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 SPIE PRESS

Nature offers us a full assortment of atoms, but nanoengineering is required to put

them together in an elegant way to realize functional structures not found in nature.
To design new optical properties, one must nanoengineer structures on a length
scale smaller than the wavelength of light. To design new electronic properties, one
must nanoengineer structures on a length scale smaller than the wavelength of the
electron. In the end, our ability to control material composition and shape on
nanometer scales is what gives us the ability to achieve technological results that
transcend the properties of naturally occurring materials.

The Wonder of Nanotechnology: Quantum Optoelectronic Devices and Applications,

edited by Manijeh Razeghi, Leo Esaki, and Klaus von Klitzing, summarizes the latest
developments in the application of nanotechnology to modern semiconductor
optoelectronic devices.

Electrons, photons, and even thermal properties can all be engineered at the
nanolevel. Possibly the simplest aspect of nanotechnology, the 2D quantum well has
dramatically enhanced the efficiency and versatility of electronic and optoelectronic
devices. Nanotechnology has now progressed to 1D (quantum wire) and 0D
(quantum dot) systems that exhibit remarkable and sometimes unexpected
behaviors. With these components serving as the modern engineer's building
blocks, it is remarkable to consider the endless possibilities that nanotechnology
holds in store.

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, WA 98227-0010

ISBN: 9780819495969
SPIE Vol. No.: PM238
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The wonder of nanotechnology : quantum optoelectronic devices

and applications / [edited by] Manijeh Razeghi, Leo Esaki, Klaus von Klitzing.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8194-9596-9 ISBN 978-0-8194-9609-6 ISBN 978-0-8194-9610-2
1. Optoelectronic devices. 2. Nanoelectronics. 3. Quantum electronics.
I. Razeghi, M. II. Esaki, Reona, 1925- III. Klitzing, K. von.
TK8304.W66 2013
621.3815'2 dc23
2013009895

Published by
SPIE
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: + 1 360.676.3290
Fax: + 1 360.647.1445
Email: [email protected]
Web: http://spie.org

Copyright © 2013 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in

any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.

The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author(s). Every effort has
been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not
responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from
reliance thereon.

Printed in the United States of America.

First printing
Contents
Foreword by Leo Esaki xxi
Preface by Klaus von Klitzing xxiii
Introduction by Manijeh Razeghi xxv
“An Imaging Perspective from the Nanometer Scale” by Nibir K. Dhar xxix
List of Contributors xxxv

I Historic Overview 1
1 Role of Symmetry in Conductance, Capacitance, and Doping
of Quantum Dots 3
Raphael Tsu and Tim LaFave, Jr.
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Birth of the Superlattice 5
1.2.1 Response of a time-dependent electric field and
Bloch oscillation 7
1.3 Resonant Tunneling in Manmade Quantum Wells 11
1.3.1 Time-dependent resonant tunneling 15
1.3.2 Quantum cascade laser with superlattice components 17
1.3.3 Type-II superlattice 17
1.3.4 Terahertz sound in Stark ladder superlattices 18
1.3.5 Cold cathode 18
1.4 Size-Dependent Dielectric Constant ´(a) 19
1.5 Role of Symmetry in Capacitance of Few-Electron Quantum Dots 20
1.5.1 A classical correspondence between quantum dots
and atomic structure 23
1.5.2 Toward a general solution of the Thomson problem
and atomic structure 26
1.5.3 The dielectric function and atomic dimension 28
1.6 Symmetry: Key in Interaction with Nanotechnology 29
1.7 A Few Important Considerations 31
References 33

v
vi Contents

II Materials 39
2 Electrical, Optical, and Structural Studies of InAs/InGaSb VLWIR
Superlattices 41
Gail J. Brown, Said Elhamri, William C. Mitchel, Heather J. Haugan,
Krishnamurthy Mahalingam, Mu J. Kim, and Frank Szmulowicz
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 Sample Fabrication/Design 42
2.3 Structural Characterization 43
2.4 Optical Characterization 46
2.5 Electronic Transport Measurements 48
2.6 Electronic Transport Modeling 51
2.7 Summary 52
References 53
3 InAs/InAs1 xSbx Superlattices on GaSb Substrates: A Promising
Material System for Mid- and Long-Wavelength Infrared Detectors 59
Elizabeth H. Steenbergen, Oray Orkun Cellek, Hua Li, Shi Liu,
Xiaomeng Shen, David J. Smith, and Yong-Hang Zhang
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Design 61
3.3 Growth and Structural Characteristics 68
3.4 Optical Characteristics 70
3.5 Infrared Detectors 77
3.6 Summary 77
References 78
4 Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Distribution in Superlattice
Structures 85
Chuanle Zhou and Matthew A. Grayson
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Thermal Conductivity Tensor 86
4.2.1 Cross-plane thermal conductivity 88
4.2.2 In-plane thermal conductivity 89
4.2.3 Error analysis 90
4.3 Thermal Conductivity of T2SL 94
4.4 Thermal Distribution 95
4.5 Conclusion 98
Acknowledgments 99
References 99
5 Superlinear Luminescence and Enhancement of Optical Power
in GaSb-based Heterostructures with High Conduction-Band
Offsets and Nanostructures with Deep Quantum Wells 105
Maya P. Mikhailova, Leonid V. Danilov, Karina V. Kalinina, Edward V. Ivanov,
Nikolay D. Stoyanov, Georgy G. Zegrya, Yury P. Yakovlev, Alice Hospodková,
Jirí Pangrác, Markéta Zíková, and Eduard Hulicius
Contents vii

5.1 Introduction 106

5.2 Superlinear Electroluminescence in GaSb-based Narrow-Gap
Heterostructures with High Conduction-Band Offsets 107
5.3 Superlinear Electroluminescence in GaSb-based Nanostructures
with a Deep Al(As)Sb/InAsSb/Al(As)Sb QW 113
5.4 Theoretical Consideration of Radiative and Auger
Recombination in Deep QWs 118
5.5 Conclusions 125
Acknowledgment 126
References 126
6 Antimonide Quantum Dot Nanostructures for Novel Photonic
Device Applications 133
Anthony Krier, Peter J. Carrington, Qiandong Zhuang, Robert J. Young,
Manus Hayne, Lu Qi, Juanita James, Magnus C. Wagener,
J. Reinhardt Botha, Paul Koenraad, and Erwin Smakman
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Growth of InSb Quantum Dots 134
6.3 Characterization of InSb Quantum Dots 135
6.4 MBE Growth of GaSb Quantum Dots 138
6.5 Solar Cells Containing Stacks of GaSb Quantum Rings 143
6.6 Summary 147
Acknowledgments 149
References 149
7 n-Type Doping in GaSb using Dimethyltellurium (DMTe) by
Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 157
Ari Handono Ramelan
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Review of Te-Doped GaSb Growth 158
7.3 Dopant Impurities 159
7.4 Growth of Te-Doped GaSb 161
7.4.1 Metalorganic sources 161
7.4.2 Growth condition 161
7.5 Characterization 163
7.6 Results and Discussion 163
7.6.1 Surface morphology and growth rate 163
7.6.2 Electrical properties 164
7.7 Conclusions 170
References 171
8 AlGaN-based Intersubband Device Technology 175
Can Bayram, Devendra K. Sadana, and Manijeh Razeghi
8.1 Introduction to Terahertz Devices 176
8.1.1 Terahertz applications 176
viii Contents

