Jennifer A. Fogarty, PhD Toronto, Canada Aviation Medical Center
Adjunct Assistant Professor University of Texas Medical Branch
Preventive Medicine and Community Ferdinand W. Grosveld, MS, PhD University Hospitals
Health Consultant Galveston, Texas
University of Texas Medical Branch Hampton, Virginia
Galveston, Texas;
David R. Jones, MD, MPH
Biomedical Risk Coordinator Richard M. Harding, BSc, Consultant in Aerospace Psychiatry
Space Medicine Division MBBS, PhD Montgomery, Alabama
Johnson Space Center Principal Consultant
National Aeronautics and Space Biodynamic Research Corporation
Administration San Antonio, Texas Robert W. Kenefick, MS, PhD,
Houston, Texas FACSM
John D. Hastings, MD Research Physiologist
Namni Goel, PhD Senior Consultant in Neurology Thermal and Mountain Medicine
Assistant Professor Federation Aviation Administration Division
Division of Sleep and Chronobiology, Tulsa, Oklahoma United States Army Research Institute
Department of Psychiatry, and Center of Environmental Medicine
for Sleep and Respiratory Natick, Massachusetts
Steven M. Hetrick, MD, MPH
Neurobiology
Director, Occupational Medicine
University of Pennsylvania School of
Program James A. King, MD, COL, USAF,
Medicine
Department of Graduate Education MC, FS
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief, Emergency Medical Department
San Antonio, Texas Wilford Hall USAF Medical Center
Jerry R. Goodman, MS
San Antonio, Texas
Manager, Acoustics Office and Lead ISS
Acoustics Jeffrey Hudson, PhD
Johnson Space Center Biomedical Scientist for General
Dynamics
Richard A. Knittig, MD, MPH
National Aeronautics and Space Aerospace Medicine Consultant
Administration Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Naval Aerospace Medical Institute
Houston, Texas Pensacola, Florida
Douglas J. Ivan, MD
Monica B. Gorbandt, MD Chief Aerospace Ophthalmology
Consultant, U.S. Army School of Branch, William B. Kruyer, MD
Aviation Medicine USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief Cardiologist
Medical Boards/Aviation Medicine Brooks Air Force Base, Texas Aeromedical Consultation Service
Fox Army Health Center USAF School of Aerospace Medicine
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama John T. James, PhD Brooks City-Base, Texas
Chief Toxicologist
David P. Gradwell, PhD, MB, ChB Habitability and Environmental Factors
James Perry Locke, MD, MS
Whittingham Professor of Aviation Division
Flight Surgeon
Medicine Johnson Space Center
Flight Medicine
Faculty of Occupational Medicine National Aeronautics and Space
Johnson Space Center
Royal College of Physicians Administration
National Aeronautics and Space
St.AndrewsPlace Houston, Texas
Administration
London, UK; Houston, Texas
Consultant Adviser in Aviation Richard T. Jennings, MD, MS
Medicine (RAF) Associate Professor and Director
Aviation Medicine Wing Aerospace Medicine Residency Cheryl Lowry, MD, MPH LT COL,
RAF Centre of Aviation Medicine University of Texas Medical Branch USAF, MC, FS
Henlow, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom Galveston, Texas Misawa Air Force Base, Japan
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
James R. Phelan, MD
Stanley R. Mohler, MD, MA Assistant Clinical Professor Warren S. Silberman, DO
Professor Emeritus Preventive Medicine and Community Manager, Aeromedical Certification
Aerospace Medicine Health Division
Boonshoft School of Medicine University of Texas Medical Branch Federal Aviation Administration
Wright State University Galveston Texas Civil Aeromedical Institute
Dayton, Ohio
Shean E. Phelps, MD, MPH, Suzanne D. Smith, PhD
William M. Morlang, II, DDS FAAFP Senior Research Engineer
Associate Professor Chief, Injury Biomechanics Branch Human Effectiveness Directorate
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial US Army Aeromedical Research Biosciences and Protection Division
Pathology Laboratory United States Air Force
School of Dental Medicine Ort Rucker, Alabama Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Tufts University
Boston, Massachusetts; Jeb S. Pickard, MD, FCCP
Consultant in Forensic Dentistry Staff Pulmonologist John A. Smyrski III, MD, MPH,
Armed Forces Medical Examiner Aeromedical Consultation Service MBA
Armed Forces Insitute of Pathology USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Lieutenant Colonel
Washington, DC Brooks City-Base, Texas Medical Corps, Senior Flight Surgeon
Aerospace Medicine and Family
Duane L. Pierson, PhD Medicine;
