©Deeper Life High School.

2023

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 SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

SEQUENCES 1. Sequences and Types.
1 2. Arithmetic progression
3. Geometric progression

SERIES 1. Definition of series.

2 2. Arithmetic series
3. Geometric series
4. Sum to infinity

VECTORS 1
(a) Scalars and Vectors
3 (b) Types of vectors.
(c) Components of vectors
(d) Algebra of vectors
(e) The triangle law, parallelogram law and Resolution of vectors
(f) Position vectors

VECTORS 2 1. Scalar multiplication of vectors

2. Unit vector
4 3. Direction cosines
4. Scalar (dot) product: Application of scalar (dot) product.
5. Projections of vectors
6. Application of scalar product

RELATIVE 1. Displacement/Relative displacement

VELOCITY
2. Acceleration
5 3. Relative velocity
4. Motion of word problem

6 VECTORS IN THREE (a) Scalars Product of Vectors in Three Dimensions

DIMENSIONS (b) Application of Scalar Product

7 MID-TERM BREAK
THE STRAIGHT LINE (I) mid- point of a segment (ii) Gradient of a straight line (iii) Distances
1 between two points (iv) Conditions for parallelism and
6 perpendicularity (v) angles between two intersecting lines.

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 THE STRAIGHT LINE (i) Equation of line
9 2
(ii)Areas of triangles and quadrilateral
(iii)Transform relationship into linear form
(iv) Locus of points.
(v) Determination of law.

10 REVISION
11 EXAMINATION
12
13

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WEEK: ONE (1)

TOPIC: SEQUENCES

CONTENT:
1. Sequences and Types.
2. Arithmetic progression
3. Geometric progression
LESSON OBJECTIVES

Students should be able to:

1. Define a sequence;
2. Find the nth term of a sequence;
3. Solve problems on arithmetic and geometric progression.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners are familiar with patterns of various numerical figures.

SUB-TOPIC 1: SEQUENCE AND TYPES

A sequence is a succession of terms generated according to some rules or laws. Examples are: (a) 1, 3, 5, 7
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … (c) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … (d) 𝑥, 𝑥 2, 𝑥3, 𝑥4, 𝑥5, …
Every member of each set is called a term. The three dots after each set show that the set of the numbers or
terms continues definitely. The terms of a sequence are sometimes called elements of the sequence. When
the number of terms in a sequence is limited, the sequence is said to be finite. On the other hand, if the
number of elements in a sequence is unlimited or otherwise, the sequence is said to be infinite.
Finite sequences may be specified by listing the elements of the sequence and this list may be complete or
incomplete. They can also be specified by a functional relation.
An infinite sequence can also be specified by an incomplete list of its terms or by a functional relation.
Sequence (a) above is an example of a finite sequence. It has four terms. The sequences (b), (c) and (d) above
are examples of infinite sequences. We may write the terms of a sequence as 𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3, 𝑢4, …
The general terms or the 𝑘th term can be designated 𝑢k. The 𝑛th term is 𝑢n by this designation.
Example:
1
1. Given that 𝑢k= 𝑘2 , (𝑘 = 1,2,3, . . ). write the first four terms of the sequence.
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Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑢k= 𝑘2⇒ 𝑢1= 1, 𝑢2= 4 , 𝑢2= 9 , 𝑢 3= 16 . Hence, the first four terms of the sequence are 1, 4 , 9 , 16.

A sequence of numbers can be generated in any fashion as long the pattern is consistent. When we can
identify the pattern of the sequence, our immediate task will be to find a formula for the general term of the
sequence which is usually designated as Tn and it is usually a function of 𝑛.
Two important types of sequences are the arithmetic sequence and geometric sequence. The pattern of
generating the arithmetic sequence is by adding or subtracting a constant number to a preceding term to get
the terms while the geometric sequence is generated by multiplying or dividing a constant number with a
preceding term to get the terms.
Other popular types of sequences include: Triangular numbers and Fibonacci sequence. A triangular number
is an integer that can be depicted by a triangular array of dots.

● ● ● ●
●● ●● ●●
●●● ●●●
●●●●
1 3 6 10
The sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21,… constitute triangular numbers and it is neither arithmetic nor geometric. If
𝒏
Tn is nth term of the sequence, it can be shown that: Tn = 𝟐 (𝒏 + 𝟏). Note that the sum of two consecutive
terms of triangular number is a square, i.e.𝑻𝒏−𝟏 + 𝑻𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 . E.g. 0 + 1 = 12 , 1 + 3 = 22 , 3 + 6 = 32 , 6 +
10 = 42 , 10 + 15 = 52 i.e. 12 , 22 , 32 , 42 , 52 , …
The relation above is called a recurrence relation. Consider the sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,… , generated from
recurrence relation𝑻𝒏−𝟏 + 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑻𝒏+𝟏 . This sequence is called Fibonacci sequence. It was discovered by
Fibonacci, an Italian mathematician, in 1202 A.D.
Example:
Find the second and fourth terms of the sequence whose general term is given by:
1 1 𝑛+1
a. 3 + 7𝑛 b)50 − 2 𝑛 c) 7 × 3n d)5 × (2)n-2 e) 3𝑛+2

Solution:
a. Tn= 3 + 7𝑛: T2= 3 + 7(2) = 17 and T4= 3 + 7(4) = 31
1 1 1
b. Tn= 50 − 2 𝑛: T2= 50 − 2 (2) = 49 and T4= 50 − 2 (4) = 48
c. Tn= 7 + 3n: T2= 7 + 32= 63 and T4= 7 + 34= 567
1 1 1 5
d. Tn= 5 × (2)n-2 T2= 5 × (2)2-2= 5 and Tn= 5 × (2)4-2= 4
𝑛+1 2+1 3 4+1 5
e. Tn= 3𝑛+2: T2= 3(2)+2 = 8 and Tn= 3(4)+2 = 14

A sequence of numbers can be generated in any fashion as long as the pattern by which the terms are
generated is consistent. Two importance ways by which a sequence can be generated are:
a. By adding or subtracting a constant number to a preceding term to get a term. A sequence generated
in this way, is called linear sequence or an arithmetical progression.
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By multiplying or dividing a preceding term by a constant number to get a term. A sequences generated in this
way is called an exponential sequence or geometrical progression.
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Define sequence
2. Explain with examples (a) finite and (b) infinite sequence.
3. Mention two ways a sequence can be generated and write out their names.
1 𝑛−1
4. A sequence of numbers 𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3, 𝑢4… 𝑢 n satisfies the relation 𝑢n= 𝑢n-1 + (3) for all positive integers
𝑛 ≥ 1. if 𝑢1=1,
(a) Write down the expression for 𝑢1, 𝑢2 and 𝑢4
(b) Obtain an expression for 𝑢n in its simplest form.
(c) Find an expression value of 𝑢n for large values of n.

SUB-TOPIC 2: LINEAR SEQUENCE OR ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

This is a sequence in which each term differs from the preceding term by a constant amount called the
common difference.
If the first term is 𝑎 and the common difference is 𝑑 then the sequence takes the form: 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 +
3𝑑, … Thus, if 𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3, 𝑢4… 𝑢n are the n terms of the sequence then: 𝑢1 = 𝑎; 𝑢2= 𝑎 + 𝑑; 𝑢3= 𝑎 + 2𝑑;
𝑢4= 𝑎 + 3𝑑; . . . ; 𝒖n= 𝒂 + (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒅. Linear sequence or arithmetic sequence is sometimes called an
arithmetic progression (AP).
Examples:
2. The eleventh term of an A.P is 25 and its
1. Find the common difference in each of the
first term is −3, find its common difference.
following arithmetic sequence:
(WAEC).
a. 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, …
b. 83, 77, 71, 65, … Solution:
Solutions: Let the common difference be 𝑑, then: Let the 𝑛th term be 𝑢n and the first term 𝑎; Let 𝑑
be common difference.
a. 𝑑 = 8 − 5 = 11 − 8 = 14 − 11 = 17 −
14 = 3 Then: 𝑢n= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ⇒ 25 = −3 + (11 −
b. 𝑑 = 77 − 83 = 71 − 77 = 65 − 71 = −6 4
1)𝑑 ⇒ 25 = −3 + 10𝑑 ⇒ 10𝑑 = 28 ∴ 𝑑 = 2 5.

Arithmetic Mean: Suppose 𝑦 is a number between two numbers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 such that 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 are in
arithmetical progression. The number 𝑦 is called the arithmetic mean of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧. Thus, if 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 are in
arithmetical progression, then the common difference 𝑑is given as:
𝑥+𝑧
𝑑 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 . Also, 𝑑 = 𝑧 − 𝑦 ∴ 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑧 − 𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑧, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 = 2

Example: Let 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

1. Find the arithmetic mean of 6 and 24. 6 + 24 30
𝑚= = = 15.
2 2
Solution:

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 2. Find 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 given that 17, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 33 are 𝑢n= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ⇒ 𝑢5= 𝑎 + 4𝑑 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎 =
terms of an arithmetic sequence. 17 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 4𝑑 ⇒ 17 + 4𝑑 = 33 ⇒ 4𝑑 = 16 ∴
𝑑 = 4.
Solution:
𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 17 + 4 = 21; 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑
= 17 + 8 = 25; 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑
= 29.
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. A sequence of numbers is shown below. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 ... ...

(a) Find an expression for the nth term of the sequence. .........................
(b) Explain why 95 will not be a term in this sequence.

2. The nth term of a sequence is 3n - 2 (a) Write down the first two terms of this sequence.
1st term ..............., 2nd term………………..
(b) Which term of the sequence is equal to 70? .........................
(c) Explain why 101 is not a term in the
3. Find the 6th term of an arithmetic sequence whose first term is 3 and whose common difference is 5.
4. The first term of an A.P. is equal to twice the common difference d. Find, in terms of d, the 5 th term of
the A.P.

SUB-TOPIC 3: EXPONENTIAL OR GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE (G.P):

This is a sequence in which the ratio of each term (except the first) to the preceding term is a constant. This
constant is called the common ratio. If the first term is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟 then the sequence has the
form 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟2, 𝑎𝑟3, ...
Thus, 𝑢1= 𝑎𝑟0; 𝑢2= 𝑎𝑟1; 𝑢3= 𝑎𝑟2; 𝑢4= 𝑎𝑟3. . . 𝒖n= 𝒂𝒓n-1. Hence, the 𝑛th term is 𝑢n= 𝑎𝑟n-1
Examples: Solution:
1. Find the common ratio in each of the Let: 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 2, 𝑎 =
following 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢 5= 𝑓𝑖𝑓𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟4.
2
a. 18, 6, 2, 3 , … ∴ 𝑢5= 𝑎𝑟4= 𝑎 × 24= 16𝑎.
1 1 1
b. 1, − 2 , 4 , − 8 , …
Also, 𝑢5= 45 ⇒ 16𝑎 − 𝑎 = 45 ⇒ 15𝑎 = 45 ∴
Solutions: 𝑎 = 3 ⇒ 𝑢5= 3 × 24= 48.

let 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Class activity: Find the 10th term of the sequence
96, 48, 24, …
6 12 24
a. 𝑟 = 3 = = 12 = 2
1
6
1 1
Geometric progression mean: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 be
− − 1 consecutive terms of an exponential sequence and
2 4 8
b. 𝑟 = = 1 = 1 = −2
1 − 𝑟the common ratio, then by definition
2 4
2. The common ratio of a G.P is 2. If the fifth
𝑏
term is greater than the first term by 45, 𝑟= … … … … … … … … . (𝑖) 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑟
find the 5th term (WAEC). 𝑎
𝑐
= … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑏
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Equating (i) and (ii) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be the two geometric means between
𝑏 𝑐 6 and 162. Then 6, 𝑝, 𝑞, 162 consecutive terms of a
=𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏2= 𝑎𝑐 ∴ 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑐 geometric progression.
𝑎

We call 𝑏 the geometric mean of 𝑎 and 𝑐. 𝑢1= 𝑎 = 6 … … . . 𝑖and𝑢4= 𝑎𝑟3= 162 … … … … … 𝑖𝑖

Examples: Dividing (i) and (ii) we have: 𝑟3= 27 ⇒𝑟=
3 ∴ 𝑝 = 𝑢2= 𝑎𝑟 = 6 × 3 = 18
1. Insert two geometric mean between 6 and
162. 𝑞 = 𝑢3= 𝑎𝑟2= 54.
Solution:
PRACTICE EXERCISE
16
1. I f 9 , 𝑥, 1, 𝑦 are in Geometric Progression, find the product of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
2. The first and third terms of a G.P. are 5 and 80 respectively. What is the 4 th term?
CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST
1
1. Which term of the sequence 128, 64, 32 …, is 8 ?
2. The fifth, ninth and sixteenth terms of a linear sequence(A.P) are consecutive terms of an exponential
sequence(G.P).
a. Find the common difference of the linear sequence in terms of the first term.
b. Show that the twenty – first, thirty – seventh and sixty – fifth terms of the linear sequence are
7
consecutive terms of an exponential sequence whose common ratio in the common ratio is 4.
3. Find the common ratio in the G.P: 𝑙𝑜𝑔3, 𝑙𝑜𝑔9, 𝑙𝑜𝑔81, …
4. The first and last terms of an A.P are 2 and 125 respectively. If the fifth term is 14, find the number of
terms in the A.P. (WAEC).
5. Find the nth term of the sequence 2, 12, 36, 80…

ASSIGNMENT
1. A sequence 𝑢r is defined as 𝑢r = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑏𝑟 2 and 𝑢1 = 4, 𝑢2 = 6.
(i) Find the values of a and b
(ii) Using (i) obtain the general formula for 𝑢r in terms of r only.
2. Consider the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, … where 𝑢n+2 = 𝑢n + 𝑢n+1 .Find the next two
terms
3. The 10th, 4th and 1st terms of an A.P. are the three consecutive terms of a G.P. Find the common ratio
of the G.P.
4. If the sum of the 8th and 9th terms of a linear sequence is 72 and the 4th term is – 6 , find the common
difference.
5. Insert three arithmetic mean between – 3 and 5

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 SEQUENCE
 COMMON (RATIO/DIFFERENCE)
 PROGRESSION (ARITHMETIC OR LINEAR/GEOMETRIC OR EXPONENTIAL)
 MEAN(ARITHMETIC/GEOMETRIC)
 TERM(S) {nth term/general term}
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Two mothers and 2 daughters each had 1 egg for breakfast, but they only ate 3 eggs all
together. How can this be?