8.1.2 Available terahertz sources 177

8.1.3 Conventional semiconductor and III-nitride terahertz sources 177
8.1.4 III-nitride material challenges 177
8.2 III-Nitride MOCVD 178
8.2.1 Effect of growth temperature 178
8.2.2 High-Al-content structures 179
8.2.2.1 Overview of pulsed growth technique 179
8.2.2.2 Tunability of AlN and GaN layers in the SL 181
8.2.2.3 Effect of doping on optical and structural quality 182
8.2.2.4 Effect of capping on optical and structural quality 182
8.2.3 Low-Al-content structures 183
8.3 Infrared Optical Devices 185
8.3.1 Near-infrared devices 186
8.3.2 Mid-infrared devices 186
8.3.3 Toward terahertz 188
8.3.4 Conclusion 189
8.4 Resonant Tunneling Diodes 189
8.4.1 Introduction 189
8.4.2 Device design 191
8.4.3 Material growth 192
8.4.3.1 Polar devices 192
8.4.3.2 Nonpolar devices 193
8.4.4 Device fabrication 193
8.4.5 Electrical characterization 195
8.4.5.1 Polar devices 196
8.4.5.2 Nonpolar devices 196
8.5 Summary 197
8.6 Conclusions 198
References 199
III Lasers 207
9 Advances in High-Power Quantum Cascade Lasers and Applications 209
Arkadiy Lyakh, Richard Maulini, Alexei Tsekoun, Boris Tadjikov, and
C. Kumar N. Patel
9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 MWIR Laser Design 211
9.3 Tapered-Waveguide Geometry 212
9.4 Silicon Carbide Submounts 213
9.5 MWIR QCL Experimental Data 214
9.6 LWIR QCL Design 217
9.7 LWIR QCL Experimental Data 218
9.8 Conclusion 219
References 220
Contents ix

10 High-Performance Quantum Cascade Lasers for Industrial

Applications 225
Mariano Troccoli, Jenyu Fan, Gene Tsvid, and Xiaojun Wang
10.1 Introduction 225
10.2 Manufacturing of High-Performance QC Lasers 226
10.2.1 Design 226
10.2.2 Growth 227
10.2.3 Fabrication 229
10.3 Results 230
10.3.1 High-power multimode devices 230
10.3.2 Low-power-consumption distributed-feedback-laser devices 232
10.3.3 Power scaling: arrays 234
10.4 Conclusions 236
Acknowledgments 237
References 238
11 Mid-infrared Tunable Surface-Emitting Lasers for Gas Spectroscopy 243
Hans Zogg, Ferdinand Felder, and Matthias Fill
11.1 Introduction 244
11.2 Some Properties of Narrow-Gap Lead Chalcogenides
(IV-VI Compound Semiconductors) 245
11.2.1 Structure, binary compositions, alloying 245
11.2.2 Band structure and Auger recombination 245
11.2.3 Permittivities 246
11.2.4 Defects and non–lattice-matched growth 246
11.2.5 Growth on Si(111) and thermal-mismatch dislocation glide 246
11.3 Applications 247
11.3.1 Broadband photovoltaic IV-VI mid-infrared detectors 247
11.3.2 Resonant-cavity-enhanced detectors 247
11.3.3 Edge-emitting laser diodes 248
11.3.4 Monolithic vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
(VCSELs) and microdisk lasers 248
11.4 VECSELs 248
11.4.1 Principle and structure of the long cavity 248
11.4.2 Optical and electronic simulation 251
11.4.3 Short cavity and end pumping 253
11.5 Conclusions 255
References 256
12 Frequency Noise and Linewidth of Mid-infrared Continuous-Wave
Quantum Cascade Lasers: An Overview 261
Stéphane Schilt, Lionel Tombez, Gianni Di Domenico, and Daniel Hofstetter
12.1 Introduction 261
x Contents

12.2 Frequency Noise and Laser Linewidth in QCLs: Experimental

Methods 263
12.2.1 Relation between frequency noise and laser linewidth 263
12.2.2 Frequency noise measurement methods 265
12.3 Intrinsic Linewidth in QCLs 268
12.4 Impact of Technical Noise on the QCL Experimental Linewidth 269
12.5 Overview of Reported Frequency Noise Spectra
in 4- to 5-mm QCLs 272
12.5.1 Free-running QCLs 272
12.5.2 Frequency-stabilized QCLs 275
12.6 Temperature Dependence of the Frequency Noise in a QCL 276
12.7 The Origin of Frequency Noise in QCLs 278
12.8 Conclusion and Outlook 279
References 280
13 Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Quantum Cascade Lasers
Operating at Terahertz Frequencies 289
Hung Chi Chou, John Zeller, Anas Mazady, and Mehdi Anwar
13.1 Introduction 290
13.1.1 Motivation 290
13.1.2 Terahertz QCLs: background and recent developments 290
13.1.3 Terahertz QCLs: challenges 292
13.2 Terahertz QCLs: Structure and Design 293
13.2.1 Lasing in terahertz QCLs 293
13.2.2 Rate equations of a three-level QCL 297
13.2.3 Electron transmission in QCLs 298
13.3 Simulation and Analysis 300
13.3.1 Absorption and optical gain 300
13.3.2 Terahertz output power and wall-plug efficiency 304
13.3.3 Polar versus nonpolar cases 311
13.4 Conclusion 313
References 314
IV Detectors 321
14 HgCdTe versus Other Material Systems: A Historical Look 323
Antoni Rogalski
14.1 Introduction 323
14.2 The HgCdTe Era 325
14.3 Alternative-Material Systems 331
14.3.1 PbSnTe 331
14.3.2 InSb and InGaAs 333
14.3.3 GaAs/AlGaAs QW SLs 335
14.3.4 InAs/GaInSb strained-layer SLs 337
14.3.5 Hg-based alternatives to HgCdTe 340
Contents xi

14.4 Readiness Level of LWIR Detector Technologies 340

14.5 Summary 341
References 342
15 Type-II Superlattices: Status and Trends 347
Elena A. Plis and Sanjay Krishna
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Limitations of T2SLS Technology 349
15.2.1 Short carrier lifetime 349
15.2.2 Passivation 350
15.2.3 Heterostructure engineering 352
15.2.4 Nonuniformity and reproducibility issues 353
15.2.5 Spectral crosstalk in multicolor T2SLS imagers 353
15.3 Proposed Solutions 354
15.3.1 Ga-free type-II InAs/InAsSb superlattice detectors 354
15.3.2 Interband cascade infrared photodetector (ICIP) architecture 356
15.3.3 InAs/GaSb T2SLS MWIR detectors grown on (111) GaSb
substrates 358
15.4 Summary 360
Acknowledgments 360
References 360
16 MWIR Detectors: A Comparison of Strained-Layer Superlattice
Photodiodes with HgCdTe 369
William E. Tennant
16.1 Introduction: Why This Comparison? 369
16.2 Some Diode Basics 370
16.2.1 Diode architecture 370
16.2.2 The key metric: background-limited performance (BLIP) 373
16.3 Real MWIR Devices at 150 K 373
16.3.1 HgCdTe 373
16.3.2 Strained-layer superlattice (SLS) 375
16.4 Performance Assessment and Comparison 376
16.5 Summary and Conclusions 377
References 378
17 Mid- and Long-Wavelength Barrier Infrared Detectors 379
David Z. Ting, Alexander Soibel, Sam A. Keo, Cory J. Hill,
Jason M. Mumolo, Linda Höglund, Jean Nguyen, Arezou Khoshakhlagh,
Sir B. Rafol, John K. Liu, and Sarath D. Gunapala
17.1 Introduction 379
17.2 The Complementary-Barrier Infrared Detector (CBIRD) 380
17.2.1 CBIRD structure and characterization 381
17.2.2 CBIRD contact designs 384
xii Contents