David M. Musson, MD, PhD Microbiologist Staff Physician
Assistant Professor Habitability and Environmental Factors Division Surgeon
Department of Anesthesia Academic Division US Army: 25th Infantry Division,
Director, Center for Clinical Simula- Johnson Space Center Schofield Barracks, Hawaii and
tion McMaster National Aeronautics and Space Tripler Army Medical
University Administration Center
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Houston, Texas Honolulu, Hawaii
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Foreword iii
Foreword to 3rd Edition v
Foreword to 2nd Edition vii
Foreword to 1st Edition ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Contributors xv
Abbreviations xxiii
HISTORY
xix
xx CONTENTS
CLINICAL
OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 21 Occupational and Environmental Medical Support to the Aviation Industry 453
ROY L. DEHART AND STEVEN M. HETRICK
THE FUTURE
Index 711
A B B R E V I AT I O N S
xxiii
xxiv A B B R E V I AT I O N S
1
2 HISTORY
SIXTEENTH CENTURY EXPERIENCES tethered hot air balloon to a height of 50 ft. On November 23,
de Rozier and Francois Laurent Marquis d’Arlandes were free
Discomfort with mountain travel was documented after floated across Paris in a hot air balloon. American ambas-
the Spanish army under Cortez attacked Mexico in 1519. sador to France, Benjamin Franklin, observed that these
In addition, the Spanish army under Pizarro experienced developments in ballooning foretold a promising future.
mountain sickness 25 years later while conquering areas Professor Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles (1746–1823),
subsequently known as Ecuador, Chile, and Peru. along with Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), articulated
Later in the century, Jesuit Father Jose de Acosta blamed what is now known as Charles’ Law that states ‘‘At a constant
the air of lofty places. On five crossings over the Andes, pressure, a given amount of gas will expand its volume
he noted a loss of appetite, the presence of nausea and in direct proportion to the absolute temperature.’’ Charles
abdominal pain, in addition to vomiting of food, phlegm, invented the hydrogen balloon in 1783 and made a flight on
bile, and blood. Father Acosta had profound weakness and December 1 with a companion (the balloon’s maker). After
had to be supported on his horse; he also had dizziness and the companion left the balloon after a 1-hour 45-minute
was panting. Upon return to lower altitude, the symptoms flight, the lightened balloon immediately rose to an altitude
shortly disappeared. of 3,048 m (10,000 ft). Charles reported right ear and
Acosta wrote ‘‘Not only men feel this, animals do too, and maxillary pain with increasing altitude, and this report is
sometimes stop so that no spur can make them advance.’’ usually considered the first case of aerotitis. Early in the next
Acosta was ‘‘convinced that the element of the air is in this century, Gay-Lussac made a balloon flight, on September 16,
place so thin and so delicate that it is not proportioned to hu- 1804, to an altitude of over 7,016 m (23,000 ft), a record that
man breathing which requires it denser and more temperate.’’ stood for approximately a half century.
Acosta’s account was published in Seville in 1590 but Trained in Scotland and loyal to King George III, Boston
is best found in the Hitchcock (1) translation of Bert’s physician John Jeffries moved to London at the beginning
Barometric Pressure. The book, originally published in French of the Revolutionary War. He, along with crowds estimated
in 1878, contains 264 references on mountain sickness. at 150,000 to 250,000, gathered to observe balloon ascents
Scientific studies on the effects, prevention, and treatment of by John Pierre Blanchard and the Italian, Vincent Lunardi.
acute and chronic mountain (altitude) sickness, pulmonary Jeffries paid Blanchard 100 guineas to fly from London to
edema, and cerebral edema have been conducted in the Kent in a hydrogen balloon. On the flight, Jeffries carried a
Andes, on Mt. McKinley, and in the Himalayas. Scientists thermometer, barometer, pocket electrometer, hydrometer,
who conducted this research included McFarland, Hurtado, precision timepiece, compass, small telescope, and seven
Hultgren, and Krakauer. sealed vials to collect air samples at different altitudes for
Henry Cavendish, the discoverer of hydrogen. The results
were reported to the Royal Society.
SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH Blanchard had announced his intention to fly across
CENTURY PROGRESS the English Channel before agreeing to take Jeffries along.
Again, Jeffries agreed to pay the expenses of the flight, and, if
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), an Italian physicist, in- necessary to save Blanchard, he would jump into the channel.
vented the mercury barometer 50 years after Acosta’s Blanchard, in a bit of deviousness, ordered a vest lined
observations. He studied the response of small animals with lead to keep the balloon from lifting, forcing Jeffries
to vacuum. Otto von Guericke (1602–1686), engineer, of out. The tailor mistakenly sent the vest to Dr. Jeffries at a
Germany, invented the pneumatic pump in 1672. He studied hotel in Dover, and the ruse was uncovered. On January 7,
how candle flames were extinguished, animals could not 1785, the two were the first to cross the English Channel,
live, and sounds would not travel under vacuum. He also and Jeffries became the first paying aerial passenger on an
showed that horses could not pull apart two vacuum- international flight.
containing hemispheres. Robert Boyle (1627–1691), Irish They carried the first over-water survival gear, cork vests,
natural philosopher, observed bubbles in the eye of a viper and equipment required during the over-water flight. Jeffries
following its decompression in a vacuum environment. He reported visual illusions: ‘‘we were fixed and objects appeared
discovered that at a constant temperature the volume of gas to pass to or from us or revolve around us.’’ He also reported
varies inversely with pressure—the famous ‘‘Boyle’s Law.’’ that ‘‘we were enveloped by a certain stillness that could
Joseph Priestly (1733–1804), English scientist, and be felt’’ (possibly sensory deprivation). At one point it was
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist, are sepa- almost necessary for Jeffries to jump into the water. Later,
rately credited with discovering oxygen. close to a hard landing, most of their clothing, the celebration
During 1783, brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier of bottle of brandy, the life vests, and all equipment except the
France successfully launched hot air balloons, using burning barometer, were jettisoned.
damp straw, wool, and occasionally old shoes and even old To soften the landing in France, Jeffries thought to elim-
meat in the mix. A rooster, a duck, and a sheep were hefted inate ‘‘five to six pounds of urine.’’ A letter from Benjamin
by hot air on September 19 of that year. On October 15, the Franklin’s son in London, to his son who was with his
brothers lifted Pilatre de Rozier, an apothecary of Metz, in a grandfather in Paris was delivered, the first airmailed letter.
CHAPTER 1 T H E B E G I N N I N G S : PA S T A N D P R E S E N T 3
Jeffries’ accounts have been reprinted in Aviation, Space, and France. He was trained in engineering, law, physiology,
Environmental Medicine (2,3). and medicine. He succeeded his mentor, Claude Bernard,
In 1789, Dr. Jeffries returned to Boston and practiced to the chair of physiology, Faculte’ des Sciences, Paris. He
medicine until his death in 1819. He was active in teaching, conducted extensive work in the early 1870s, the latter
and gave the first public lecture on anatomy. He was a culminating in his classic book, La Pression Barométrique,
founder of the Boston Medical Library. Recherches de Physiologie Expérimentale in 1878. Mary Alice
Jeffries helped Blanchard to make the first hydrogen and Fred Hitchcock translated the volume into English
balloon free flight in America on January 9, 1793. This during World War II.
event occurred in Philadelphia with the departure from the Bert undertook studies to explain the symptoms reported
yard of the Walnut Street prison. A large crowd observed by aeronauts during their balloon ascensions. He conducted
the departing flight, including President George Washington 670 experiments in bell jars and an altitude chamber of his
and the French Ambassador. Washington gave Blanchard a construction. He used plants, sparrows, rabbits, guinea pigs,
letter of introduction (Blanchard’s English was not very good, cats, dogs, and humans, and reported the findings in his
hence the letter for those he may meet on landing—some book. He established that death occurred at a partial pressure
consider this the first U.S. passport). Blanchard’s pulse rate of oxygen of 35 mm Hg, irrespective of atmospheric pressure.
data collected for Dr. Benjamin Rush was 84 beats/minute He found that the intermittent inhalation of air rich in oxygen
on the ground and 92 at 1,772 m (5,812 ft). Six air samples relieved symptoms of hypoxia. He also recognized that excess
were collected for Dr. Casper Wistar. carbonic acid in the blood and tissues created adverse effects.