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

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 WEEK: TWO (2)

TOPIC: SERIES

CONTENT:
1. Definition of series.
2. Arithmetic series
3. Geometric series
4. Sum to infinity
LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. . Define series;
2. Find the sum of series;
3. Solve problems on arithmetic and geometric progression;
4. Sum to infinity

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners have knowledge of sequence in the previous class

SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF SERIES/ARITHMETIC SERIES

Series is the summation (addition) of the terms of a sequence. For example, the series equivalent of the
sequence 1,2,3,4,… is 1+2+3+4+… . If the sequence contains finite numbers of terms, then the corresponding
series is finite. If the sequence contains infinite numbers of terms, then the corresponding series is infinite.

Arithmetic Series:
These are series formed from an arithmetic progression. Where l is the nth term, a is the first term and d is the
e.g. common difference.

1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + … Rewriting the series above starting with the nth/last

term, we have.
In general, if Sn is the sum of n terms of an arithmetic
series then Sn = l +(l - d) + (l - 2d) +… + (a + d) + a ………………………….(2)

Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … + (l - d) +l …………………….. Adding equation (1) and (2) we have

(1)
2Sn = (a + l) + (a + l) + … + (a + l) + (a + l) in n places

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 2Sn = n(a + l) Sn = n/2 {2a + (n - 1) d}
From (*) above;
Sn = n/2(a + l) 117 = 9/2 {2a + (9 - 1) d}
But l is the nth term i.e a + (n - 1) d 117 = 9/2 x 2a + 9/2 x 8d
117 = 9a + 36d
n
Sn= /2{a +a + (n - 1)d}
Divide through by 9 to have;
Sn = n/2 {2a + (n - 1)d}
13 = a + 4d ---------------------- (1)
Example1 :
From (**) above;
Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the series
3+5+7+9+ … 221 = 13/2 {2a + (13 - 1) d}

221 = 13/2 x 2a + 13/2 x 12d

Solution:
221 = 13a + 78d
a = 3d = 2n = 20
Divide through by 13 to have;
Sn = n/2 {2a +(n - 1)d}
17 = a + 6d ---------------------- (2)
S20 = 20/2 {2x3 +(20 - 1)2}
From equation (1) and (2)
S20 = 10{6 + 19 x 2} Eqn. (1): 13 = a + 4d
= 10{6 + 38} Eqn. (2): 17 = a + 6d
= 10{44} -4 = -2d
d = -4
 S20 = 440 -2
 d = 2.
Example 2:
(ii) From equation (1) we have
The sum of the first 9 terms of an A.P is 117 and the 13 = a + 4 x 2
sum of the next 4 terms is 104. 13 = a + 8
Find the (i) Common difference a = 13 – 8
 a=5
(ii) First term (iii) a = 5
(iii)25th term of the A.P(WAEC) d=2
n = 25
Solution:
T1, T2, T3, T4 … T8, T9, T10, T11, T12, T13 Tn = a + (n - 1) d
117 104 T25 = 5 + (25 - 1) 2

S9 = 117 ------------------------- (*) = 5 + 24 x 2

n=9
since a sequence is normally summed from the first term = 5 + 48
S9 + 4 = 117 + 104 T25 = 53
 S13 = 221 -------------- (**)
n = 13

PRACTICE EXERCISE

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(1) Find the sum of all the multiples of 3 between3 to 301. Hence find the sum of all the numbers between 100 and 301
(inclusive), which are not multiples of 3.

(2) What is the least number of terms of the series 5 + 11 + 17 + … which must be added to give a sum greater than 1000
?

SUB-TOPIC 2: Geometric series

The general expression for a geometric series is given as Example 2: A G.P. has a common ratio of 2. Find the value
of n for which the sum of 2n terms is 33 times the sum of
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + … + arn-1 ----- (1)
n terms.
Where Sn represent the sum of n terms of the series
Solution:
Multiply both sides of equation (1) by r to have 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1) 𝑎(𝑟 2𝑛 −1)
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑟−1
, therefore 𝑆2𝑛 = 𝑟−1
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + --- + arn ---- (2)
The value of n for which the sum of 2n terms is 33 times
Subtract (2) from (1) to have the sum of n terms is gotten by equating 𝑆𝑛 to 𝑆2𝑛
Sn– rSn = a - arn 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1) 𝑎(𝑟 2𝑛 −1)
i.e.33 = ; simplifying the equation we
𝑟−1 𝑟−1
Sn (1 - r) = a(1 - rn) obtain
𝒂(𝟏−𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟏−𝒓
…………………… (3) 33(𝑟 𝑛 − 1) = 𝑟 2𝑛 − 1 since r was given as 2, then by
substituting we get
If the numerator and denominator of equation (3) is
multiplied by –1. 33(2𝑛 − 1) = 22𝑛 − 1; re-arranging, we obtain
33(2𝑛 ) − 33 − 22𝑛 + 1 = 0
𝒂(𝒓𝒏 −𝟏)
𝑺𝒏 = -------------------- (4)
𝒓−𝟏 Let 2𝑛 = 𝑦, it implies that 33(2𝑛 ) − 33 − 22𝑛 + 1 = 0
becomes
If r < 1, formula (3) is more convenient
33𝑦 − 32 − 𝑦 2 = 0; solving for y we obtain
If r >1, formula (4) is more convenient
𝑦 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 32 i.e. 2𝑛 = 1 𝑜𝑟 2𝑛 = 32
Example 1:
Hence n = 0 or n = 5
Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the G.P 3, 6, 12,
Sum of a Geometric series to infinity
24, …
Solution: Example 3: The 3rd and 6th terms of a G.P. are
2 8
a = 3n = 8r = 2 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 respectively. Find its sum to infinity.
3 81
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
𝑆𝑛 = r>1 Solution:
𝑟−1
2
3(28 −1) 𝑎𝑟 2 = 2 3 ………………….. (1)
𝑆𝑛 = 2−1
8
𝑎𝑟 5 = 81 …………………… (2)
= 3 (255)
8
S8 = 765 Dividing equation 2 by equation 1 we obtain 𝑟 3 = 81 ÷
2
23

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 8 3 𝒂
𝑟 3 = 81 × 8 ; simplifying we get Sum to infinity of a G.P. (𝑆∞ ) is given by 𝑺∞ = 𝟏−𝒓
1 1
provided – 1 ≤ r ≤ 1
𝑟 3 = 27 , therefore 𝑟 = 3
24
1
Hence 𝑆∞ = 1
Substituting 𝑟 = in equation 1 we get 𝑎 = 24 1−
3 3

= 36
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1 1
(1) The sum to infinity of a G.P. is 3
, and 𝑎 = 12. Find r.
(2) How many terms of the series 3, - 6, +12, - 24,… are needed to make a total of 1 - 28 ?
(3) If 7 and 189 are the first and fourth terms of a G.P. respectively, find the sum of the first three terms of the
progression.

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST
1 1
(1) What is the difference between the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 2 + 1 + 2 + 4 +…, and its sum to
infinity?
(2) Find the of sum of first 20 terms of the series 8, 12, 16… 96.
(3) The sum of the first 2 terms of an A.P. is 24. The sum of the 4th and 5th terms is 36. Find its common difference.
(4) The sum of the first three terms of a geometric progression is half its sum to infinity. Find the positive common
ratio of the progression.
3
(5) The sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression is given by 𝑆𝑛 = 6 −
2𝑛−1

ASSIGNMENT

(1) 𝑆𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 2(2𝑛 − 1) is the sum of the first n terms of a series. Find the first four terms, and the nth
term.
3
(2) If the sum to infinity of the series 𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯ is 8, find the value of 𝑥

1 𝑛 1 𝑛
The nth term of a series is given by 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎( ) + 𝑏( ) , where a and b are constants. Use this information to
3 2
answer questions 3 and 4

(3) Find an expression for 𝑆𝑛 , the sum of the first n terms

(4) State the limiting value of 𝑆𝑛 as n increases indefinitely.
(5) A sequence is formed by adding corresponding terms of an A.P. and a G.P. , with r=2. The first, second
and third terms of the sequence are 3,7 and 12 respectively. Find the A.P. and the G.P., and give an
expression for the sum of the first n terms of the sequence.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 SERIES (GEOMETRIC AND ARITHMETIC)

 SUM TO INFINITY

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  LIMITING VALUE

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

You planted sunflower seeds in your garden. Every day, the number of flowers doubles. If it
takes 52 days for the flowers to fill the garden, how many days would it take for them to fill
half the garden?

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

Successful people do what unsuccessful people are not willing to do. Don’t wish it were easier; wish you were better.

………Jim Rohn

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 WEEK: THREE (3)

TOPIC: VECTORS 1

CONTENT:

(a) Scalars and Vectors

(b) Types of vectors.
(c) Components of vectors
(d) Algebra of vectors
(e) The triangle law, parallelogram law and Resolution of vectors
(f) Position vectors
LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. State the difference between vectors and scalars;

2. Perform simple operation on vectors;
3. Determine the sum, difference of any combination of vectors lying in a plane;
4. Resolve vectors in a given direction;
5. Solve problems on position vectors.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners are familiar with resolution of right-angled triangle.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Scalars and Vectors/Types of vectors

Scalars and Vectors Besides temperature, mass and density, other examples
There are two kinds of physical quantities of scalars are; energy, speed, length and time.
1. Those which have only magnitude Suppose an engine boat moves with a velocity
2. Those which have both magnitude and direction of 10knots, 450 East of North, then the displacement of
When we talk of the temperature of a patient as the boat can be found at any given time if we know the
exceeding the normal body temperature of 98.40F or starting point. We have two types of displacement
the mass of a luggage as 34kg, or the density of dry air namely;
at STP as 1.293kg.m-3 etc, we are referring to some Localized or free displacement: for example, a
specific magnitude in each case and these quantities go displacement 40km east is the same in Lagos as in
by the name scalars. Accra.
Definition: A scalar is that quantity which possesses
only magnitude
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Line located displacement; as in forces. When a force The length or magnitude of a vector a is denoted lal.
acts on a body, the body tends to move in the direction The magnitude of a vector is sometimes called its
of the line of force. Modulus or Absolute value or Numerical value.
All quantities that behave or have the same Vector which has a magnitude of zero and no particular
characteristics as displacement are called Vectors. direction is called a Zero vector or Null vector and is
Definition: denoted by 0.
A vector quantity is that which has magnitude, direction A vector which has an absolute value of unity is called a
and sense. The following are vector quantities; force, Unit vector.
momentum, velocity, acceleration, displacement, The vector which has the same absolute value as a
electric field strength and magnetic induction. Vectors vector a but a direction opposite to the vector a is called
which have no particular directions associated with the Negative vector of a and is denoted –a.
them are called Free Vectors. We shall denote the unit vector in the direction of the
A vector which is located along a straight line is called a vector a by â and is such that
Line located vector. Force is an example of a line a = l a l â.
located vector. When a vector is applicable to a Two vectors which have the same magnitude and are in
particular point, it is called Point located vector. the same direction are said to be Equivalent.
In printed work, vectors will be shown in print to
distinguish them from scalars that are in light print.
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. What is a scalar quantity?