17.2.3 Turn-on and dark-current characteristics 385

17.2.4 CBIRD focal plane arrays 388
17.3 Quantum-Dot Barrier Infrared Detector (QD-BIRD) 390
17.4 Summary 395
Acknowledgment 396
References 396
18 Modulation Transfer Function Measurements of Infrared
Focal Plane Arrays 407
Sarath D. Gunapala, Sir B. Rafol, David Z. Ting, Alexander Soibel,
John K. Liu, Arezou Khoshakhlagh, Sam A. Keo, Jason M. Mumolo,
Linda Höglund, and Jean Nguyen
18.1 Introduction 407
18.2 Mid-wavelength Infrared QWIP Device 411
18.3 MTF of Megapixel MWIR QWIP FPA 412
18.4 Long-Wavelength Infrared QWIP Device 416
18.5 MTF of Megapixel LWIR QWIP FPA 417
18.6 Dual-Band QWIP Device Structure 419
18.7 Testing and Characterization of Multiband QWIP FPA 420
18.8 NEDT and MTF of Megapixel Multiband QWIP FPA 421
18.9 Complementary-Barrier Infrared Detector (CBIRD) Device Structure 424
18.10 Testing and Characterization of CBIRD FPA 425
18.11 MRDT and MTF of CBIRD FPA 426
18.12 Conclusion 429
Acknowledgment 430
References 430
19 Quantum Dots for Infrared Focal Plane Arrays Grown by MOCVD 435
Manijeh Razeghi and Stanley Tsao
19.1 Introduction 436
19.1.1 Infrared detection basics 438
19.1.1.1 Photocurrent 439
19.1.1.2 Dark current 440
19.1.1.3 Detector metrics 441
19.2 QDs for Infrared Detection 442
19.2.1 Benefits of QDs for ISB detectors 443
19.2.1.1 High gain and the phonon bottleneck 444
19.2.1.2 Low dark current 445
19.2.1.3 Normal-incidence absorption 445
19.2.1.4 Versatility 446
19.2.2 The potential of QDIPs 446
19.3 QD Growth 447
19.3.1 The formation of QDs in the SK growth mode 447
Contents xiii

19.3.2 Properties of SK-grown dots and their effect on

QDIP performance 448
19.3.2.1 QD size 449
19.3.2.2 QD shape 449
19.3.2.3 QD density 449
19.3.2.4 QD uniformity 451
19.4 Device Fabrication and Measurement Procedures 453
19.5 Gallium-Arsenide-based QD Detectors 454
19.5.1 InGaAs/InGaP QDIP 454
19.5.2 First QDIP FPA 457
19.5.3 Two-temperature barrier growth for
morphology improvement 462
19.6 Indium-Phosphide-based QD Detectors 467
19.6.1 InAs/InP QDIP 468
19.6.2 Detection wavelength tuning using QD engineering 472
19.6.3 High-operating-temperature QD detector and FPA 477
19.6.4 High-operating-temperature FPA 482
19.7 Conclusion 484
References 485
20 Near-Infrared Light Detection using CMOS Silicon Avalanche
Photodiodes (SiAPDs) 491
Ehsan Kamrani, Frédéric Lesage, and Mohamad Sawan
20.1 Introduction 491
20.2 Background Theory: How SiAPDs Work 495
20.3 Design Challenges of NIR Detectors 497
20.3.1 Modeling and simulation 497
20.3.2 Fabrication: standard and dedicated CMOS process 500
20.3.3 Premature-edge-breakdown (PEB) effects 501
20.3.4 APD structure 503
20.4 SiAPD Circuitry Design 506
20.4.1 Circuitry required for SiAPD-based front ends 506
20.4.2 Linear-mode SiAPD front end 507
20.4.3 Geiger-mode SiAPD front end 515
20.5 Optimally Adaptive Control for Low-Noise, Low-Power,
and Fast Photodetection 518
20.6 Conclusion 521
Acknowledgment 522
References 522
21 Modulation-Doped AlGaAs/InGaAs Thermopiles (H-PILEs)
for an Uncooled IR FPA Utilizing Integrated HEMT-MEMS Technology 533
Masayuki Abe, Kian Siong Ang, Hong Wang, and Geok Ing Ng
21.1 Introduction 534
xiv Contents

21.2 Seebeck Effect Consideration 535

21.2.1 Seebeck-coefficient diffusion component 535
21.2.2 Seebeck-coefficient phonon-drag component 535
21.3 Device Design Consideration 536
21.3.1 Performance of a thermoelectric sensor 536
21.3.2 AlGaAs/InGaAs thermopile design 537
21.3.2.1 H-PILE structure 537
21.3.2.2 High-sensitivity performance design (type-A) 538
21.3.2.3 High-speed performance design (type-C) 539
21.3.3 Scaled-down approach 540
21.4 Sensor Fabrication Technology 541
21.5 Measured Sensor Performance and Discussion 542
21.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 545
Acknowledgments 547
References 547
22 Spin–Orbit Engineering of Semiconductor Heterostructures 551
Henri-Jean Drouhin, Federico Bottegoni, Alberto Ferrari,
T. L. Hoai Nguyen, Jean-Eric Wegrowe, and Guy Fishman
22.1 Introduction 552
22.2 General Definition of Current Operators 554
22.2.1 Current associated with a quantum-mechanical operator 554
22.2.2 Symmetry properties of current operators 558
22.3 Probability Current Related to an Effective Hamiltonian 559
22.3.1 The general nth-order Hamiltonian 559
22.3.2 Velocity operator in the presence of spin–orbit
interaction 560
22.3.3 Velocity and probability-current operators in effective
Hamiltonian formalism 561
22.4 Spin-Current Operator 563
22.5 BenDaniel–Duke-like Formulation and Boundary Conditions 567
22.6 Spin-Split Evanescent States in III-V Semiconductors 571
22.6.1 Evanescent states 571
22.6.2 The [110] direction 574
22.6.3 Constant-g case: solution to the tunneling problem 576
22.6.4 Matching conditions 579
22.7 Conclusion 583
Appendix
22.A Complete Derivation of the Current Operator Jb 584
22.B Evanescent Bands in the [110] Direction 586
22.C Standard Tunneling Case 587
References 589
Contents xv