The balloon landed in Gloucester County, New Jersey. The hazard of loss of too much carbon dioxide through
Blanchard returned to Europe and made a number of hyperventilation was apparently not recognized. Bert died
flights in various countries. While flying over The Hague, as Resident General, Tonkin province, French Indochina, at
Netherlands, he is reported to have had an in-flight heart age 53, on November 11, 1886, during an attack of dysentery.
attack, falling more than 50 ft. He died on March 7, 1809, James Glaisher (1809–1903) and his balloon engineer,
the first pilot in command to have an in-flight incapacitating Henry Coxwell (1819–1900), made several ascents to high
cardiac event. altitudes over England to relatively high altitudes without
On June 15, 1785, Pilatre de Rozier, the first person lifted supplemental oxygen. On September 5, 1862, reaching
by the Montgolfiers, accompanied by a companion, Pierre 8,839 m (29,000 ft), Glaisher was unconscious for an
Romain, attempted to cross the channel from France to estimated 7 minutes. It is reported that the two balloonists
Britain in a combination hydrogen–hot air balloon. The hy- experienced some acclimatization to high altitudes without
drogen caught fire half an hour after take-off and both died in turning blue or having difficulty breathing.
the accident, the first aeronautic fatalities. De Rozier’s fiancée, Henri Sivel, a naval officer, and Joseph Croce-Spinelli,
Susan Dyer, witnessed the explosion, collapsed, and died. a journalist, ascended on March 22, 1874, in the balloon,
Polar Star, to a height of 7,300 m (23, 950 ft). They carried
bags provided by Bert containing 40% and 70% oxygen, the
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY former to be breathed on reachi ng 3,600 m (11,811 ft) and
the latter on reaching 6,000 m (19,685 ft). It was observed
A Belgian physicist, Etienne Robertson, ascended to approx- that the oxygen improved strength, alertness, memory, visual
imately 7,000 m (22,966 ft) with a music teacher named acuity, and appetite.
Lhoest, at Hamburg, Germany, on July 18, 1803. He de- On April 15, 1875, they, along with a third aeronaut,
scribed a hurried pulse, mental and physical apathy, and Gaston Tissandier, launched in the balloon, Zenith, with
an indifference instead of his usual glory and passion for goldbeater’s bags (made from the cecum of an ox) of 65%
discoveries. He reported that his lips had swelled from blood and 70% oxygen. They sought to reach an altitude well above
rushing there and his hat seemed too small. He was able to 8,000 m (26,246 ft), exceeding Glaisher’s and Coxwell’s
place his hand in boiling water without feeling pain. He flew September 5, 1862 record. Bert sent a message that the
with Russia’s first aeronaut, Sacharoff, on June 30, 1804. French balloonists did not have sufficient oxygen, but they
Robertson’s son, Eugene, ascended to 6,000 m (21,000 ft) had lifted off before the arrival of the message. At 7,450 m
at Castle Garden, New York, on October 16, 1826. (24, 442 ft) they cut three bags of ballast, probably in a state
Dr. Claude Bernard (1813–1878) of France is considered of hypoxic euphoria, and climbed to an estimated 8,600 m
the founder of experimental medicine. He studied the (28, 215 ft). All three lost consciousness and Sivel and Croce-
effects of illness, carbon dioxide, cold, and superoxygenated Spinelli died in-flight. Tissandier passed out, coming to some
air on hypoxia tolerance. He studied carbon monoxide time later as the balloon had spontaneously descended to a
combination with hemoglobin as a cause of oxygen lower altitude and struck the ground.