2. Define a vector quantity?
3. Enumerate three examples of scalar
4. Define the followings.
(i) Free vectors
(ii) Line located vector
(iii) Pointed located vector
(iv) Modulus
(v) Unity
(vi) zero vector
(vii) Equivalent
SUB-TOPIC 2: Algebra of vector/Triangle and parallelogram laws of vector

ALGEBRA OF VECTORS
Let identified vector routes as a direct journey from one point to the other and also as a journey on the sides of a
right – angle triangle. In this part, we wish to establish that the third vector route can take the form of travelling by
the direct – route. Two vectors or more can be added if their line segments are placed end to end. The sum of two or
more vectors is called the resultant and it is represented by the line segment from the initial point of the first vector
to the final point of the last vector.

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There are two ways of moving from P to R.
(i) One can move from P to Q and then move from Q to R
(ii) One can move directly from P to R
The vector PRis called the sum or resultant of the vectors PQand QR. We can write this as
PR = PQ + QR.

Suppose we denote PQ by u and QR by v then PR is the vector u + v. In other words.

PR = u + v

You can see that the above figure is a triangle, hence the law that PR = PQ + QR is called Triangle law of vector
addition. The triangle law states: when two coplanar vectors u and v are added, their sum is u + v and if u and v are
the sides of a triangle, then their third side is u + v.

u-v
O Q

-v
u

v+u R
v

P
In the triangle above, R is the mid – point of PQ
RP = -RQ
OR – RP = OR + (-RP)
= OR + PR
= OR + RQ
= OQ
Suppose
OR = u, RP = v and RQ = -v
Then
OP = u + v
OQ = u – v
A C
a+b
a

O
B
Given two vectors a and b which are not parallel, then it is possible to draw a parallelogram with sides equal to IaI
and IbI respectively. The sum of a and b is equal to the vector representation of one of the diagonals of the
parallelogram. This is the import of the parallelogram law of vector addition which states that the resultant of two
vectors is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the two vectors.
From the figure,
OB + OA = OB + BC
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 = OC
i.e. b + a = OC
Definition: The addition of the vectors a and b which are not parallel is a + b and this sum is the vector
representation of one of the diagonals of a parallelogram whose sides are a and b.
Note that if the vectors are parallel then we cannot draw a parallelogram with these parallel sides forming
adjacent sides.
If a, b and c are vectors, then under addition the following properties hold:
1. a + b is a vector demonstrating closure
2. a + b = b – a, the commutative law
3. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), the associative law
4. There is a unique vector 0, with the property that; for any other vector a,
a + 0 = 0 + a = a, property of identity
5. a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0, property of inverse.

Q
S

R
P

RS = PQ or a
The magnitude of the vector quantity is written IPQI, or IaI, or simply PQ or a.
Note that QP would represent a vector quantity of the same magnitude but with opposite sense.
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line drawn so that;
The length of the line denotes the magnitude of the quantity, according to some stated vector scale.
The director of the line denotes the direction in which the vector quantity acts. The sense of the direction is indicated by
an arrowhead.

Example 1: Find the sum of the vectors PQ, 2RS, SP and Example 2: PQRS is a quadrilateral, with M and N as the
–RQ midpoints of SP and RQ respectively. Show that PQ + SR
Solution: To solve this type of problem, we may or may = 2MN.
not draw a diagram. All we need do is to arrange the Solution: since M is midpoint of SP, then SM = MP.
vectors in such a way that letters follow the natural Similarly, RN = NQ since N is the midpoint of RQ.
order P , Q , R and S. Vectorially, PQ+MP+QN = MN …………………………..(1)
Therefore, PQ+2RS+SP – RQ = PQ – RQ + SP + 2RS MS +SR + RN = MN…………………………..(2)
= PQ + QR + RS + RS + SP Adding equations (1) and (2) and substituting – MS for
= PS + RP MP and – NR for NQ , we get
= RS 2MN = PQ +(- MS)+QN +MS+SR+NQ
2MN = PQ +SR since QN = -NQ
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Find the sum of the following vectors:

(a) AB, -DC, BC and CE (b) PR, - SR, ST and – QT

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 2. PQRS is a quadrilateral, with M and N as the mid – points of the diagonals PR and QS respectively. Show that PQ
+ PS +RQ +RS = 4MN
SUB-TOPIC 3: Resolution of vectors/component of vectors
If c is the resultant of vectors a and b, i.e. c = a + b then the vectors a and b, are known as the components in the
direction of vector c.
B

A C

In the diagram above, AC + CB = AB by triangle law. The vectors AC and CB are the components of AB.
Instead of using arbitrary axes, it is common to resolve a vector into components parallel to the rectangular axes which
are perpendicular to each other. When such is done, we choose unit vectors 𝒊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒋 with the same directions and senses
as the positive OX and OY axes.
Y

R(x,y)

r y

O x X
N

From the diagram above, ON = NR = 𝑦𝒋

Let OR = r. Then, OR = ON + NR
= 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋
Therefore, r =𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋

Example1: If 𝒑 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋, 𝒒 = 3𝒊 + 5𝒋and 𝒓 = 𝒊 + 𝟒−𝟒+𝟑

𝒋find 2p + q + 3r = ( 𝟏𝟐−𝟔−𝟑 )
−𝟒+𝟖+𝟑
Solution: 2p + q + 3r =2 (2𝒊 − 3𝒋) + 3𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 3 (𝒊 + 𝒋)
𝟑
= 4𝒊 − 6𝒋 + 3𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 3𝒊 + 3𝒋 = (𝟑 )
= 10𝒊 + 2𝒋 𝟕
Example 2: The vectors 𝒂, 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄are given by:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒂=(𝟑) 𝒃=(𝟑) 𝒄 = (−𝟏) . Find 4𝒂 − 2𝒃 + 𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟒 𝟏 Alternative method: 𝒂 = ( 𝟑 )can be written as 𝒂 = 𝒊 +
3𝒄 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 3𝒋 − 𝒌; ∴ 4𝒂 = 4𝒊 + 12𝒋 − 4𝒌
Solution: 4𝒂 − 2𝒃 + 3𝒄 =4 ( 𝟑 ) − 2( 𝟑 ) + 𝟐
Similarly, 𝒃 = ( 𝟑 )can be written as 𝒃 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 4𝒌;
−𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟒
𝟏 ∴ 2𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 8𝒌
3 (−𝟏) 𝟏
𝟏 Also, 𝒄 = (−𝟏)can be written as 𝒄 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌; ∴ 3𝒄 =
𝟏
3𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 3𝒌
𝟒 𝟒 𝟑 Therefore,4𝒂 − 2𝒃 + 3𝒄 = 4𝒊 + 12𝒋 − 4𝒌 − (4𝒊 + 6𝒋 −
= ( 𝟏𝟐 ) − ( 𝟔 ) + (−𝟑)
−𝟒 −𝟖 𝟑 8𝒌) + 3𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 3𝒌
= 3𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 7𝒌
PRACTICE EXERCISE

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 1. Given that 𝒑 = 𝟓𝒊 − 3𝒋and𝒒 = 4𝒊 + 7𝒋, find the scalar m and n such that 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 = 𝑚𝒑 + 𝑛𝒒
2. Find the resultant 𝒂 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋; 𝒃 = −4𝒊 + 5𝒋; 𝒄 = 8𝒊 − 3𝒋
SUB-TOPIC 4: Position vector
The point from which a vector begins is called its origin. The sense of the vector is always indicated by arrows pointing
out from that origin. The position vector of a point P relative to origin, O, is defined as the vector OP. If we represent OP
by 𝒑 then the vector 𝒑is the position vector of P.

P
Example 2: The position vector of the points A, B and C
are respectively:
q 𝒂 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌
p
𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 5𝒌
𝒄 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝒌
O Q Find the position vector of the point P which divides:
PQ = PO + OQ AB in the ratio 2:3
=- OP + OQ Solution: AP = AO + OP PB = PO + OB
=-p+q 2 = -𝒂 + p …………….. (i)
= q– p 3 = - p + 𝒃…………… (ii)
Example 1: if OP = (𝟐𝟑), OQ = (−𝟒
𝟓
𝟕
), OR = (−𝟏). Find :(i)
QP(ii) RP Dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get
−𝒂 + 𝐩 2
Solution: (i)QP = PO – OQ =
= (𝟐𝟑) − (−𝟒 ) −𝐩 + 𝒃 3
𝟓 Making p subject of the formula and substituting for
𝟔
= (−𝟐) 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃we get
3𝒂 + 2𝐛 3(2𝒊−3𝒋+𝒌) + 2(4𝒊+2𝒋+5𝒌)
P= =
(ii) RP = PO - OR 5 5
𝟐 𝟕 14𝒊−5𝒋+16𝑘
=(𝟑) − (−𝟏) =
5
−𝟓
=(𝟒)
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. The position vector of the points A, B and C are respectively:
𝒂 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒄 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝒌
Find the position vector of the point P which divides: (i) AC in the ratio 1:4 (ii) BC in the ratio 3:5
2. if OP = (𝟐𝟑), OQ = (−𝟒
𝟓
𝟕
), OR = (−𝟏 ). Find : (i) RQ (ii) PQ +RP
CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST:

1. ABCD is a quadrilateral whose sides represent vectors, find a vector equivalent to AD+DC+CB
2. Find the resultant of the vectors 𝒂 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒃 = −4𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒄 = 8𝒊 − 3𝒋
3. Find the sum of the following vectors using position vectors
(b) AB, -DC, BC and CE (b) PR, - SR, ST and – QT
4. If PQ and RS are two vectors such that PQ = 3RS, which of the following is correct?
(a) RS is thrice as long as PQ
(b) P, Q, R, S are collinear
(c) PQ is parallel to RS
(d) PQ divides RS internally.
5. State : (i) triangle law of vector (ii) parallelogram law of vector

ASSIGNMENT
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 1. If AB + AD = CB + CDprove that A and B are coincident.
2. Prove that if BC = DE+AC then BD is parallel to AE.
3. Plot on a graph paper, the points A(1,3), B(3,4), C(5,1). Find the displacement specified by AB, BC and AC. (Hint:
Let O(0,0) be the origin and apply the triangle law to triangle OAB)
4. Given OA = (𝟐𝟑), OB=(−𝟏𝟒
)and K=3, Find kAB
5. Draw on a graph paper the following vectors: OB = (4cm,0300), BC = (3cm,3000). Find vector OC given O as
origin.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 VECTOR
 SCALAR/SCALAR QUANTITY
 COMPONENT OF VECTOR
 POSITION VECTOR
 FREE VECTORS
 RESULTANT VECTOR/SUM OF TWO OR MORE VECTORS

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Mr. Lee has 4 daughters. Each of his daughters has 1 brother. How many children does Mr.
Lee have?

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

If you have a dream, don’t just sit there. Gather courage to believe that you can succeed and leave no stone unturned
to make it a reality.

……….Dr. Roopleen

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 WEEK: FOUR (4)

TOPIC: VECTOR 2

CONTENT:
1. Scalar multiplication of vectors
2. Unit vector
3. Direction cosines
4. Scalar (dot) product: Application of scalar (dot) product.
5. Projections of vectors
6. Application of scalar product
LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. Solve problems pertaining to scalar multiplication and unit vectors;

2. Solve problems on direction of cosine;
3. Find scalar product;
4. Solve problems on projection of vectors.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners are familiar with vectors which is the previous knowledge.