V Applications 595
23 Current Status of Mid-infrared Semiconductor-Laser-based
Sensor Technologies for Trace-Gas Sensing Applications 597
Rafal Lewicki, Mohammad Jahjah, Yufei Ma, Przemysl aw Stefanski,
Jan Tarka, Manijeh Razeghi, and Frank K. Tittel
23.1 Introduction 598
23.2 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS)
for Ethane Detection 602
23.2.1 Laser characterization 602
23.2.2 Optical sensor architecture 603
23.2.3 Experiments and results 604
23.3 Environmental Detection of Ammonia using an EC-QCL-based
C-PAS Sensor Platform 605
23.3.1 Sensor configuration and results 606
23.4 Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (QEPAS) 609
23.4.1 Methane and nitrous oxide detection 609
23.4.1.1 7.83-mm DFB-QCL for methane and nitrous oxide
detection 609
23.4.1.2 Experiments and results 609
23.4.2 Environmental detection of nitric oxide 611
23.4.3 QEPAS-based ppb-level detection of carbon monoxide
and nitrous oxide 614
23.4.3.1 CW DFB-QCL-based QEPAS sensor system
for CO and N2O 615
23.4.3.2 Experimental results and discussion 616
23.4.4 Sulfur dioxide experiments 620
23.4.4.1 SO2 QEPAS sensor architecture and performance 620
23.5 Conclusions 622
Acknowledgments 624
References 624
24 Application of Quantum Cascade Lasers for Safety and Security 633
Ulrike Willer, Mario Mordmüller, and Wolfgang Schade
24.1 Introduction 633
24.2 Pulsed Laser Fragmentation 635
24.3 Experimental Setup 635
24.4 Results 637
24.5 Discussion 639
24.6 Conclusions 641
References 641
xvi Contents

25 Broadband-Tunable External-Cavity Quantum Cascade Lasers

for Spectroscopy and Standoff Detection 645
Frank Fuchs, Stefan Hugger, Quankui Yang, Jan Jarvis, Michel Kinzer,
Ralf Ostendorf, Christian Schilling, Rachid Driad, Wolfgang Bronner,
Andreas Bächle, Rolf Aidam, and Joachim Wagner
25.1 Introduction 646
25.1.1 Standoff detection of explosives 647
25.1.2 In-line spectroscopy of drinking water 647
25.2 Eye Safety in the Mid-infrared Spectral Region 648
25.3 External-Cavity Quantum Cascade Laser 650
25.3.1 Broadband tuning 650
25.3.2 Fast wavelength tuning 652
25.4 Standoff Detection of Explosives 653
25.4.1 Backscattering spectroscopy 653
25.4.2 Samples 656
25.5 Hyperspectral Data Analysis 656
25.5.1 Adaptive matched subspace detector 657
25.5.2 Background endmember extraction 658
25.5.3 Reference spectra 659
25.5.4 Experimental results 659
25.5.5 Larger distances 662
25.6 Spectroscopy of Hazardous Chemicals in Drinking Water 663
25.7 Conclusions 665
Acknowledgments 665
References 666
26 Emission Spectroscopy in the Mid-infrared using FTIR Spectrometry 673
Yong-gang Zhang
26.1 Introduction 673
26.2 Overall Considerations 675
26.3 System Configuration 677
26.4 Demonstrations and Discussion 680
26.5 Summary and Future Perspectives 688
Acknowledgments 689
References 689
27 Photonic Sensing of Environmental Gaseous Nitrous Acid
(HONO): Opportunities and Challenges 693
Weidong Chen, Rabih Maamary, Xiaojuan Cui, Tao Wu, Eric Fertein,
Dorothée Dewaele, Fabrice Cazier, Qiaozhi Zha, Zheng Xu, Tao Wang,
Yingjian Wang, Weijun Zhang, Xiaoming Gao, Wenqing Liu, and
Fengzhong Dong
27.1 Introduction 694
27.2 State-of-the-Art Instruments for Measurement of Atmospheric
HONO 697
Contents xvii

27.2.1 Wet chemical analytical methods 697

27.2.2 Gas phase spectroscopic analytical methods 698
27.2.2.1 Long-path-length-absorption-based direct
spectroscopic detection (DOAS, TLAS,
IBBCEAS, CRDS, FTIR) 698
27.2.2.2 Indirect spectroscopic detection
(PF-LIF, CIMS, TDC) 700
27.3 HONO Sample Production and Quantification 705
27.3.1 Production of HONO samples in the laboratory 705
27.3.2 Quantification of HONO concentration 706
27.3.3 HONO losses on absorption cell wall 707
27.4 Photonic Monitoring using Infrared Laser 708
27.4.1 Environmental HONO monitoring by multipass-cell-based
long-path-absorption spectroscopy using an 8-mm QCL 708
27.4.2 HONO monitoring near 2.8 mm 711
27.5 Photonic Monitoring using LED-based IBBCCEAS 712
27.5.1 Concentration retrieval of multiple absorbers from a
structured broadband absorption spectrum 713
27.5.2 Determination of cavity mirror reflectivity 713
27.5.3 Allan variance 714
27.5.4 Instrumental development and application 715
27.5.4.1 Open-cavity configuration 715
27.5.4.2 Closed-cavity configuration 718
27.6 Summary and Outlook 720
Acknowledgments 721
References 721
28 Integrated Plasmonic Antennas with Active Optical Devices 739
John Kohoutek, Ryan Gelfand, and Hooman Mohseni
28.1 Introduction 739
28.2 Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM) 743
28.3 Optical Force 746
28.4 Deep Subdiffraction Mechanical Frequency and
Amplitude Modulation 752
28.5 Optical Switching via Near-Field Interaction 758
28.6 Conclusions 763
References 764
29 Quantum-Dot Biosensors using Fluorescence Resonance
Energy Transfer (FRET) 773
James W. Garland, Dinakar Ramadurai, and Siva Sivananthan
29.1 Introduction 773
29.2 Conjugated QDs 776
29.3 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) 778
xviii Contents

29.4 Biosensor using FRET and Antibody-Conjugated QDs:

Concept and Bench-top Results 779
Acknowledgments 785
29.5 EpiSENSE Prototype Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Airborne
Biological Pathogens 785
29.5.1 Sensor design 786
29.5.2 Testing of the EpiSENSE biosensor 788
Acknowledgments 791
29.6 Summary 791
References 791
30 Optoelectronic Applications of Monodisperse Carbon Nanomaterials 795
Heather N. Arnold and Mark C. Hersam
30.1 Introduction 795
30.2 Monodisperse Carbon Nanomaterials 797
30.3 Assembly Strategies 799
30.4 Electronics with Semiconducting SWCNT Films 801
30.5 Optoelectronics with Semiconducting SWCNT Films 804
30.6 Applications for Metallic SWCNTs 805
30.7 Applications of Solution-Processed Graphene 807
30.8 Summary and Future Outlook 810
References 811
Color Plates