starvation. While studying the liver, he discovered that liver In the third edition of his Principles and Practice of
glycogen (he gave the substance its name) broke down to Aviation Medicine (4), Armstrong wrote, ‘‘the first use of
glucose, elucidating the glucose–glycogen relationship. air transportation in support of medical activities occurred
Paul Bert (1833–1886), considered by some to be the during the Siege of Paris in 1870 when a total of 160 patients
father of aviation medicine, was born in Auxerre, Yonne, were removed from the city by means of an observation
4 HISTORY
balloon.’’ Lam has examined the records and found that tested by standing with the eyes closed, and then hopping
no passengers were patients (5). The records contain the with the eyes open and then closed. In 1914 new arbitrary,
names of the balloonists, the weights of the mail, and the more rigorous standards, were ordered by the Surgeon Gen-
landing sites. The flights occurred between September 23, eral, but failure rates were so high for new young applicant
1870 and January 21, 1871, during the Paris siege as the officers that the standards were relaxed. One screening test
Franco-Prussian war continued. Tissandier was one of the involved the candidate holding a needle between the thumb
balloonists but most were sailors. and forefinger. A blank pistol was fired behind the candidate’s
head. If the startle reaction produced blood, the candidate
was disqualified.
TWENTIETH CENTURY: EXPONENTIAL During the first year of flying in World War I, when
GROWTH OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE there was little combat, the English and French found that
2% of aircraft accidents were due to combat, 8% were due to
The invention of the practical heavier-than-air powered and mechanical problems, and 90% were due to human failure;
controlled flight by Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, two thirds of these 90% were reported to be due to physical
Ohio, initially proved by them on December 17, 1903 at defects (6).
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, was followed in the years before The U.S. medical personnel thought that a considerable
World War I by flight schools and derivative aircraft in proportion of the physical defects leading to accidents ‘‘are
all parts of the world. Large dirigibles also evolved, and the immediate or late effects of strain on the circulation
the German Naval Airship Division conducted air raids under the influence of low oxygen tension in the air’’ (6).
over London, flying at 5,000 to 6,000 m (16,400–20,000 ft) Some soldiers disqualified for further combat because of
whenever possible to avoid airplane attacks. Eight hours battle fatigue, shell shock, and neurocirculatory asthenia
of cold, hypoxia, and engine noise caused documented became pilots. The Royal Air Force (RAF) of the United
dizziness, tinnitus, headache, increased heart and respiration Kingdom started a Care of Flyer Service. This activity
rates, and fatigue. The supplied compressed oxygen had an reduced pilot deficiency accidents over 2 years from 60%
unpleasant oily taste. Crewmembers and commanders were to 12%. Improved physical standards, examinations, flight
reluctant to use oxygen, despite symptoms, because to do training, and attention to physical and emotional problems
so was considered as a sign of weakness. Liquid oxygen was undoubtedly contributed to this decline.
later used because more could be carried, weight for weight, Even so, many aces had physical defects that would be
than as a gas (4). disqualifying by current standards. Roy Brown, who shot
On February 7, 1912, the U.S. War Department pub- down top ace Baron Manfred von Richthofen (80 victories)
lished instructions concerning the physical examination for in 1918, had chronic stomach distress, requiring the regu-
candidates with respect to aviation duties. These instructions lar consumption of soda, milk, and brandy. American pilot
were preceded by the 1910 minimum medical standards for Elliott Springs (5 victories) consumed milk of magnesia and
military pilots that were developed in Germany, the first gin, alternately, to relieve chronic stomach symptoms. ‘‘Ed-
country to establish such standards. Soon afterward, the die’’ Rickenbacker (26 victories) required a mastoidectomy
Italian Air Medical Service followed suit. The French and during the war. French ‘‘ace of aces,’’ Georges Guynemer
British established military pilot medical standards in 1912. (53 victories) disappeared during a flight that was preceded
The U.S. military established detailed physical standards for by emotional strain and a crash-induced concussion and
aviators under the guidance of Theodore C. Lyster in 1916. knee injury.
These were published in 1919 as the Air Service Medical (6). A little-known pilot with the name of Veil, when asked
With respect to the early standards, the British empha- why he stayed with the Lafayette Flying Corps when the
sized cardiovascular performance and hypoxia tolerance with United States came into the war, stated that he would not
a rebreather bag that progressively decreased the oxygen to qualify in the U.S. air arm because he had ‘‘a game leg, a stiff
simulate the decrease in oxygen pressure at higher altitudes. neck, a hole in my groin, and a blood disease among other
The French added vestibular function and neurovascular things.’’