SUB-TOPIC 1: VECTOR MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR/UNIT VECTOR

Let say 𝑙 and m are scalars then the following laws are true for any vectors a and b:
𝑙a is also a vector
𝑙(a+ b) = 𝑙 a + 𝑙 b (distributive)
(𝑙 + m)a = 𝑙 a + ma.
If k is a scalar, then ka is a vector which is parallel to a but k times the magnitude of a. If k>0 then ka is in the same
direction of a.
However, if k<0, then ka is in a direction opposite to a
THE UNIT VECTOR
The unit vector is an important concept in the study of vectors.
The definition of unit vector was given earlier as a vector which has an absolute value of unity
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We now amplify on this concept.
̂. since a unit vector has a magnitude
If OP = ai + bj, then we represent a unit vector in the direction of p by 𝒑
equal to unity
𝑝
̂=
i.e𝒑 ̂l = 1
and l𝒑
/𝑝/

𝑎𝑖+𝑏𝑗
̂l = √𝑎2
∴l𝒑 = 1.
+𝑏2
𝑎𝑖+𝑏𝑗 𝒑
̂ in the direction of 𝒑is given by 𝒑
Thus a unit vector 𝒑 ̂= = /𝒑/
√𝑎2 +𝑏2
Example 1: Given that 𝒂 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋, 𝒃 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋, 𝒄 = 3𝒊 + Example 2: Given that 𝒂 = 3𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋, 𝒃 = 4𝒊 − 5𝒋, 𝒄 =
5𝒋. Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝒂 − 𝒄and write 𝜆𝒊 + µ𝒋 , where 𝜆 and µ are scalars, find 𝜆 anµ. If 2𝒂 +
down a vector parallel to 𝒂 − 𝒄. 3𝒃 = 𝒄.
Solution: 2𝒂 + 3𝒃 = 𝒄
Solution: 𝒂 − 𝒄 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − (3𝒊 + 5𝒋) 2(3𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋) + 3(4𝒊 − 5𝒋) = 𝜆𝒊 + µ𝒋
= −2𝒊 − 3𝒋 18𝒊 − 𝒋 = 𝜆𝒊 + µ𝒋
−2𝑖−3𝑗 𝜆 = 18, µ = −1
Unit vector in the direction of 𝒂 − 𝒄 = =
√(−2)2 +(−3)2
−2𝑖−3𝑗
√13
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Given that the vectors 3𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 and 4𝒊 + 𝒑𝒋are parallel, find the constant 𝒑
2. Given that 𝒂 = 3𝒊 + 7𝒋and 𝒃 = 5𝒊 − 12𝒋, find the unit vector in the direction of 𝒃

SUB-TOPIC 2: PROJECTION OR RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

⍬
O N A
If the position vector of the point A relative to a =/ȃ/ /b/ cos Ө
reference point o is a and that of the point B relative
Then the projection of the vector b on a is ȃ •b
to O is b, we call the length ON the projection of the
where ȃ is the unit vector in the direction of the
vector b on the vector a. If a denotes the unit vector
vector a.
in the direction of the vector a then
Also the projection of the vector a on b is a.𝒃̂ Where
a =/ậ/ and /ậ/ = 1
̂ is the unit vector in the direction of the vector b.
𝒃
Now
As the resolved part of a in the direction of b the
/on/ = /OB/ cos Ө projection of the vector a on b can also be viewed.
= /b/ cos Ө

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 /p/ = √16 + 25 = √41
Examples: Find the projection of the vector p on the p.q = (4)(-1) + (-5)(1) = -9
vector q if:
Therefore,
a. 𝒑 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒒 = −𝑖 + 4𝑗
−9 √41 −9√41
b. 𝒑 = 4𝑖 − 5𝑗𝑎𝑛𝑑𝒒 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 U2 = X =
√41 √41 41
c. 𝒑 = 6𝑖 + 2𝑗𝑎𝑛𝑑𝒒 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗
d. 𝒑 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗𝑎𝑛𝑑𝒒 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 (b) Let the projection q on p be U3, then
𝑝.𝑞
U3 = 𝐼𝑝𝐼
SOLUTION:
(a) Let the projection of q on p be u, then /P/ = √36 + 4 = √40
𝑝.𝑞
U1= /𝑝/ p.q = (6)(2) + (2)(3) = 12 + 6 = 18

/ P/ =√4 + 9 Therefore,
18 √40 18√40
= √13 U3 = X =
√40 √40 40
p.q = (2)(-1) + (3)(4) = -3 + 12 = 9 (c) Let the projection of q and p be U4, then
𝑝.𝑞
Therefore, U4 = /P/
9 √13 9√13 /p/ = √9 + 3 = √13
U1 = × =
√13 √13 13 p.q = (3)(1) + (2)(3) = 3+6 = 9
(a) Let the projection q on p be, U2, then Therefore,
𝑝.𝑞
U2 = /𝑃/ 9 √13 9√13
U4 = X =
√13 √13 13

PRACTICE EXERCISE:

For each pair of the following, find the projection of the second vector on the first vector:
(1) a = 3𝑖̂ – 4𝑗̂ and b = 5𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂
(2) m = 7𝑖̂+ 3𝑗̂ and n = 2𝑖̂–5𝑗̂
(3) x = 4𝑖̂- 5𝑗̂ andy = 3𝑖̂ - 7𝑗̂

SUB-TOPIC 3: SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT/DIRECTION COSINES

Scalar Product: Let

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written a= ax𝑖̂ + ay𝑗̂
a.b and is defined as the product of the lengths of
b=bx𝑖̂ + by𝑗̂
the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between
them. Then
Thus if Ө is the angle between the vectors a and a.b = (ax𝑖̂ + ay𝑗̂) . (bx𝑖̂ + by𝑗̂)
b then a.b =/a/ cos Ө.
= axbx𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ + axby𝑖̂.𝑗̂ + aybx𝑗̂. 𝑖̂ + ayby𝑗̂ .𝑗̂
Let 𝑖̂and𝑗̂ be two unit vectors which are
perpendicular to each other.
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As 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ are unit vectors which are mutually = √29
perpendicular to each other we have
m•n = (4)(2) + (3)(5) = 23
(a) i. i = 1X1 cos00 = 1
𝑚.𝑛 23 √29 23√29 23√29
(b) j.j = 1 X 1 cos00 = 1 Cos𝝰1= 𝐼𝑚𝐼𝐼𝑛𝐼 = 5√29 X √29 = =
5𝑋 29 145
(c) i.j =1 x 1 cos 900 =0
(d) j.i = 1 x 1 cos 900 = 0 (b). Let the angle between the vectors s and t be 𝛼 2
then
So a.b =axbx + ayby
/s/ = √49 + 16 = √65
The scalar product can be sometimes be called the
dot product. /t/ = √9 + 4 =√13
The angle between two vectors Ө can be defined s.t = (7)(3) + (-4)(-2) = 29
from the definition of scalar product.
𝑠.𝑡 29 29 √5 29√5 29√5
Cos𝝰2 = 𝐼𝑠𝐼𝐼𝑡𝐼 = = X √5 =5𝑋13 =
Thus from a.b = /a/ /b/ cosӨ , we have √55𝑋√13𝑋√13 √5𝑋13 65

𝑎.𝑏
Cos Ө = 𝐼𝑎𝐼𝐼𝑏𝐼

If a and b are parallel then Ө = 0 and a.b =/a/ /b/

𝜋
PROPERTIES OF A SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT
If a and are perpendicular then Ө = 2 and a.b =0
1. Commutative property
Example:
Let a = ax𝑖̂ + ay𝑗̂ , b = bx𝑖̂ + by𝑗̂
1. Find the dot product of the following pairs of
vectors: Then
(a) a = 𝑖̂ + 4 𝑗̂ and b = 5 𝑖̂ -3 𝑗̂ a.b =b.a
(b) p = 6𝑖̂ - 𝑗̂ and q = 2 𝑖̂ - 8𝑗̂
2. Distribution property
SOLUTION: i. 𝑎. (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎. 𝑏 + 𝑎. 𝑐
ii. if 𝑎 //𝑏𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑎. 𝑏 =/𝑎//𝑏/. In particular
(a) a.b = (𝑖̂ + 4j) . (5𝑖̂ - 3𝑗̂)
𝑎2= 𝑎. 𝑎 =/𝑎/2
=(1)(5) + (4)(-3) = 7
iii. if 𝑎⏊𝑏 then 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0
(b) p.q = (6i – j ) . (2𝑖̂ - 8𝑗̂ )
iv. Multiplication by a scalar (𝛌𝑎) . 𝑏 =
= (6)(2) + (-1)(-8) = 20
𝑎. (𝝀𝒃) = 𝝀(𝒂. 𝒃)
2. Find the cosine of the angle between the
v. If ⍬ is the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 then
following pairs of vectors; 𝑎.𝑏
(a) m = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ and n= 2𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ cos ⍬=/𝑎𝐼𝐼𝑏/
(b) S = 7𝑖̂ – 4𝑗̂ and t = 3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂
Condition for parallelism If the vector 𝑎 = 𝑎x𝑖̂+ ay𝑗̂ is
SOLUTION: parallel to the vector

(a) Let the angle between the b =bx𝑖̂ + by𝑗̂ ,

vectors m and n be 𝝰1 then 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦
i.e 𝑎 =𝛌𝑏(𝜆is a scalar) then𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏𝑦 = 𝛌
/m/ = √16 + 9
Condition for perpendicularity
/m/ = √25
If 𝑎⏊ b, i.e 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0 then 𝑎x𝑏x + 𝑎y𝑏y = 0
=5
Example:
/n/ = √4 + 25
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 1. Given that /p / =3 ,/q/ =4 and =-6, find the DIRECTION COSINES
angle between p and q (WAEC)
The direction cosines of vector 𝒓 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝒛𝒌are:
SOLUTION: 𝒙 𝑥 𝒚
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 =
|𝒓| √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 |𝒓|
Let ⍬= (𝑝. 𝑞)/(/𝑝//𝑞/) = −6/(3 × 4) =
𝑦 𝒛
−6/12 = −1/2 𝑜𝑟 − 0.5. = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 |𝒓|
𝑧
⍬ = cos-1 -0.5 = 1200. = ;
2. If 𝑎 = 3𝑖- 4𝑗 and b = 6𝑖 - 8𝑗 find the scalar √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
product of 𝑎 and 𝑎 Where α, β and λ are angles which OR makes with OX, OY
and OZ axes respectively, where O is the origin and X,Y
SOLUTION: and Z are mutually perpendicular directions in a 3 -
dimensional plane.
𝑎. 𝑏 = 3 × 6 + (−4)(−8) = 18 + 32 = 50

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Evaluate: (8𝑖 − 15). (8𝑖 − 5𝑗)

2. Given that:𝑝 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗, 𝑞 = 𝑖 + 𝑗, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 /2𝑝 − 3𝑝/
3. Find the direction cosines of vectors: (i) 𝒑 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 (ii) 𝒒 = 𝑖 + 𝑗

SUB-TOPIC 4: APPLICATION OF SCALAR PRODUCT

Example 1: The vertices A,B and C of a triangle have position vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 respectively , relative to the origin
.prove that 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Solution:
C

b a

𝜃
A c B
From the triangle above, taking A is the origin and applying dot product we get
𝒃. 𝒄 = |𝒃||𝒄|𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
By triangle law, a = b – c,
and a.a = (b – c).(b – c)
𝒂2 = 𝒃2 + 𝒄2 − 2𝒃𝒄
Substituting for , we get 𝒂2 = 𝒃2 + 𝒄2 − 2|𝒃||𝒄|𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

Example 2: A particle moves from a point with position vector 𝑖 − 2𝑗 to a point with position vector3𝑖 + 4𝑗. A constant
force𝑭 = (5𝑖 + 4𝑗)𝑁, among other forces acting on the particle is responsible for the movement. Find the work
done by the force.

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Solution: work done is defined as the product of force and displacement, and it is a scalar quantity.

∴ work done by 𝑭 = ∑ 𝑭 . 𝒓 , where 𝒓refers to the displacement of the particle.

𝒓 = (𝟑𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋) − (𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋)
𝒓 = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟔𝒋
∴Work done by 𝑭 = (𝟓𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋). (𝟐𝒊 + 𝟔𝒋)
= 10 + 24 = 34joules
PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Find the unit vector direction of vectors: (a) 𝑎 = 5𝑖 + 12𝑗 (b) 𝑏 = 8𝑖 + 15𝑗
2. Find modulus of each of the following vectors :(i) 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 (ii) 2𝑖 + 𝑗 (iii) 2𝑖 + 3𝑗
3. Find the dot product of the following pairs of vectors:(i) 8𝑖 − 3𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7𝑖 + 4𝑗 (𝑖𝑖)2𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑖 + 𝑗
4. If U,V are any two vectors, prove that |𝑼 + 𝑽|2 − |𝑼 − 𝑽|2 = 4𝑼. 𝑽. Give a geometrical interpretation of this
result when: (i)𝑼. 𝑽 = 0 (ii) |𝑼 + 𝑽| = |𝑼 − 𝑽|
5. For what values of λ are the vectors 9𝑖 + 2𝜆𝑗 and 8𝑖 − 𝜆𝑗 perpendicular

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST
2
1. Find the values of µ and λ so that the forces 𝑭1 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋, 𝑭2 = 𝜇𝒊 − 6𝒋, 𝑭3 = − 3 𝒊 − 2𝜑𝒋 may be in equilibrium.
2. For the following pair of vectors, find the projection of the second vector on the first vector: a = 3𝑖̂ – 4𝑗̂
and b = 5𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂
3. What is the unit vector which is parallel to the vector 7𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂?
4. If m = 3𝑖̂ – 4𝑗̂ and n = 5𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂ what is the cosine of the angle between m and n ?
5. Given that a= -3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ and b = 2𝑖̂ -𝑗̂, evaluate |𝟐𝒑 − 𝟑𝒒|

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 PROJECTION
 SCALAR/DOT PRODUCT
 MODULUS/MAGNITUDE
 UNIT VECTOR
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Using only addition, add eight 8s to get the number 1,000.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

When it is obvious that the goals cannot be reached, don’t adjust the goals, adjust the action steps. Confucius

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 WEEK: FIVE (5)

TOPIC: RELATIVE VELOCITY

CONTENT:
1. Displacement/Relative displacement
2. Acceleration
3. Relative velocity
4. Motion of word problem
LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of displacement, velocity and acceleration;

2. Calculate relative velocities.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners have learnt vectors previously

SUB-TOPIC 1: Relative velocity

Every object or occurrence (be it real or abstract) is relative to some other object, occurrence. If a ship has a
speed of 10m/s in still water, then we are referring to its speed relative to earth.
Note the following points when solving relative velocity problems:
1. Identify the parameters in the problem i.e. relative velocity, magnitude, direction.
2. Draw the displacement diagram.
3. Write the relative velocity equation, making use of the Domino rule; e.g. AVB =AVE+EVB i.e. the velocity
of A relative to B is equal to the velocity of A relative to the earth plus velocity of earth relative to B. This
rule can be extended to any number of terms.