31 Design of Radial p–i–n Silicon Nanowires for High-Performance

Solar Cells 823
Binh-Minh Nguyen, Jinkyoung Yoo, Shadi A. Dayeh, Paul Schuele,
David Evans, and S. Tom Picraux
31.1 Introduction 824
31.2 Device Fabrication 825
31.3 Estimation of Depletion Region 827
31.4 Optical Absorption Simulation 831
31.4.1 Effect of nanowire length 832
31.4.2 Effect of pitch size 834
31.5 Conclusion and Outlook 838
Acknowledgments 839
References 839
32 Nanostructured Electrode Interfaces for Energy Applications 843
Palash Gangopadhyay, Kaushik Balakrishnan, and Nasser Peyghambarian
32.1 Introduction 843
32.2 0D Nanostructured Electrodes 848
32.3 1D Nanostructured Electrodes 850
32.4 2D Nanostructures and Nanostructured Electrodes 853
Contents xix

32.4.1 2D nanomaterials in energy storage 854

32.4.2 Supercapacitors 855
32.4.3 Batteries 857
32.4.4 2D nanostructures for flow-based energy harvesting 857
32.4.5 Fabrication of nanostructured electrodes via nanoimprinting 858
32.5 3D Nanostructures 860
32.5.1 3D nanoarchitectures for energy harvesting 861
32.5.2 Sustainable integrated 3D powering solutions 862
32.6 Concluding Remarks 863
Acknowledgment 864
References 865

Index 879
Foreword
Twenty years ago, I met with Prof. Klaus von Klitzing and Prof. Manijeh
Razeghi and other top researchers from around the world for the inauguration
of a new Center for Quantum Devices at Northwestern University. A full two
decades of research later, we have chosen the occasion of the International
Conference on Infrared Optoelectronics (MIOMD-XI) to join together again
at Northwestern to celebrate all of the accomplishments of the intervening
years. This conference not only marks the latest progress in new materials and
devices that followed from my own work in this field, it also highlighted the
richest accomplishments of a full spectrum of prominent world-class scientists.
With the success of this conference, it was decided that a more permanent
volume should commemorate the achievements presented there, so as cochair
of MIOMD-XI, I am happy to announce the occasion in this foreword. This
book collects the best and highest-impact talks from that conference, develops
them into chapters, and collects them into a single condensed volume
representing the current state-of-the-art in infrared materials and devices.
The chapters in this book bear witness to how far we have come since the
invention of manmade semiconductor superlattices in 1969. What started with
the new physics of the Esaki tunnel diode has matured into nanoscale
engineering of semiconductor superlattices to create whole synthetic band
structures. After years of considerable effort to bring this technology to
maturity, we now see the results of this formidable new science in almost every
electronic and photonic device that we encounter. We see it in the electronics
that flood the consumer market, the communication infrastructure that is
rapidly shrinking our world, and in the specialized components such as
quantum cascade lasers or type-II superlattice cameras used for defense and
security—this is truly the age of nanotechnology. I look back with wonder at
all of the exciting developments of the last 44 years and can only imagine
where the future will take this technology and what exciting discoveries await.
Leo Esaki
University of Tokyo
Komaba, Meguro, Japan

xxi
xxii Foreword

Leo Esaki is a Japanese physicist who shared the Nobel

Prize in Physics in 1973 with Ivar Giaever and Brian
David Josephson for his discovery of the phenomenon
of electron tunneling. He is known for his invention of
the Esaki diode, which exploited that phenomenon. He
studied physics at the University of Tokyo where he
received his B.S. in 1947 and his Ph.D. in 1959. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize for his research conducted
around 1967 at Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (now known as Sony). He moved to
the United States in 1960 and joined the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center,
where he became an IBM Fellow in 1967. While at IBM he pioneered the
development of the semiconductor superlattice. Subsequently, he served as the
President of various Japanese universities, for example, University of Tsukuba
and Shibaura Institute of Technology. Since 2006, he has been serving as the
President of the Yokohama College of Pharmacy. Esaki is also the recipient of
The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence, the Order of
Culture (1974) and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1998).
Preface
Nature is nano.
Nature starts with the atom, the building block of all matter, and works
hand-in-hand with her partner the photon, the piece of light that communicates
energy from one atom to another. When nature binds atoms together or creates
physical structures in the micro- and nano-range, the combinations interact
differently with light, providing nature with a rich palette of colors to decorate the
world around us, while also giving rise to the functional complexity of nature. The
wings of a butterfly, the feather of a peacock, the sheen of a pearl—all of these are
examples of nature’s photonic crystals: nanostructured arrangements of atoms
that capture and recast the colors of the rainbow with iridescent beauty. These
diverse combinations of microstructures and atoms in molecules, crystals,
proteins, and cells on the nanoscale eventually give rise to ourselves, sentient
beings, who, in turn, strive to explain the natural world that we see around us.
As our tools to manipulate matter reach ever smaller length scales, we,
too, are able to join in the game of discovery in the nano-world—a game that
nature has long since mastered. We are able to get inside light, on the scale
that atoms do, and create assemblies of atoms that intercept and launch
photons according to the structure we design. We are able to shine light of any
color in beams that can travel to the moon and back. We are able to create
crystals of matter that allow us to see even invisible light in the infrared and
ultraviolet spectrum, and we can enhance our own natural senses. We can
map the universe with telescopes that see invisible colors, and we can probe
the human body to find cures and treat diseases. We can communicate with
each other faster, over ever larger distances, sharing ever more information.
As we marvel at our achievements thus far in the nano-world, and as we
let our imaginations dive into realms that yesterday seemed too fantastic to
consider, we must pause to remember who arrived here long before us and
who still governs the limits of our ambitions.
Let us pay our due respects to wonder at nature as we contemplate the
wonder of nanotechnology.
Klaus von Klitzing
Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research
Stuttgart, Germany
xxiii
xxiv Preface

Klaus von Klitzing is a German physicist known for

discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, for which
he was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. In
1962, von Klitzing passed the Abitur at Artland
Gymnasium in Quakenbrück, Germany, before study-
ing physics at the Braunschweig University of Technol-
ogy, where he received his diploma in 1969. He
continued his studies at the University of Würzburg,
completing his Ph.D. thesis “Galvanomagnetic Properties of Tellurium in
Strong Magnetic Fields” in 1972, and habilitation in 1978. This work was
performed at the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford and the Grenoble High
Magnetic Field Laboratory in France, where he continued to work until
becoming a professor at the Technical University of Munich in 1980. Von
Klitzing has been a director of the Max Planck Institute for Solid State
Research in Stuttgart since 1985. Today, von Klitzing's research focuses on
the properties of low-dimensional electronic systems, typically in low
temperatures and in high magnetic fields.
Introduction
Nature offers us a full assortment of atoms, but nanoengineering is required to
put them together in an elegant way to realize functional structures not found
in nature. To design new optical properties, one must nanoengineer structures
on a length scale smaller than the wavelength of light. To design new
electronic properties, one must nanoengineer structures on a length scale
smaller than the wavelength of the electron. In the end, our ability to control
material composition and shape on nanometer length scales is what gives us
the ability to achieve technological goals that transcend the properties of
naturally occurring materials.
A particularly rich playground for nanotechnology is the so-called III-V
semiconductors, made of atoms from columns III and V of the periodic table,
and constituting compounds with many useful optical and electronic
properties in their own right. Guided by highly accurate simulations of the
electronic structure, modern semiconductor optoelectronic devices are literally
made atom by atom using advanced growth technology such as molecular
beam epitaxy and metal organic chemical vapor deposition to combine these
materials in ways to give them new properties that neither material has on its
own. Modern mastery of materials growth and characterization with the help
of such techniques allows high-power and highly efficient functional devices to
be made, such as those that convert electrical energy into coherent light or
detect light of any wavelength and convert it into an electrical signal.
The cover of this volume shows an example of how nanoengineering can
realize an optoelectronic structure originally proposed by Esaki and Tsu—a
structure that signaled the very dawn of the age of nanotechnology. This so-
called superlattice is a stack of repeated nanolayers of two different
semiconductors GaSb and InAs, together making up a new artificial material
with properties that transcend those of either material alone. As the figure
shows, this material can be grown today with atomic-layer accuracy to detect
infrared light. Then nanofabrication technology can carve out individual
devices from such a material and connect them in an array to make the pixels
of a focal plane array, nanotechnology’s version of a retina. Finally, attaching
this to readout circuitry and mounting it behind a lens in a cooled chamber