steadiness in the presence of an unexpected gunshot. The Britain’s top ace, 34-year-old Mike Mannock (73 vic-
Italians emphasized reaction time. When the United States tories) was nearly blind in the left eye from a congenital
acquired its first airplane in 1908, the general army duty condition. American William Thaw (5 victories), Lafayette
medical standards applied. These emphasized the dental Escadrille and later U.S. 103rd Aero Squadron, had normal
characteristics, a holdover from the Civil War era when en- vision in only one eye. Lt. Frank Alberry of Australia lost his
listed men needed to be able to pull a cork by the teeth from right leg in ground combat in 1916. He was determined to
a powder flask. The 1912 draft aviation medical standards fly as he could not be a ground troop with an artificial leg.
emphasized normal vision, normal hearing and eardrums, He sought an audience with the King, and obtained a letter
and the visual ability to determine distances. Disqualifica- of acceptance. He took this to the Air Board, went through
tion included colorblindness, acute or chronic disease of the pilot training, and shot down seven enemy aircraft. In 1921,
middle or inner ear, or auditory nerve, or any disease of the the New Australian Air Force would not accept him for flight
respiratory, circulatory, or nervous system. Equilibrium was service.
CHAPTER 1 T H E B E G I N N I N G S : PA S T A N D P R E S E N T 5
German ace Oswald Boelcke (40 victories), had severe officer were undertaken. Hunter acted as a member of a
asthmatic attacks and Georg Zeumer, skilled pilot and special board in several cases to consider whether further
1915 combat instructor of Baron von Richthofen, was a instruction of certain cadets should be continued.
‘‘lunger’’ with advanced tuberculosis, chronic coughing, and Dr. Isaac Jones believed that the doctor who flies best
a very unhealthy appearance. Flying was considered a seated understands the pilot. He taught that keeping pilots mentally
sedentary activity, a factor in the decisions to allow certain and physically fit to continue flying was the main purpose of
soldiers too impaired to be in the trenches to take to the air. flight surgeons. He reportedly said that it might take 100 years
The U.S. Army had issued orders forbidding hard land- to convince pilots not to feel that the main purpose of flight
ings and the wearing of spurs in the cockpit. In May 1917, surgeons is to find a way to not let pilots fly. Jones and Lewis
the Army established new medical standards for flight crew, probably coauthored Air Service Medical and Jones also wrote
including normal eye muscle balance, fusion, intraocular Equilibrium and Vertigo, 1918. Raymond E. Longacre, MD,
tension, visual field, near-vision accommodation, and the a 1921 graduate of the new flight surgeon school, developed
ability to clear the ears on descent. A turning chair test took for the first time a set of personality criteria for selecting
the place of the stand, walk, and hop test. Specially trained candidates for flight training. Following World War I,
physicians at 35 centers in the United States conducted the Hazelhurst Field was converted to a private airport (Roosevelt
examinations. Field), and the medical research facility was moved in 1919
Theodore C. Lyster, MD, Chief Surgeon of the U.S. to nearby Mitchel Field. In 1926 the facility again moved,
Army Aviation Section, selected in May 1917 Isaac H. this time to Brooks Field, San Antonio. Later it moved to
Jones, MD, a Philadelphia otologist, to open the first of Randolph Field and subsequently back to Brooks.
the 35 medical examination centers at the University of In 1924, the National Geographic Magazine stated,
Pennsylvania Hospital. In December, Dr. Lyster and Dr. Jones ‘‘Perhaps the most heroic test of an aviator’s grit and stamina
spent 3 months in Europe, assessing the medical problems is an altitude climb’’ (7). Rudolph W. ‘‘Shorty’’ Schroeder of
facing aviators. On return, they established the Air Service McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, began to set altitude records in
Medical Research Laboratory at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, 1918, reaching 10,093 m (33,114 ft) on February 27, 1920, his
Long Island, New York. William H. Wilmer, MD was put in third record. He used a LePere LUSAC-11 (LePere U.S. Army
charge. This new facility contained a low-pressure chamber, Combat) open cockpit American-produced two-seat biplane
allowing the program to conduct pioneering studies in that resembled the British Bristol fighter. It had a GE Moss
aviation physiology aspects and aircrew protection from supercharger powered by exhaust gases to boost air to its 400
hypoxia. hp Liberty engine. Schroeder’s oxygen gave out at the peak
The above-mentioned principals established a medical altitude and he lost consciousness. He recovered at 914.4 m
research board on October 18, 1917 to investigate conditions (3,000 ft) after losing 9,144 m (30,000 ft) in 2 minutes and
that affect the efficiency of pilots, to carry out tests on landed at the edge of the river near McCook Field. There
pilot abilities to fly at high altitudes, to carry out tests on were other problems, including ice in the oxygen tubes and
suitable equipment to supply oxygen to pilots, and to act as carbon monoxide. The flight was a major demonstration of
a standing medical board on matters relating to the physical capabilities and deficiencies in pursuing high-altitude flights.