Example 1: Ship A is sailing due East at 12m/s and ship B is sailing due North at 16m/s. Find the velocity of ship
B relative to ship A.

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Solution

Magnitude Direction Solution: Magnitude Direction

AVE 12m/s East AVE 15m/s North - East

BVE 16m/s North BVA 7m/s East

Since BVE = BVA + AVE and we seek BVA, then BVA Displacement diagram
= BVE - AVE
Displacement diagram: BVE
AVE AVE
A E
𝜃 135
BVA

BVA BVE Since BVE = BVA + AVE

Applying cosine rule, (BVE)2 = 72 + 152 – 2 × 7 ×

15 𝐶𝑜𝑠135
𝜃
B Therefore, BVE =20.6m/s
Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to the triangle above 15 20.55
gives: Applying sine rule, sin 𝜃 = sin 135

BVA = √(122 + 162 ) = 20𝑚/𝑠, and makes Therefore sin 𝜃 = 0.5161

3
direction 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 4)with BVE Therefore 𝜃 = 31.080
Example 2: If ship A is moving North – east at The direction is about N590E
15m/s and a second ship B appears to an observer
from A to be moving east at 7m/s. Find the actual
velocity of B.
PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. One ship is sailing due east at 24km/h and another ship is sailing due north at 32km/h. Find the velocity
of the second ship relative to the first.
2. If a ship A is moving North – East at 12km/h and an engine boat B appear to an observer from A to be
moving south at 10km/h. Find the actual velocity of ship B.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Displacement

Displacement is the distance moved by a point in a specified direction. It is a vector quantity, and therefore has
both magnitude and direction. If I walk 4km East and 3km South, then I have been displaced 5km from my
starting point, despite the fact that I have walked 7km altogether.
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 = ROPO + t(VP – VR)
4km
Hence: RtPt = ROPO+ t(VP – VR)
3km
5km i.e. displacement = time × Velocity ( of P relative to
R)
Example 1: An aircraft A flies at 800km/h due west.
The displacement of a point moving from the point
Another aircraft B, which is 20km due north of A sets
A to the point B can be with respect to the origin O ,
off to pursue A at 1200km/h. Find:
can be represented by the vector AB.
(i) The course of aircraft
If the position vectors of A and B are a and b
(ii) The time of interception of the aircraft A by
respectively, then:
the aircraft B
AB = AO + OB
Solution: the velocity diagram is shown below
= - OA + OB
=-a+b B
Relative displacement
𝜃
BVE
Rt
BVA
tVR
RO

AVE A
Let BVE = velocity of B relative to earth

PO Pt AVE = velocity of A relative to earth

tVp

BVA = velocity of B relative to A

Then, BVE = 1200

We use the diagram above to consider the AVE = 800
displacement vector of P relative to R. Let initial
800 2
position of P be PO and that of R be RO. Let the sin 𝜃 = 1200 = 3
position of P after time t be Pt, and that of R after
time t be Rt. Let the velocity of P be VP and the 𝜃 = 42° to the nearest whole number.
velocity of R be VR. After a time t, P will be at Pt so Hence, the course (direction) of aircraft B is 222°
OPt = OPO + tVP (i.e. 180° + 42°).
Similarly, ORt = ORO + tVR (ii) to get the time of interception, we consider the
displacement diagram
Considering the vector polygon above, B
RtPt = RtRo+ ROPO + POPt
𝑦 𝜃
= - tVR + ROPO + tVp 20

= ROPO + tVP – tVR

A
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Let the distance along the course be 𝑦, then Let 𝐴0 be the initial position of boat A
20 20 𝐵0 be the initial position of boat B
= cos 𝜃; i.e. = cos 42
𝑦 𝑦
𝐵𝑡 be the position of boat B at time t
20
Solving for 𝑦 we get 𝑦 = cos 42
Consider the displacement diagram below
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
time = The shortest distance between the two boats is given by
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
the length of the perpendicular from 𝐵0 to 𝐴0 𝐵𝑡 . Let
𝑦
= 1200 the perpendicular from 𝐵0 to 𝐴0 𝐵𝑡 be ℎ.
20 Then:
= cos 42 ÷ 1200
ℎ = 𝐵0 𝑁.
= 0.0224hr
ℎ
𝐴0 𝐵0
= sin 𝛽
Example 2: A boat A sails due west at 15km/h.
Another boat B, initially 40km due north of the ∴ ℎ = 40 sin 𝛽
first, sail at 10km/h on the bearing225°. Find:
Since 𝛽 + 𝛼 = 900 and 𝛼 = 41.740
(i) The shortest distance between the two
Then 𝛽 = 900 − 𝛼
boats
(ii) The time when they are at this distance. = 900 − 41.740

𝛽 = 48.260
Solution: consider the velocity diagram below
∴ ℎ = 40 sin 48.260
VA
P 45° Q = 29.85km
225°
VA – VB (ii) Let t be the time that they are at the shortest
-VB
distance apart, then
R
Where VA = velocity of boat A 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
VB = velocity of boat B 𝐴0 𝐵0
=𝑉 cos 𝛽
𝐴 −𝑉𝐵
VA - VB = velocity of boat A relative to boat B
40 cos 48.260
|𝑉𝐴 | = 15𝑘𝑚and|𝑉𝐵 | = 10𝑘𝑚 = 𝑥

Let |𝑃𝑅| = 𝒙. Then using the cosine rule; 40 cos 48.260

=
10.62
𝑥 2 = 152 + 102 − 2 × 15 × 10 cos 450
= 2.51hr
= 225 + 100 - 300 cos 450 𝐵𝑡 𝐵0
𝛼
𝒙 = 10.62
ℎ
Let 𝑄𝑃̂𝑅 = 𝛼, then using the sine rule, 40𝑘𝑚
sin 𝛼 sin 45 𝑁
10
= 10.62
;
𝛽
𝛼 = 41.740
𝐴0
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PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. A helicopter travels at 100km/h in still air. If the wind is blowing from the west at 40km/h, how long
will it take the helicopter to reach a place 250km off to the south – west?
2. A trawler A is 40km west of another traveler B. A set off at 20km/h on a course of 0600. If the trawler B
can travel at 25km/h, what course should trawler B take to intercept trawler A?

SUB-TOPIC 3: Acceleration/motion of Aircraft and Ship

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with Example 1: an aircraft flies with an air speed of
time. It is a vector quantity. If the magnitudes of 160km/h from its base P to a point Q which is 65km
accelerations represented by the adjacent sides of East and 130km North of P. The wind is blowing
a parallelogram are 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 , with the angle from the west at a speed of 32km/h. find the:
between them being β, then the magnitude of the
resultant acceleration denoted by 𝒂 is given by: (i) Direction in which it is headed
(ii) Time, to the nearest minuet, taken on its
𝒂2 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝛽. If 𝒂 = 900, then 𝒂2 = journey from P to Q
𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 Wind speed
T Q
Solution: α
When an aircraft moves through the air, it is θ
affected by the motion of the air. The diagram Air speed
below illustrates the relationship between the
course/airspeed, direction of wind/wind speed and 130km
track/ground speed. N Ground speed

𝜃 𝑥β
Track/ground speed α
Course/airspeed
P 65km R
𝑥+∝ +𝛽 = 900

𝑥 = 900 − (∝ +𝛽)
Wind direction/wind speed 130
The angle of drift is 𝜃. The motion of a ship in water From ∆𝑃𝑅𝑄, tan ∝ = 65
is similar to the motion of an aircraft in the air.A
=2
similar vector diagram for the motion of a ship in
water is shown below. α = 63.430
𝜃
Speed of ship Water speed
√5 2

Current speed α
1
2
Given that tan ∝ = 1
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 2 160
It follows that sin ∝ = √5 = sin 63.43 × sin 𝜃

Wind speed = 32km/h We get 𝜃From ∆𝑃𝑇𝑄 above thus;

Air speed = 160km/h 𝜃+∝ +𝛽 = 1800
Using sine rule in ∆𝑃𝑇𝑄 𝜃 = 1800 − (∝ +𝛽)
sin 𝛽 sin∝
= = 1800 − 73.740
32 160

sin∝ = 106.26
sin 𝛽 = 160
× 32
160
1 2 ∴ |𝑉| = sin 63.43 × sin 106.26
= 5
× 5
√
2
= 171.7km/h
= 5√5
Consider the displacement diagram PRQ below:
𝛽 = 10.310 Q

∴ 𝑥 = 900 − (∝ +𝛽)
130km
0
= 90 − (63.43 + 10.31) 𝑦𝑘𝑚

= 16.260

Hence the direction in which the aircraft is headed is P R

N16.260E 65km

32km/h In ∆ 𝑃𝑅𝑄, let y be the distance from P to Q, then

θ α
𝑦 2 = 652 + 1302
160km/h = 145.3

Let the time taken to fly from P to Q be t

V
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Since time = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
β
𝑦
𝑡 = |𝑉|
Let the ground speed be V, then using sine rule, 145
= 171.7
|𝑉| 160
= sin 𝛼
sin 𝜃 = 0.8462h or 51mins.
160
|𝑉| = × sin 𝜃
sin 𝛼

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. An aircraft flew out of Benin Airport on a bearing of 3150 and at an air speed of 250km/h. if the speed and
direction of the wind were 50km/h and 0750, calculate, correct to the nearest whole number:
(a) The ground speed
(b) The angle of drift

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 (c) The track
2. A ship P is sailing due east with a speed of 4µm/s. The speed of the second ship Q relative to P is µ√3 m/s south
– west. Find in m/s, the speed of Q.

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST

1. A ship P sails due east with speed 4tm/s. A second ship Q sails south – west with a speed of 𝑡√2 m/s relative to
Q. Find in m/s, the speed of Q.
2. Two particles A and B have velocities 8𝒊 − 5𝒋and 6𝒊 + 12𝒋respectively. Find the velocity of B relative to A.
3. An aircraft has airspeed of 96km/h and flies in the direction S300W. A wind blows 40km/h from the direction
N400W. Calculate the ground speed of the aircraft.
4. The airspeed of an aircraft is 250km/h and the wind blows from the direction S450W with a speed of 40km/h.
the pilot of the aircraft wishes to travel due north. In what direction must he steer the aircraft?
5. Two cars A and B are travelling in perpendicular directions along straight roads which intersect at O. A moves
with a velocity of 30km/h and B moves with a velocity of 50km/h. Find the velocity of A relative to B and the
direction of car A.

ASSIGNMENT

1. The position vector of a point P is (𝒊 − 𝒋)𝑚 and the point Q has position vector 3𝒊 + 𝟑𝒋where 𝒊 and 𝒋 are unit
vectors in direction of East and North respectively. Calculate:
(a) The distance PQ, correct to the nearest 0.1m
(b) The bearing of Q from P, correct to the nearest degree.
2. A and B are two airports with B 400km due east of A. An aircraft whose speed in still air is 200km/h flies directly
from A to B through a wind blowing from the northeast at 40km/h. Find the speed of the aircraft relative to the
ground. On another day, the aircraft set out from A to B in still air. At the same time another aircraft starts to fly
north from B at 150km/h. Determine the shortest distance between the two aircrafts and the time taken,
correct to the nearest minute, before they are closest to each other.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 VELOCITY  GROUND SPEED

 DISPLACEMENT  ANGLE OF DRIFT
 ACCELERATION  BEARING
 COURSE  TRACK
 AIRSPEED
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Two years ago, I was three times as old as my brother was. In three years, I will be twice as old
as my brother. How old is each of us now?