xxv
xxvi Introduction

culminates in an infrared camera that sees the heat signal given off by the
same hands that crafted the device from the atom up.
In a broader scope, this volume collects the latest world-class research
breakthroughs that have brought quantum engineering to an unprecedented
level, creating light detectors and emitters over an extremely wide spectral
range from 0.2 to 300 mm. Devices include light-emitting diodes in the deep-
ultraviolet to visible wavelengths. In the infrared, compounds can be
nanoengineered to create quantum cascade lasers and focal plane arrays
based on quantum dots or repeated layers of one material inside another.
These are fast becoming the choice of technology in crucial applications such
as environmental monitoring and space exploration. Last but not least, on the
far-infrared end of the electromagnetic spectrum, also known as the terahertz
region, new nanotechnology allows emission of terahertz waves in a compact
device at room temperature. Continued effort is being devoted to all of the
abovementioned areas, with the intention to develop smart technologies that
meet the current challenges in environment, health, security, and energy. This
volume documents the latest contributions to the world of semiconductor
nanoscale optoelectronics.
The research efforts represented here share a common genesis in the
MIOMD-XI conference at Northwestern University, hosted by the Center for
Quantum Devices in September 2012. The novelty and quality of the work
presented at that conference inspired their collection into this special volume,
representing both the state-of-the-art and the future trends of nanotechnology.
It is a privilege to be able to introduce these works here for posterity so
that they might mark our remarkable progress in the past decades and usher
in the wonders of what nanotechnology holds in store for our future.
Manijeh Razeghi
Center for Quantum Devices
Electrical Engineering & Computer Science Department
Evanston, Illinois, USA

Manijeh Razeghi received the Doctorat d’État es

Sciences Physiques from the Université de Paris,
France, in 1980. After heading the Exploratory
Materials Lab at Thomson-CSF (France), she joined
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, as a
Walter P. Murphy Professor and Director of the Center
for Quantum Devices in Fall 1991, where she created
the undergraduate and graduate program in solid state
engineering. She is one of the leading scientists in the field of semiconductor
Introduction xxvii

science and technology, pioneering the development and implementation of

major modern epitaxial techniques such as MOCVD, VPE, gas MBE, and
MOMBE for the growth of entire compositional ranges of III-V compound
semiconductors. She has authored or coauthored more than 1000 papers,
more than 30 book chapters, and 15 books, including the textbooks
Technology of Quantum Devices, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. (2010),
Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering, 3rd Edition, Springer Science+ Business
Media, Inc. (2009), and The MOCVD Challenge, 2nd Edition, CRC Press (2010),
which discuss some of her pioneering work in InP-GaInAsP and GaAs-GaInAsP
based systems. She holds 50 U.S. patents and has given more than 1000 invited
and plenary talks. Her current research interest is in nanoscale optoelectronic
quantum devices.
An Imaging Perspective from
the Nanometer Scale
Advances in material science at the nanometer scale are opening new doors in
the area of optics and electronics. The ability to manipulate atoms and
photons, and fabricate new material structures offers opportunities to realize
new emitters, detectors, optics, ever-shrinking electronics, and integration of
optics and electronics. These developments are making a big impact in
optoelectronics and integrated circuits, among other fields. In particular,
imaging technology has the opportunity to leverage these developments to
produce new products for military, industrial, medical, security, and other
consumer applications.
The infusion of nanotechnology in modern times has already begun.
These advances are clearly evident in the visible-wavelength band due to pixel
scaling and nanometer-scale CMOS technology. CMOS cameras are available
in cell phones and many other consumer products. Similarly, carbon nanotubes,
graphene, and quantum dots are making inroads in the displays and visible
camera market. Advances in the infrared wavelengths for imaging technology
have been slow due to a lack of market volume and many technological barriers
in detectors and optical materials, as well as fundamental limits imposed by the
scaling laws of traditional optics. However, the advances in nanometer-scale
engineering coupled with innovations in photonics, optics, focal plane arrays,
and computation are paving the way for new approaches in infrared research
and development. There is, of course, much room for improvement in both the
visible and infrared imaging technologies. Further advancement in imaging
systems requires solutions for many technical challenges related to wide field of
view, resolution, pixel pitch, optics, multicolor, and form factor. Innovation is
also required to lower the cost of imagers. These solutions can be realized
through progress in nanometer-scale science and engineering.
Traditional research and development activities in infrared photodetectors
have been largely focused on pursuing bulk or epitaxially grown semi-
conductor layers that are reticulated to form detector arrays. Conventional
photodetectors such as p–n junctions and p–i–n photodiodes are some of the
depletion-mode devices widely used in photoreceivers and focal plane arrays.

xxix
xxx An Imaging Perspective from the Nanometer Scale

The optics is designed as multiple lenses made from bulk materials and aligned
in a barrel. However, traditional approaches are unlikely to yield large
improvements in infrared camera development. Specific limitations are large
format, multiple colors, and wide-band detector design with high resolution,
which require incompatible materials for different colors, scaling of pixel size,
and wide-band optics, to list a few. As a consequence, infrared cameras are
large and expensive, and generally limited to military applications. A
paradigm shift in the way components of cameras and other optoelectronic
devices are made is needed to fulfill the future requirements. This shift in
approach will make smaller and lower-cost infrared cameras, lasers, and many
other optoelectronic products available for both civilian and military markets.
Nanotechnology is paving the way for a new dimension involving more
versatile material designs that enable large format, multicolor, and wide-band
infrared focal plane arrays. One example is the type-II superlattice approach
that uses a set of different compound semiconductor materials to design
multiple band detectors on a single substrate. The type-II superlattice
technique takes advantage of nanometer-scale stacking of different exotic
materials to tailor the bandgap. The nanometer-scale manipulation of
different exotic materials, therefore, allows for a new material design whose
optical properties can be modified from the individual bulk material. Thus, an
artificially created new “lattice structure” can be formed in mixed
semiconductor crystals, allowing for bandgap engineering. Another example
is the nanometer-scale structuring of a thin compound semiconductor material
to fabricate a photonic crystal. Subwavelength-sized semiconductor pillar
arrays within a single detector can be designed and structured as an ensemble
of photon trapping units to significantly increase absorption and quantum
efficiency for a wide band of wavelengths. Each sub-element in each pixel can
be a 3D photonic structure fabricated using either a top-down or bottom-up
process. The sub-element architecture can be of different shapes such as
pyramidal, sinusoidal, or rectangular. Additionally, the sub-elements
themselves can have p–n junctions. The motivation for this design is to
significantly increase photon trapping of a wide range of wavelengths, and
their subsequent absorption and generation of electron–hole pairs in the
absorber material. Such a design also leads to a reduction in the material
volume and, thus, a decrease in the dark current. The subwavelength photonic
trap allows for high absorption and increases the signal-to-noise ratio.
Metamaterials to manipulate light is yet another technique leveraged by
nanotechnology and can be used to develop monolithic filters directly on
wide-band detectors. Such an arrangement offers a real shift in the way
infrared focal plane arrays are designed. Nanometer-scale structuring also has
merit in solar cells, lasers, and light-emitting diodes. Bandgap engineering and
nanometer-scale structuring both modify the fundamental building block of
the materials.
An Imaging Perspective from the Nanometer Scale xxxi