fitness of pilots. Examination procedures and research at the John A. Macready followed the Schroeder flights in the
laboratory are provided in Air Service Medical (6). same aircraft and reached 11,521 m (37,800 ft) on September
A program at the new laboratory instituted selection 28, 1921. He wore suits of woolen underwear, his regulation
and training measures for new aeromedical examiners. uniform, a knitted wool garment, a leather suit padded with
Isaac Jones, MD, and fellow otologist, Eugene R. Lewis, down and feathers, fur-lined gloves, fleece-lined moccasins
MD, recommended that the examiners fly regularly. Lewis over the boots, and goggles treated with an antifreeze gelatin
introduced the new term for these physicians, flight surgeons. (Figure 1-1). An oxygen tube was attached to a pipestem
Pilots and commanding officers were to be counseled with mouthpiece. A mask protected the face from freezing at the
respect to an airman’s condition that warranted temporary −67◦ F range of air temperature.
or permanent ‘‘grounding.’’ Macready and Oakley Kelly made the first nonstop
The first flight surgeon to report for active duty at transcontinental airplane flight in a Fokker T-2 monoplane
a U.S. base was Capt. Robert J. Hunter. From Park Field, across the United States, departing Roosevelt Field, Long
Tennessee, Dr. Hunter submitted a report dated May 13, 1918 Island, New York, at 12:36 PM (EST) on May 2, 1923,
to Dr. Lyster documenting early efforts to reduce accidents. and landing at Rockwell Field, San Diego, California, at
The report stated that 63 candidates were interviewed, a 3:26 PM (EST) on May 3, a flight of 26 hours and 50
sick call was held on May 27, a rest period was established minutes covering 2,516 mi. The pilots had made two prior
between 11:00 AM and 3:00 PM, and athletic and recreation ‘‘endurance’’ cross-country flights in the Fokker to test their
exercises were to be held twice/week. Sanitary cups in the field physical capabilities on such long flights as well as the aircraft
and shady areas for cadets were instituted. Three nonfatal and its equipment. The pilot in the open cockpit just behind
accidents were investigated, one due to inexperience, one the engine could check the maps en route while the other
possibly due to hitting the head on the cowl during a loop, pilot in the fuselage with side windows kept the wings level
and one due to chasing a crow. Discussions with the mess with a set of controls, a ‘‘human autopilot.’’ Kelly made
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Rauhallisessa hotellissaan Lontoossa hän ajatteli asiaa
perinpohjaisesti. Hän istui kirjoituspöydän ääressä tehden
muistiinpanoja, joiden tarkoituksena oli järjellisen, tasapuolisen,
vapaamielisen amerikkalaisen käsityskannan täysin selvä
esittäminen. Vaistomainen varovaisuus sai hänet valitsemaan
Britlingin ensimäiseksi väitteittensä koetinkiveksi.
20.
Hän ojensi sormiaan. "Ensin tuo", kuiskasi hän, "ja sitten tuo. Niin
se on."
21.
Hänellä oli omituinen, järjetön tunne, että tytön pitäisi saada puoli
shillingiä tuollaisesta sähkösanomasta. Asia vaivasi häntä. Hän olisi
tahtonut antaa tyttöselle puoli shillingiä, mutta hänellä ei ollut niin
paljon kuparia; hän ei tiennyt mitä tekisi, eivätkä hänen aivonsa
toimineet. Olisi sopimatonta antaa kokonainen shilling, mutta ei hän
toisaalta voinut kuparilanttejakaan antaa niin tärkeästä asiasta kuin
Hugh'n kuolemasta. Sitten koko tuo ongelma katosi, ja hän ojensi
lapselle shillingin. Tyttö tuijotti häneen kysyvästi ja epäillen. "Tuleeko
siihen vastaus, sir?"
22.
Kaatunut.
23.