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

Tough times don’t last. Tough people do…….. Robert H. Schuller

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 WEEK: SIX (6)

TOPIC: VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

CONTENTS
(a) Scalars Product of Vectors in Three Dimensions
(b) Application of Scalar Product
(c) Vectors or cross product in three dimensions and Properties of vector product.
(d) Application of cross product.

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. Find the vector or cross product of two vector;

2. Solve simple problems on application of vector product.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners are related to vectors topics previously.

SUB-TOPIC 1: SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

The scalar product of three vectors a,b and c is 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏3

defined as a.(bxc) which is a scalar quantity. |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | =
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
If three vectors a,b and c are given as: 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
𝑎1 ⌈ ⌉ −𝑎2 ⌈ 1 ⌉ +𝑎3 ⌈ 1 ⌉
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
a = a1i + a2j + a3k
We denote dot or scalar product of two vectors A
b = b 1 i + b 2j + b 3k
and B by A.B. This dot product is defined as the
c = c1i + c2j + c3k product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine
of the angle between them.
The scalar product is found the same way as the
determinant of a 3x3 matrix. A.B = |𝐴𝐵| cos 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

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Scalar product otherwise called dot product (or Examples
inner products).
1. Given: a = 2i –j + k; b = 3i + 2j – k ; c = i -4j +
The Scalar product between two perpendicular 3k
vectors is zero.
show that vectors a,b and c are coplanar.
Summary of the scalar product of unit vectors is
provided below: Solution:

i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 here, θ = 00 We need to show that a.(bxc) = 0

2 −1 1
i.j = i.k = j.k = 0 here, θ = 900 2 −1
𝑎. (𝑏𝑥𝑐) = |3 2 −1| = 2 | |−
−4 3
scalar product is scalar and commutative 1 −4 3
3 −1 3 2
(−1) | | + 1| |=2(6-4)+1(9+1)+ (-12-2)
A.B = B.A 1 3 1 −4
= 2 x2 + 10 – 14 = 14 – 14 = 0
Note:
Since a.(bxc) = 0, vectors a, b and c are coplanar.
i. a.(bxc) =(axb).c
ii. Three vectors a,b and c are said to be 2. If p = 2i + 5j – 3k
coplanar or collinear if their scalar triple q = i + 0j + 5k
product is zero. r = 3i – 4j + 2k, show if they are collinear or
not.
Properties of dot product
Solution:
1. A.B = B.A
2. A.(B+C) = A.B +A.C 2 5 −3
0 5
3. m(A.B) =(mA).B = (A.B)m where m is a scalar. 𝑝. (𝑞𝑥𝑟) = |1 0 5 | = 2| |−
−4 2
4. i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 3 −4 2
1 5 1 0
5. i.j = j.k = k.i = 0 5| | + − 3| |
3 2 3 −4
If A = a1i + a2j + a3k and B = b1i + b2j + b3k = 2(0+20) - 5 (2-15) -3 (-4-0) =
2 x20 – 5x – 13 -3x-4
A.B = a1b1+ a2b2+ a3b3
= 40 + 65 + 12 = 117
A.A = a12 + b22+ b32
Since 𝑎. (𝑏 × 𝑐) ≠ 0 ∴
B.B = b12 + b22+ b32
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟.
If A.B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A
and B are perpendicular.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Given a = i+2j+-3k, b = 2i – j + 2k, c = 3i + j – k. Find a.(bxc) = 0

2. P, q and r are three vectors given by 4i – j + 2k, 3i + 2j – 5k and –i+3j + k respectively. Evaluate (pxq).r

SUB-TOPIC 2: APPLICATION OF SCALAR PRODUCT

We shall begin by applying the scalar product to the lines that form the sides of a triangle.
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The application shall lead us to establish the cosine rule and the famous pythagoras’ theorem.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 , 𝐶𝐴
Let 𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐

Applying triangle law of vectors 𝑐 = 𝑏 − 𝑎

𝑐
𝑏

C B
𝑎
𝑐. 𝑐 = (𝑏 − 𝑎). (𝑏 − 𝑎)
c2 = 𝑏. 𝑏 - 2𝑏.𝑎 + 𝑎. 𝑎
c2 = a2+b2 – 2abcosθ
The formula via, c2 = a2+b2 – 2abcosθ is the familiar cosine rule.
If the vectors 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are perpendicular, c2 = a2+b2
𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 = = 0 and the formula will reduce to c2 = a2+b2=
2 2

This is the well known Pythagoras’s theorem for a right angled triangle.
Application of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion.
Let Ox and Oy be perpendicular axes with unit vectors 𝑎, 𝑗 directions OA and OB which are perpendicular to one
another. Let OA make angle x0 with Ox.
Let unit vector 𝑐̂ act in the direction OC which makes angle y0 with OA.

y
C

B
𝑎 𝑐
A
y0
x0
0 x

Resolving 𝑎̂ along Ox and and Oy gives

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𝑎̂ = 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Resolving 𝑏̂ along Ox and Oy gives

𝜋 𝜋
𝑏̂ = 𝑖 ( + 𝑥) + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ( + 𝑥)
2 2
𝑏̂ = -isinx + 𝑗cosx

Resolving 𝑐̂ along OA and OB gives

𝑐̂ =𝑎̂ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑏̂ sin 𝑦
Substituting for 𝑎̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏̂

𝑐̂ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 (𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 (−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)𝑗 ... (i)

Resolving 𝑐̂ along Ox and Oy gives

𝑐̂ = 𝑖 cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑗sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) ... (ii)

Since (i) and (ii) represent the same vector, corresponding components must be equal and so we have
Cos(x+y) = cos x cosy – sinxsiny
Sin(x+y) = sin x cosy + cosxsiny
PRACTICE EXERCISE

(1) If 𝛼̅ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝛽̅ = −𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 4𝑘, 𝛾̅ = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘. 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

(𝛼 + 𝛽). (𝛾 + 𝛽).
(2) Prove the scalar product to the lines that form the sides of a triangle.
SUB-TOPIC: VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT AND PROPERTIES

If a, b and c are three vectors, then ax(bxc) and 3. 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑎 ×

(axb)xc are called the vector. 𝑐 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
4. 𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 × 𝑘
Note: ax(bxc) ≠ (axb)xc 𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑘 = −𝑖 × 𝑗, 𝑗 × 𝑘 = 𝑖 = −𝑘 ×
Vector product is called cross product or outer 𝑖. 𝑘 × 𝑖 = −𝑖 × 𝑘
product. It produces vector. 5. |𝑎 × 𝑏| =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏
Properties of Vector Product 6. If a x b = 0 and a and b are non zero vectors,
then a and b are parallel.
1. 𝑏 × 𝑎 = |𝑏||𝑎| sin(−𝜃)𝑢̂ 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜋
7. If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑏1 +
= −|𝑏||𝑎| sin(−𝜃)𝑢̂ = −𝑎 × 𝑏 thus the vector 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
product of two vectors is not commutative. 𝑎×𝑏
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
2. (𝑘𝑎) × 𝑏 = 𝑎 × (𝑘𝑏) = 𝑘(𝑎 × 𝑏) = = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑒
𝑘|𝑎||𝑏| sin(𝜃𝑢̂) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟. 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
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 Examples: 4 −3
𝑘| | = 𝑖(−9 − 2) − (12 −
1. Find the vector product of a and b where: −1 2
a =4i – 3j + k and b = -I + 2j + 3k 1) + (8 − 3) = −11𝑖 − 11𝑗 + 5𝑘
2. |a x b| = |−11𝑖 − 11𝑗 + 5𝑘|
2. Hence find |a x b| of the question above.
Solution = √(−11)2 + (−11)2 + (5)2
= √121 + 121 + 25
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 = √267
1. 𝑎 × 𝑏 = | 4 −3 1| =
−1 2 3
−3 1 4 1
𝑖| |−𝑗| |+
2 3 1 3
APPLICATIONS OF CROSS PRODUCT
Vector product as volume 2 1 1
−3 2
a.(bxc) |1 −3 2 |=2
= | |−
Vector products can be used to determine the 2 −1
3 2 −1
volume of a parallelepiped. If three vectors a, b, 1 2 2 1
1| | + 1| | = 2(3-4) – (-1-6)+ (2+9)
c represent the length, width and height of a 3 −1 3 2
parallelepiped, the volume of the parallelepiped = - 2 + 7 + 11 = 16 units
is given by the scalar triple product of a,b,c.
2. Find the volume of parallelepiped whose
V = (axb).c vectors which sides are given as a = 3i + j +
Examples 2k, b = i -2j + 3k, c = 4i + j – 2k

1. Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose Solution: Volume (axb).c

vectors which are the sides given a = 2i + j + But (axb).c = a.(bxc)
k, b = i -3j +2k, c=3i+2j-k.
3 1 2
Solution −2 3
a.(bxc) = |1 −2 3 |= 3 | |−
1 −2
4 1 −2
Volume of the parallelepiped is given as 1 3 1 −2
1| | + 2| |
V = (axb).c 4 −2 4 1
= 3(4-3) – (-2-12) + (1+9) =
But (axb).c = a.(bxc) 3+14+18= 35 units
CLASS ACTIVITY:
1. What do we mean by vector or cross product
2. _____ vectors are vectors on the same plane
3. Ax(BxC) is _____ combination of B and C.
4. If a =3i – 5j + 2k and b = 4i – 5j +3k, find a x b and |axb|
5. List three properties of cross vector.
6. If à = 3i-j+2k, 𝐵̅ = 2i +j – k and 𝐶̅ = i – 2j + 2k. Find (a) (Ãx𝐵̅) x 𝐶̅ (b) Ãx(𝐵̅ x 𝐶̅ )
7. Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose vectors which are the sides given x = 2i +j+k, y=i-3j+2k, z = 3i
+ 2j –k
CONCLUSION

PRACTICE EXERCISE
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 1. Define the scalars product of vectors in three dimension.
2. Scalar product otherwise called ____ product
3. List all the properties of dot product.
4. Prove the applications of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion.
5. If 𝛼̅ = 2i + 3j-k, 𝛽 = -i + 2j-4k, 𝛾 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘. find
(𝛼̅ + 𝛽̅ ). (𝛼̅ + 𝛾̅ ).
6. Prove that x = i +2j-3k, 𝛾 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘 = 3𝑖 + 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥. (𝑌𝑥𝑧).
7. The position vector 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘, 4𝑖 − 5𝑗 + 6𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 respectively, find
the:
a. Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 𝑏. 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐴 𝑐. 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑. 𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑒. 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝐶
8. a, b, c are three vectors, a = -6i+2j+k, b= 3i-2j+4k, c=5i+7j+3k. Find a x (b x c).
9. If a = 2i+2j+3k, b =-1+2j+k and c=3i+j. Find (a x b) x c.
10. Define vector or cross product
11. Coplanar _____ is linear combination B and C
12. Find the sine of the angle between the vectors, p = I + j + k and q = 8i + 2j + 3k.
13. Three points A, B and C exist with𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖 + 5𝑗, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Given that a = 3i + 2j + k and b = 4i – 5j +3k. find a.(axb); (b) b. (axb)
2. Show if question 2 is collinear.
3. The vertices of a triangle have position vectors 3i – 2j + 7k, 2i + 4j +k and 5i + 3j – 2k. find the area of
the triangle.
4. List three properties of scalar product
5. Prove the application of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 VECTORS
 SCALAR
 DOT PRODUCT
 DIMENSION
 PERPENDICULAR
 COLLINEAR
 COPLANAR
 UNIT VECTOR
 DETERMINANT

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

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www.deeperlifehighschool.org …leadership with distinction
 WEEK: SEVEN (7)

MID – TERM BREAK

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 WEEK: SEVEN (7)

TOPIC: THE STRAIGHT LINE

CONTENT:
(I) mid- point of a segment
(II) Gradient of a straight line
(III) Distances between two points
(IV) Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity
(V) Angles between two intersecting lines.

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. Determine the mid-point of a line segment;

2. Determine the gradient of a straight line;
3. Determine the distance between two points;
4. Determine the condition for parallelism and perpendicularity

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students are familiar with linear equations.