Nanotechnology is making a significant impact in the optics field. The

advances in nanophotonics and the associated physics of surface plasmon-
polaritons and subwavelength-aperture extraordinary optical transmission will
allow detector size to shrink smaller than the wavelength it detects. SPPs are
electromagnetic excitations on the surface of a metal whose electromagnetic
field is confined to the vicinity of the dielectric–metal interface, leading to a
significant enhancement of the electromagnetic field. This field enhancement
facilitates incident light to be funneled through subwavelength apertures
exhibiting extraordinary optical transmission. Nanophotonic designs can be
used to couple photons to very thin and tiny detectors. These nanometer-scale
optical designs would make it possible to make very high-density, large-format
focal plane arrays. Advances in the aforementioned nanotechnology, if realized
with high efficiency, will open doors for infrared cameras with unprecedented
form factors and functionality. These cameras could be as small as CMOS
cell-phone cameras and yet provide multicolor coverage of a broad range of
wavelengths in a single unit.
Efforts are underway to integrate optically efficient compound materials
into an electronically mature common platform such as silicon to produce
very efficient hybrid optoelectronics products. Incompatibility in different
material systems has been the primary barrier in identifying a unitary host
material for large-scale integration of electronics and photonics to produce
efficient optoelectronic systems. Over the last ten or more years, developments
and advances in the bottom-up synthesis of 1D nanowires and colloidal
quantum dots with precise control on the chemical compositions, morphol-
ogies, and sizes have enabled researchers to fabricate novel nanometer-scale
devices such as photodetectors, displays, nanowire field effect transistors,
light-emitting diodes, complementary inverters, complex logic gates, lasers,
and chemical sensors. Simultaneously, the current state-of-the-art silicon
CMOS technology has already been scaled down to nanometer feature sizes
and is approaching the physical lower limit of beneficial scaling. These trends
motivate a search for new technologies that may allow widespread and cost-
effective integration of nanometer-scale components in devices and circuits for
electronic as well as optoelectronic applications. For instance, quantum dots
of different sizes respond to different wavelengths. Direct integration of these
quantum dots on silicon integrated circuits opens the door for a new approach
to focal plane arrays and infrared cameras.
Nanometer-scale architectures play an important role in nature. Many
biological systems exhibit interesting structures that manipulate light. For
example, the Morpho butterflies are known for their brilliant colors arising
from the nanometer nature of the scales on their wings. The Melanophila
acuminata beetle, pythons, and other species use their thermal pits to sense
infrared light. These thermal pits are made up of nanometer-sized pigments.
Using quantum dots, bio-inspired nanometer engineering can lead to
xxxii An Imaging Perspective from the Nanometer Scale

fabricating artificial thermal pits similar to beetles’ or pythons’ thermal pits.

Biology, therefore, offers rich insight into the science and wonders of light
interaction at the nanometer scale.
There is an unlimited potential in nanotechnology. Scientists have only
scratched the surface. Progress in nanometer-scale fabrication will drive low-
cost manufacturing and continue to open new doors in optoelectronics
technology. This volume, The Wonder of Nanotechnology: Quantum
Optoelectronic Devices and Applications, edited by Manijeh Razeghi, Leo
Esaki, and Klaus von Klitzing presents the latest developments in the
application of nanotechnology to modern semiconductor optoelectronic
devices. The coeditor Prof. Razeghi is a Walter P. Murphy Professor and
Director of the Center for Quantum Devices at Northwestern University. She
has pioneered nanometer-scale architectures in semiconductor technology.
Her research in quantum materials has culminated in various technologies
such as type-II strained-layer superlattice infrared detectors, lasers, and
terahertz technology, to name a few. This volume is also blessed with the
participation of Nobel Prize winners, Leo Esaki and Klaus von Klitzing.
Their contributions in quantum physics have revolutionized nanometer-scale
science and have paved the way for nanotechnology to advance. The
collection of research efforts represented here provides a glimpse of a wide
range of activities in the optoelectronics science motivated by nanotechnol-
ogy. The collection is compiled from a recent MIOMD-XI conference held at
Northwestern University, Center for Quantum Devices in September 2012.
Nibir K. Dhar
Program Manager
Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
Arlington, Virginia, USA

Nibir K. Dhar received the Ph.D. in electrical

engineering from the University of Maryland in 1997.
After heading the Electro-Optics and Photonics branch
at the Army Research Laboratory, he joined the
Microsystems Technology Office at Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency as a program manager in
2008. He is one of the leading scientists in the field of
infrared imaging science and technology. He has
pioneered the development of infrared focal plane arrays on silicon substrates
for large-format-camera technology. He has developed and managed
numerous research projects in epitaxial and bandgap-engineered materials
including type-II superlattice, quantum dots, quantum wires, detectors, lasers,
and systems design. His current efforts at DARPA have led to novel
An Imaging Perspective from the Nanometer Scale xxxiii

architectures in focal plane array designs for wide-band and multi-color, pixel
sizes at subwavelengths, wafer scale optics, wafer scale IR cameras, novel
system architectures for gigapixel-class cameras, and bio-inspired nanometer-
scale sensor technologies. These efforts have culminated into a new set of
infrared camera technologies and tools that are revolutionizing the way focal
plane arrays, optics, and cameras are produced. Dr. Dhar has authored
numerous papers and chapters on infrared technology, served as chairperson
on numerous conferences and committees, and served as coeditor of several
conference proceedings. He mentored and served on eight doctoral thesis
advisory committees on various subjects. He is also Fellow of SPIE.
List of Contributors

Masayuki Abe J. Reinhardt Botha

3D-bio Co., Ltd., Hadano, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan
Kanagawa, Japan University, Port Elizabeth,
South Africa
Rolf Aidam
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Federico Bottegoni
Solid State Physics, Freiburg, Politecnico di Milano, Milano,
Germany Italy and École Polytechnique,
Palaiseau, France
Kian Siong Ang
Nanyang Technnological Wolfgang Bronner
University, Singapore Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Mehdi Anwar Germany
University of Connecticut, Storrs,
Connecticut, USA Gail J. Brown
Air Force Research Laboratory,
Heather N. Arnold Wright-Paterson Air Force Base,
Northwestern University, Evanston, Ohio, USA
Illinois, USA
Peter J. Carrington
Andreas Bächle Lancaster University, Lancaster,
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied United Kingdom
Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Germany Fabrice Cazier
University of the Littoral Opal
Kaushik Balakrishnan Coast, Dunkerque,
The University of Arizona, Tucson, France
Arizona, USA
Oray Orkun Cellek
Can Bayram Arizona State University,
T. J. Watson Research Center, Tempe, Arizona,
Yorktown Heights, New York, USA USA
xxxv
xxxvi List of Contributors