Tuntui siltä kuin hän ei milloinkaan löytäisi mitä etsi. Vihdoin se tuli
esiin, rypistynyt sähkösanoma. Hän heitti sen vaimonsa eteen, työnsi
kömpelösti tuolin pöytään ja lähti nopeasti huoneesta. Hän kuului
nyyhkyttävän. Mrs Britling ei ollut enää uskaltanut katsoa häntä
kasvoihin.
24.
"Se on sinulle niin kauheaa", sanoi hän sitten, "se on niin kauheaa.
Minä tiedän, kuinka sinä häntä rakastit…"
Sitten hän toisti tuon "rakas rukkani" kerran toisensa jälkeen, kun
ei keksinyt muuta sanomista. Hänellä oli mitä parhain halu lohduttaa
miestään, mutta aivan pian hän huomasi epäonnistuvansa
lohduttajan osaa esittäessään. Se lisäsi epäonnistumista, ja samalla
kasvoi lamaava avuttomuuden tunne entistä voimakkaammaksi…
25.
Hän sulki hiljaa oven vaimonsa mentyä.
Ja tuskin oli ovi sulkeutunut, kun hän jo unohti vaimonsa. Hän oli
heti jälleen yksin, sanomattoman yksin. Hän oli yksin tyhjässä
maailmassa…
Yksinäisyys koski häneen kuin isku. Hänellä oli monta, joista oli
huolehdittava, hänellä oli velvollisuuksia. Mutta hänellä ei ollut
yhtään, jolle olisi voinut itkeä surunsa…
26.
1.
"Ikäväksi hänen käy odottaa", sanoi hän. "Mutta pian minä siitä
säänkin selvän."
Cissie ja hän olivat istuneet ääneti tulen ääressä. Hän oli kutonut
— hän kutoi hyvin huonosti — ja Cissie oli ollut lukevinaan, mutta oli
kaikessa hiljaisuudessa pitänyt häntä silmällä. Cissie katseli hetken
harvan kutomuksen vaivalloista syntymistä ja niitä kiukkuisia
ponnistuksia, joita jokainen puikkojen liike vaati. Silloin hän ei voinut
olla tekemättä vastaväitteitä.
"Minä olen kovaa ainetta, Cissie. Minä tulen äitiin enemmän kuin
isään. Teddyä minä rakastan. Hänelle kuuluu elämän koko hellyys.
Jos hän katoaa, katoaa tuokin… Minä en aio ryömiä maailmassa
niinkuin kaikki nuo muut ynisevät lesket. Jos ne ovat tappaneet
mieheni, niin minäkin tapan. Silmä silmästä ja hammas hampaasta.
Minä pyrin niin lähelle niitä yksityisiä saksalaisia, jotka ovat tähän
sotaan syypäitä, kuin suinkin voin, ja minä tapan heidät ja heidän
omaisensa…
"Naisliitto kaikkien sodan aiheuttajien sukupuuttoon hävittämistä
varten", sinkosi hän. "Jos sattuisin kiduttamaan — mitä se haittaa?"
2.
3.
"Arvaan kyllä", virkkoi Letty, "että jos nyt sanon teille, etten usko
tuon upseerin olleen Teddyn, niin te luulette minun olevan päästäni
vialla… Mutta minä en sitä usko."
Sitten hän puki ylleen hatun ja viitan, painoi hatun lujasti päähän
ja sanoi jotakin, mitä Cissie ei heti ymmärtänyt.
4.
5.
Cissie oli osannut arvioida sisarensa sielullisen tilan aivan oikein.
Kostonunelma ei ollut vielä vallannut Lettyn mieltä niin lujasti, että
hän olisi kyennyt kestämään Teddyn kuolemaa koskevain sitovain
todisteiden antamaa iskua. Letty lähti auringonpaisteeseen
maailmaan, nyt melkein täysin varmana siitä, että Teddy oli kuollut,
ja hyvin tietäen, että hänen draamalliset ja kauhistuttavat
kostosuunnitelmansa olivat kadonneet. Hän tiesi todellisuudessa
olevansa kykenemätön mitään sellaista suorittamaan…
Näihin asti hänessä oli ollut vihainen tunto, että Teddy oli häneltä
ryöstetty — ikäänkuin Teddyä olisi pidetty häneltä piilossa. Nyt ei
enää ollut Teddyä ryöstettävissä…
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