SUB-TOPIC 1: MID-POINT OF A LINE SEGMENT

y Q(x2,y2)
y2-y In the Cartesian plane above, let 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) be the
mid-point of the line segment 𝑃𝑄, with the
R(x,y) coordinate 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) .
y-y1
As triangles 𝑃𝑅𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑃𝑄𝑇 are similar;
P(x1,y1) S
𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑆
=
𝑅𝑄 𝑆𝑇
x
O x-x1 x2-x1 Since R is the mid-point, 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑅𝑄, 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑆𝑇
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:.𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝐾 𝐾𝑃
= = − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑥2 +𝑥1 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝑇 𝑇𝐵
2𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑥= 2 Now, AP: PB=M1:M2,
Similarly,
AK = MN = ON – OM = X2-X
𝑦2 +𝑦1
𝑦= KP = MP- MK = MP- LA = y-y1
2

Hence, the co-ordinates of the mid-point of the TB = NB – NT = NB – MP = y2-y

line joining (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are:
∴ From (i) we have
𝑋2 +𝑋1 𝑌2 +𝑌1
[ , ] 𝑚1 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
2 2 = =
𝑚2 𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑦2 −𝑦
Example 1:- Find the mid-point ‘R’ of the line
The first two relation give
segment 𝐴𝐵 where 𝐴 = (1,5) and 𝐵 = (−3, −1).
𝑚1 𝑥−𝑥1
𝑥2 +𝑥1 1+(−3) 1−3 −2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚2 𝑥 − 𝑚2 𝑥1
Solution:- 𝑥 = = = = = −1 𝑚2 𝑥2−𝑥
2 2 2 2
and Or 𝑥(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) = 𝑚1 𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑥1
𝑦2 +𝑦1 −1+5 4
𝑦= = =2=2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
2 2
𝐴𝑃 𝐾𝑃
The 𝑅 = ( −1,2) Similarly, from the relation 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑇𝐵 ,we get
𝑚1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑚1 𝑦2 +𝑚2 𝑦1
The mid-point of a line segment is a special into =𝑦 this eventually gives 𝑦 =
𝑚2 2 −𝑦 𝑚1 +𝑚2
ratio; In this case, the ratio is /:/
Hence, the co-ordinate of the point (𝑥, 𝑦) diving a
The following are other cases of dividing a line
line joining (𝑥1 , 𝑦1) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in the 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 are
segment in given ratios : 𝑚 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 𝑦 +𝑚 𝑦
given as = 1𝑚2 +𝑚2 1 , 𝑦 = 1𝑚2+𝑚2 1
1 2 1 2
i. Internal division:
Note that these results applies to extend division,
Let 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be the two given with either 𝑚1 or 𝑚2 taken as negative
points on a line segment 𝐴𝐵 which divides it in the
given ratio 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 . It is required to find the co- Example 2:-
ordinates of P. Suppose they are (𝑥, 𝑦), as Find the co-ordinates of the point which divides
illustrated in the cartesian graph sketch below: the line joining the points (8,9) and (-7,4) internally
in the ratio 2:3 .
B(x2,y2)
SOLUTION:-
y
P(x,y) T
The co-ordinates of the point is obtained by
substitution,
2 𝑋(−7)+ 3𝑋8 −14+24 10
A(x1,y1) k 𝑥= 2+3
= 5
= 5
=2
2 𝑋 4+3𝑋9 8+27 35
With the letterings on the graph and similar 𝑦= = = =7
2+3 5 5
triangles
0 L M N x
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Example 3: Find the centroid of the triangle whose 1. Eternal division
vertices have the coordinate (-
4,6),(2,-2) and (2,5) respectively.
A
Solution:- Recall : P Q
1
The centroid of a triangle is the point of
intersection of its median. 3
Let AD be the median bisecting its base. We say A divides PQ externally (i.e outside PQ) in
−4+2 6+5 11 the ratio 3 : -1
Then 𝐷 = [ , ] = [−1, 2 ]
2 2 y 𝑃𝐴 −3
i.e 𝐴𝑄 = (1<3, therefore A lies on the left of P)
1
(-4,6)A 6
C(2,5)
4
A P Q
2 1
D
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 3
-2 B(2,-2)
𝐴 divides 𝑃𝑄 externally in the ratio -1:3
-4
𝑃𝐴 −1
i.e 𝐴𝑄 = 3

The point on 𝐴𝐷which divides it internally in the Example 4

ratio 2:1 is the centroid. If (𝑥, 𝑦) are co-ordinates of
the centroid, then The point C divides the line 𝐴𝐵 where the co-
ordinates of 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 (3,2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4,1)
2 𝑋(−1)+ 1 𝑋(2) −2+2
𝑥= = =0 respectively in the ratio 3:2 .Find the co-ordinate
2+1 2

2 𝑋(11 )+1 𝑋 (−2) 11−2 9 Solution

2
𝑦= = =3=3
2+1 3

∴ The centroid is (0,3)

A(3,2) B(4,1) C(x,y)
Another case of internal division is as shown in the
segment 𝑃, 𝑄 below

P 3 A 2 Q
2 2 3 𝑋 4 + (−2)𝑋 3 12 − 6
𝑥= = =6
3 + (−2) 1
We say A divides PQ internally in the ratio 3:2
3 𝑋 1 + (−2)𝑋 3 3 − 4
𝑃𝐴 3 𝑦= = = −1
= 3 + (−2) 1
𝐴𝑄 2
Hence, the co-ordinates of C are (6,1)
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PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Find the co-ordinates of the mid-points of the lines joining the following pairs of points;
(a) (3,6) and (5,8) (b) (3𝑝, 𝑞) and (𝑞, 3𝑝)
2. Find the mid-points of the sides of triangle whose vertices are 𝐴(1, −1), 𝐵(4, −1), 𝐶(4,3)

SUB-TOPIC 2: Gradient of a straight line

The gradient of a line is defined as the ratio L

increase in 𝑦 ÷ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , in going from one y
point to another on a line. 1
08 P2(3,8
P2(x2,y
Y )
2) 6
∆𝑦 = P3(2,5
4
𝑦2− y1 )
P(x1,y1
𝜃 2 P1(1,2
) ∆𝑥 )
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

𝜃
0 𝑥 Solution:
X1
The slope m of points P1 and P2 on L is
1
Y
8−2 6
𝑚= = =3
3−2 2
The slope 𝑚1 of the points P1 and P3 on L is
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 Is the change in x as the variable x 8−5
increases or decreases from x1 to x2 and ∆𝑦 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚2 = =3
3−2
𝑦2 is the change in y with respect to y1 and y2 .
Therefore, 𝑚 =, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 3 implies that the
The slope (gradient) m of a straight line L is defined slope of the line L is 3.
as
Since 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 , 𝑖. 𝑒 tan 𝜃 = 3 ∴ tan−1 (3) =
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 71.57°
𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Therefore, the angle of inclination 𝜃 is 71.57°
If 𝜃 is the angle of inclination to the slope of L,
𝑦 −𝑦 It can therefore be concluded from the example
then = tan 𝜃 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 ;𝜃 is called the angle of slope
2 1 above that any given line has one and only one
of the line. slope.
Example 5: Find the slope 𝑚 and the angle of Note: the points 𝑝1 (1,2), 𝑝2 (3,8) and 𝑝3 (2,5) are
inclination 𝜃 of the L through points said to be collinear meaning that the points lie on a
𝑝1 (1,2), 𝑝2 (3,8) and 𝑝3 (2,5) straight line, and the gradient of any two of the
point is the same.

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Example 6: Find the gradient of the line joining the ∆𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦 −2−(−4)
𝑚 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2−𝑥1 =
2 1 3−5
pair of point (5, −4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3, −2)
𝑚= -1
Solution:
Let 𝑚 represent the gradient
PRACTICE EXERCISE

(1) Find the angle between lines L1 , with slope -7 and L2 which passes through (2,-1) and (5,3)
(2) Find the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points :
(𝑎)(−5,4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−3, −2)(𝑏)( 13, −4)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (11,8)

SUB-TOPIC 3: DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two distinct 𝑑 2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

points. The distance 𝑑 between them can thus be
calculated. ∴ 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
P2(x2,y2)
y
Example 7:
Y2-y1 Calculated the distance between the points, (4,1)
and (3,-2)
P(x1,y1)
x2-x1
Solution:
0 x
The distance between the points (4,1) and (3, -2) is
√[(3 − 3)2+(1 − (−2))2] = √10 = 3.16
Applying Pythagoras theorem to right- angled
triangle in the graph above,

CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY/ ANGLES BETWEEN TWO INTERSECTING LINEs.
𝒚 D In the diagram above, the angles between the lines
AB and DC are as indicated are related as follows:
B
AQC = DQB = 𝜃 (vertically opposite angles)
𝜽 𝜃2= 𝜃 1+𝜃 in triangle ACQ (exterior angle of a
Q triangle equals sum of opposite interior angles)
𝜽
The lines AB (gradient m1) and CD(gradient m2)
making angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 with the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 shows
that: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 1 = m1 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2 = m2

𝜽2
Since 𝜃2 = 𝜃1+𝜃, 𝜃 = 𝜃2−𝜃1
𝜽1

𝒙 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = tan(𝜃2−𝜃1) = (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2 - 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 1)/(1 +

𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 1) = 1+𝑚
A 1𝑚 2
C
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i.e. if 𝜽 is the angle between two intersecting lines Therefore, the angle 𝜽, between the two lines is
whose gradients are 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 then the angle given by
𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏
between them is 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟏+𝒎 𝒎 −𝒎𝟏
𝟏𝒎 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟏+𝒎
𝟐
𝟏 𝒎𝟐
If the two lines are parallel, the angle between 5
𝟑−(− )
them is zero, hence 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 0and hence 𝑡𝑎𝑛0 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏 4
5
𝟏+𝟑(− )
(m2 – m1)/(1 + m2m1) ⇒(m2 – m1) = 0 ⇒ m2 = m1 4

−𝟏𝟕
If the two lines are perpendicular, 𝜃 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝟏𝟏
90 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∞. Since any value divided by
zero= ∞⇒from 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = (m2 – m1)/(1 + m2m1), (1 + = 301.40
m2m1) = 0, m2m1 = - 1 or m1 = -1/ m2 Example 9: Find the gradient of a line parallel to the
or m2 = -1/m1 line which passes through the pair of points (-1,3)
Example 8: Find the acute angle between the pair and (4,7)
of lines 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 3 and 𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 2 Solution: let the gradient of the line passing
Solution: let the gradients of the lines be m1 and m2 through the points (-1,3) and (4,7) be m1
respectively. 𝑦 −𝑦
Since𝑚 = 𝑥2−𝑥1, then 𝑚1 = 4−(−1)
7−3
2 1
Recall that 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐; therefore, writing each of 4
the lines in this form we obtain =5
5
𝑦 = − 4 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2 Hence, the gradient, m2, of a line parallel to the line
which passes through the pair of points (-1,3) and
5 4
Hence, m1 = − 4 and m2= 3 (4,7) is 5 since m2 = m1

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Find the distances between the given points:

 (15,11), (3,6)
 (√2, 1), (2√2, 3)
2. Find the gradient of a line parallel to the line whose gradient is 2.3

Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to the line which passes through each pair of the following points
a. (0,8) and (-5,2) (b). (-k,h) and (b, -f)
3. Find the interior angles of the triangle whose vertices are A(4,3), B(-2,2) and C(2,-8)
CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST:

1. The line joining (-5,7) and (0,-2) is perpendicular to the line joining (1,-3) and (4,x). Find x.
1
2. The gradient of the line passing through the points 𝑃(4,5)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥, 9)𝑖𝑠 2. Find the value of 𝑥.
3. The distance between 𝑃(𝑥, 7)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(6,19) is 13units. Find the values of 𝑥.
4. Using gradients, determine which of the following sets of three points are collinear?
a. (1,-1) , (-2,4), (0,1)
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 b. (5,-2) , (7,6), (0,-2)
c. (-2,3) , (8,-5), (5,4)
d. (6,-1) , (5,0), (2,3)
e. (-1,5) , (3,1), (5,7)
5. Find the gradient of a line parallel to the line whose gradient is – 3

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Given the three points 𝐴(2,1), 𝐵(−3, −2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(3, −2)
a. The gradient of AB
b. The equation of the line through C perpendicular to AB

2. If M and N are the mid – points of BC and AC respectively, calculate:

a. The coordinates of the point of intersection G
b. The value of the ratio lAGl : lGMl.
3
3. In parallelogram ABCD, slope of AB = -2, slope of BC = 5. State the slope of
a. AD c. CD
b. The altitude to AD d. the altitude to CD

READING ASSIGNMENT:
New further mathematics project, 5th revised edition by M.R, Tuttuh – Adegun, et al, book 1 study
pages 194 – 199 and solve any 5 questions on page 99.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
New Further Mathematics project, 5th revised edition, by M.R. Tuttuh – Adegun and others, book1
pages 198 – 199, questions 1 – 10.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 CORDINATE  PERPENDICULAR
 GRADIENT  COLLINEAR
 PARALLEL
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

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 WEEK: NINE (9)

TOPIC: The straight line 2

CONTENT:
(i) Equation of line
(ii) Areas of triangles and quadrilateral
(iii) Transform relationship into linear form
(iv) Locus of points.
(v) Determination of law.

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Students should be able to:

1. Determine the equation of a line in different forms;

2. Transform non-linear relationships into linear forms;
3. Determine the areas of triangles and quadrilaterals

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Learners are already familiar with distance and equation of two points.

SUB-TOPIC 1: EQUATION OF LINE

Two point form: The equation of a straight line 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

𝑦−𝑦1
through points P1 (𝑥, 𝑦) and P2 (𝑋2, 𝑌2) is Slope – intercept form: Suppose a straight line cuts
𝑥−𝑥 1
𝑦2−𝑦1
=𝑥 the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at the point (𝑜, 𝑐) the distance of this
2 −𝑥1
point from the origin is called the intercept on the
Point- slope form: The equation of a straight line 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.Therefore, the equation of a line, of the
through point P1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) with slope 𝑚 is slope 𝑚, making an intercept 𝑐 on the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is
𝑦−𝑐
=𝑐 .
𝑥−0

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 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. The line (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑐) is parallel to 𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥, which is the equation of a straight line passing
through the origin and slope𝑚, (as shown below)
y

Notice that the coefficient of 𝑥, which in each case

is 𝑚, is the slope of the line. Also the sign of 𝑐
determines whether the line cuts the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(o, c) above (+𝑐) or below the origin,(−𝑐) . For example,
the equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 is the equation of a
C straight line of slope 2 and (0,3) as 𝑦 −intercept

0 x
Y = mx
Intercept form: y The line L can be considered as the Locus of a
moving point P(x,y) . From similar triangles AMP
L 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝑃 𝑎−𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
and AOB, we got 𝑂𝐴 = or = 𝑏 or 1 − 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑂𝐵 𝑎
B (0,b)
Therefore, the equation of the straight line is
parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (i.e a line with zero slope) the
P(x,y) equation is 𝑦 = 𝑐. If the straight line is parallel to
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, the equation is 𝑥 = 𝑘
y
O x A(a,0)
M a-x

General form:
4−1 −3
Generally, an equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 = Solution: The slope of the line is =
−3−8 11
0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝐴, 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶are constants with at least one
of A or B different from zero, represents a straight Let 𝑃( 𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the line other
𝑦−1
line. than(8,1), then the slope is 𝑥−8
𝐶
If𝐵 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐴 . The line is Since the slope of any point along any given line is
therefore a vertical line equal, then
−𝐶 𝑦−1 −3
However if 𝐵 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶 = . =
𝐵 𝑥−8 11

An equation like 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑌 + 𝐶 = 0 that contains :. 11(𝑦 − 1) = −3(𝑥 − 8)

only the first powers of 𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦 is said 11𝑦 − 11 = −3𝑥 + 24. Thus, the required
to be linear in 𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦. equation 11𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 35 = 0
Example 1: Find the equation of the straight line
joining the points (8,1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−3,4)

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Perpendicular form or Normal form:
To find the equation of a straight line in term of the 𝑦 − 𝑃 sin ∝ = − cot ∝ (𝑥 − 𝑝 cos ∝)
length of the perpendicular ‘P’ from the origin to − cos ∝
the line and the angle ‘∝ ’ which the perpendicular 𝑦 − 𝑝 sin ∝= (𝑥 − 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝)
sin ∝
makes with the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Gradient of the line 𝑂𝐿 in
the diagram below is tan ∝ . Therefore, the 𝑦 sin ∝ −𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ +𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝
gradient of given line is −cot ∝. The coordinate of 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ +𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝= 𝑃(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝) Since
𝐿 𝑎𝑟𝑒 (𝑃 cos ∝ , 𝑃 sin ∝) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ +𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝= 1
∴ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ +𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝= 𝑃
Y

B
Example2: Sketch and write down the equation of
V the line for which

P(x, y) 𝑃 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝= 𝑃
Solution: (a) The equation of the line is
∝
C
0 A X 𝑥 cos 120° + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛120° = 3

−1 √3
𝑥( )+ 𝑦( ) = 3
Applying the one-point form of the straight lines 2 2
the equation required is
𝑥 − 𝑦√3 + 6 = 0
PRACTICE EXERCISE

(i) Find the equation of the line joining the origin to the point of intersection of 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 =
8 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
(ii) Determine the x-intercept ‘a’ and the y- intercept ‘h’ of the following lines. Sketch each (a)3𝑥 +
5𝑦 − 15 = 0 (b) 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 7 = 0

SUB-TOPIC 2: LOCUS OF POINTS

When a point moves in space or in a plane under a Let A(4,5) and B(2,-3) be the two given points. Let
given set of conditions, it traces a path. This path is P(x,y) be any point on the locus. Then the locus of P
called the locus of the moving point. We may wish is such that
to find the equation of the locus.
PA = 2PB ⇒ (𝑃𝐴)2 = 4(𝑃𝐵)2
Example 1: Find the equation of the locus of a point
(𝑃𝐴)2 = (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2
which moves so that its distance from (4,5) is twice
its distance from (2,-3). = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 25
Solution: 4(𝑃𝐵)2 = 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 13)

= 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 + 24𝑦 + 52

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Since(𝑃𝐴)2 = 4(𝑃𝐵)2 , it implies that y
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 + 24𝑦 + 52 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + B
4 y–4=0
𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 25
The required equation is 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 34𝑦 +
11 = 0 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦)
Example 2: A point P moves in the x – y plane in x
1
such a way that its distance from the point (1,-3) is
equal to its distance from line y – 4 = 0. Find the -3 ●A
equation of the locus of the point P.
From the diagram above, AP = PB since P moves in
Solution: A point P moving in the x – y plane in such
the x – y plane in such a way that its distance from
a way that its distance from a point A(1,-3) to its
the point (1,-3) is equal to its distance from line y –
distance from line y – 4 = 0 is a parabola. The
4=0
diagram below illustrates the locus p.
AP = √(1 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 and PB = y – 4

Equating the two and solving we get 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 +

14𝑦 − 6 = 0
PRACTICE EXERCISE:

1. L is a point (-2,4) and M is the point (3,-1). A variable point Q(x,y) is such that (𝑄𝐿)2 − (𝑄𝑀)2 =
10. Show that 𝑦 = 𝑥 and describe the locus of Q. prove that the locus of Q divides the line segment
LM in the ratio 3:2
2. The line 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0 meets the 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 axes at the points A and B respectively. If M is the mid
11 −1
– point of AB and P has coordinate( 4 , ), find the equation of the locus of all points in the plane
2
whose distance from P is |𝑃𝑀|.

SUB-TOPIC 3: AREAS OF TRIANGLE AND QUADRILATERALS

The graph below shows a triangle PQR with the coordinates PK, QL, RM drawn. The lines form three
trapeziums from which the area of triangle can be found.
y

R
Area of triangle PQR = area of trapezium KPRM −
(area of trap. KPQL + area of trap. LQRP)
P
Area of trap = (sum of parallel sides)
×(perpendicular dist. between // sides)
Q
Example (1): Let the vertices of the triangle be
𝑃(1,3), 𝑄(2,4)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅(5,6)

O K L M x
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Then 𝑃𝐾 = 3, 𝑄𝐿 = 4, 𝑅𝑀 = 6 .
y
𝐾𝐿 = 2 − 1 = 1, 𝐿𝑀 = 5 − 2 = 3, B(0,5)
𝐾𝑀 = 5 − 1 = 4
3+6
Area of trap. KPRM = × 4 = 18 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠2
2 A(3,4)
3+4
Area of trap. KPLM = ×1= 312 unit2
2
4+6
Area of trap LQRM = × 3 = 15 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠2
2
−1
:. Area of of PQR = 18 − (312 + 15) = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡2
2
O x
:. Changing the sign, the area of the triangle in
1 C(2,-1)
magnitude = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡2
K D(3,-2)
L
The following steps are important in finding the
area of quadrilateral and area of triangle: 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑. 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝. 𝐾𝐵𝐴𝐷
− (𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑. 𝐾𝐵𝐶𝐿 + 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝐿𝐶𝐷)
(i) Make a sketch of the figure to locate the
vertices Let the coordinates of the vertices be
(ii) Mark in the coordinates to form trapezium 𝐴(3,4), 𝐵(0,5), 𝐶(2,1), 𝐷(3, −2)
or triangles 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐾𝐵 = 7, 𝐿𝐶 = 1, 𝐾𝐷 = 3, 𝐿𝐷 = 1, 𝐴𝐷 = 6
(iii) Calculate the area of the figure from the 7+6 7+1
Area of Quad. ABCD= ( )× 3−( )× 2+
numerical areas of the trapezium and 2 2
1
triangles. 𝑋 1𝑋1
2

39 1
Example (2): Find the area of the quadrilateral = − (8 + 2)
2
whose vertices are
39 17 22
(3,4) , (0,5) , (2, −1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3, −2) = − =2
2 2
SOLUTION: = 11 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
Alternatively, we can use the following formulae:

Area of triangle with vertices (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), and

(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is
𝟏
[𝒙𝟏 (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 ) + 𝒙𝟐 (𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒙𝟑 (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )]
𝟐
and

Area of quadrilateral with vertices (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ),

(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )and (𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) is
𝟏
[(𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 ) + (𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 − 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 ) + (𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟒 −
𝟐
𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟑 ) + (𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟒 )]
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TRANSFORMING RELATIONSHIP INTO LINEAR FORM/DETERMINATION OF LAW
The relationship between two quantities may not necessarily be linear but it is often possible to transform such
relations into linear forms. The method of reducing non – linear forms to linear forms is called
Determination of Law
Some of such common relationships are given below:

(a) If the relationship is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 (where n is unknown)

Rewrite 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 as log 𝑦 = nlog 𝑥 + log 𝑎
Comparing this with = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 , Plot Y = log 𝑦 versus X = log 𝑥
giving a straight line of slope n and log 𝑎 as the Y − intercept.
(b) If the relationship is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 (where n is known)
Compare 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 with = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 ; plot Y = 𝑦 versus 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑛 giving a straight line of slope a and b
as Y − intercept.
(c) If the relationship is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥
Rewrite 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 as log 𝑦 = xlog 𝑏 + log 𝑎
Comparing this with = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 , Plot Y = log 𝑦 versus X = 𝑥
giving a straight line of slope log 𝑏 and log 𝑎 as the Y − intercept.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. The three vertices of a triangle are (2,4), (𝑥, 𝑦), (−𝑥, −𝑦). If the area of the triangle is 4 square
units ,find the expression relating 𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦.
2. If the area of a quadrilateral whose angular points A,B,C,D taken in order are
(1,2), (−5,6), (7, −4)𝑎𝑛𝑑(−2, 𝑡) be zero, find the value of 𝑡.

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay question)

1. The parallelogram RQRS has vertices𝑃(−2,3), 𝑄(1,4)𝑅(2,6)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑆(−1,5). Find the coordinates of the
point of intersection of the diagonal
1
(a) (−1,5) (b) (− 2 , 312 ) (c) (0, 412 ) (d) (112 , 5)
4. Find the equation of the line passing through (0,1) and parallel to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(a) Y= -1 (b) y=0 (c) x=0 (d) x=-1
5. Given that the straight lines 𝑘𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 6 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 − 1 = 0 are parallel, find a relationship
connecting the constants 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 (a)5𝑛 − 𝑘𝑚 = 0 (b) 𝑘𝑛 + 5𝑚 = 0 (c) 5𝑛 + 𝑘𝑚 = 0 (d)
𝑘𝑛 − 5𝑚 = 0
6. The points A, B and C are (4,0), (2,2)𝑎𝑛𝑑(0,6) respectively. AB produced cuts the 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐵 produced cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑄.Find the coordinates of the points𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄.
7. A straight line passes through (-1,2) and makes angle 450 with the negative direction of the x – axis,
find its equation.
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ASSIGNMENT:
1. The following table gives corresponding values of two related variables x and y as obtained in an
experiment:
𝑥 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

𝑦 0.68 1.41 1.81 2.12 2.31 2.46

Theoretical considerations suggest that the relation between 𝑥 and 𝑦 is of the form
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑦
Where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. Draw a suitable linear graph and use it to:
(i) Decide whether or not the experiment confirms the theory reasonably well;
(ii) Determine, each correct to one decimal place, the values 𝑎 and 𝑏, according to the theory.

Find the equation of the straight line at a distance of 3 units from the origin such that the perpendicular from
5
the origin to the line makes an angle α, given by the equation tan α = 12, with the positive direction of the axis
of x.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

 EQUATION
 LOCUS
 AREA

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