Weidong Chen Henri-Jean Drouhin

University of the Littoral Opal École Polytechnique, Palaiseau,
Coast, Dunkerque, France France

Hung Chi Chou Said Elhamri

University of Connecticut, Storrs, University of Dayton, Dayton,
Connecticut, USA Ohio, USA

Xiaojuan Cui David Evans

University of the Littoral Opal Sharp Laboratories of America,
Coast, Dunkerque, Camas, Washington, USA
France and Nanchang Hangkong
University, Nanchang, Jenyu Fan
China AdTech Optics, Inc., City of
Industry, California, USA
Leonid V. Danilov,
Ioffe Physical Technical Institute, Ferdinand Felder
St. Petersburg, Russia ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
and Phocone AG, Zurich,
Shadi A. Dayeh Switzerland
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico, Alberto Ferrari
USA and University of California, Politecnico di Milano, Milano,
San Diego, La Jolla, California, Italy
USA
Eric Fertein
Dorothée Dewaele University of the Littoral Opal
University of the Littoral Opal Coast, Dunkerque, France
Coast, Dunkerque, France
Matthias Fill
Gianni Di Domenico ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Université de Neuchâtel, and Phocone AG, Zurich,
Neuchâtel, Switzerland Switzerland

Fengzhong Dong Guy Fishman

Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Université Paris-Sud, Orsay,
Mechanics, Hefei, China France

Rachid Driad Frank Fuchs

Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
Solid State Physics, Freiburg, Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Germany Germany
List of Contributors xxxvii

Palash Gangopadhyay Daniel Hofstetter

The University of Arizona, Tucson, Université de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel,
Arizona, USA Switzerland

Xiaoming Gao Linda Höglund

Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine California Institute of Technology,
Mechanics, Hefei, China Pasadena, California,
USA
James W. Garland
Episensors, Inc., Bolingbrook, Alice Hospodková
Illinois, USA and Sivananthan Institute of Physics, Prague, Czech
Laboratories, Inc., Bolingbrook, Republic
Illinois, USA
Stefan Hugger
Ryan Gelfand Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
Northwestern University, Evanston, Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Illinois, USA Germany

Matthew A. Grayson Eduard Hulicius

Northwestern University, Evanston, Institute of Physics, Prague, Czech
Illinois, USA Republic

Sarath D. Gunapala Edward V. Ivanov

California Institute of Technology, Ioffe Physical Technical Institute,
Pasadena, California, USA St. Petersburg, Russia

Heather J. Haugan Mohammad Jahjah

Air Force Research Laboratory, Rice University, Houston, Texas,
Wright-Paterson Air Force Base, USA
Ohio, USA
Juanita James
Manus Hayne Lancaster University, Lancaster,
Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Jan Jarvis
Mark C. Hersam Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
Northwestern University, Evanston, Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Illinois, USA Germany

Cory J. Hill Karina V. Kalinina

California Institute of Technology, Ioffe Physical Technical Institute,
Pasadena, California, USA St. Petersburg, Russia
xxxviii List of Contributors

Ehsan Kamrani Frédéric Lesage

École Polytechnique de Montréal, École Polytechnique de Montréal,
Québec, Canada Québec, Canada

Sam A. Keo Rafał Lewicki

California Institute of Technology, Rice University, Houston, Texas,
Pasadena, California, USA USA

Arezou Khoshakhlagh Hua Li

California Institute of Technology, Arizona State University, Tempe,
Pasadena, California, USA Arizona, USA

Mu J. Kim John K. Liu

Air Force Research Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
Wright-Paterson Air Force Base, Pasadena, California, USA
Ohio, USA
Shi Liu
Michel Kinzer Arizona State University, Tempe,
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Arizona, USA
Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Germany Wenqing Liu
Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine
Paul Koenraad Mechanics, Hefei, China
Technical University of Eindhoven,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands Arkadiy Lyakh
Pranalytica, Inc., Santa Monica,
John Kohoutek California, USA
Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois, USA Yufei Ma
Rice University, Houston, Texas,
Anthony Krier USA and Harbin Institute of
Lancaster University, Lancaster, Technology, Harbin,
United Kingdom China

Sanjay Krishna Rabih Maamary

University of New Mexico, University of the Littoral Opal
Albuquerque, New Mexico, Coast, Dunkerque, France
USA
Krishnamurthy Mahalingam
Tim LaFave, Jr. Air Force Research Laboratory,
University of Texas at Dallas, Wright-Paterson Air Force Base,
Richardson, Texas, USA Ohio, USA
List of Contributors xxxix

Richard Maulini Ralf Ostendorf

Pranalytica, Inc., Santa Monica, Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
California, USA Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Germany
Anas Mazady
University of Connecticut, Storrs, Jirí Pangrác
Connecticut, USA Institute of Physics, Prague, Czech
Republic
Maya P. Mikhailova,
Ioffe Physical Technical Institute, C. Kumar N. Patel
St. Petersburg, Russia Pranalytica, Inc., Santa Monica,
California, USA and University of
William C. Mitchel, California, Los Angeles, USA
Air Force Research Laboratory,
Wright-Paterson Air Force Base, Nasser Peyghambarian
Ohio, USA The University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona, USA
Hooman Mohseni
Northwestern University, Evanston, S. Tom Picraux
Illinois, USA Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
Mario Mordmüller
Clausthal University of Technology, Elena A. Plis
Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Jason M. Mumolo
California Institute of Technology, Lu Qi
Pasadena, California, USA Lancaster University, Lancaster,
United Kingdom
Geok Ing Ng
Nanyang Technnological Sir B. Rafol
University, Singapore California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, California, USA
Binh-Minh Nguyen
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Dinakar Ramadurai
Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Episensors, Inc., Bolingbrook,
Illinois, USA and Sivananthan
Jean Nguyen Laboratories, Inc., Bolingbrook,
California Institute of Technology, Illinois, USA
Pasadena, California, USA
Ari Handono Ramelan
T. L. Hoai Nguyen Sebelas Maret University,
Institute of Physics, Hanoi, Vietnam Surakarta, Indonesia
xl List of Contributors

Manijeh Razeghi University of Illinois at Chicago,

Northwestern University, Evanston, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Illinois, USA
Erwin Smakman
Antoni Rogalski Technical University of Eindhoven,
Military University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Warsaw, Poland
David J. Smith
Devendra K. Sadana Arizona State University, Tempe,
T. J. Watson Research Center, Arizona, USA
Yorktown Heights, New York, USA
Alexander Soibel
Mohamad Sawan California Institute of Technology,
École Polytechnique de Montréal, Pasadena, California, USA
Québec, Canada
Elizabeth H. Steenbergen
Wolfgang Schade Air Force Research Laboratory,
Clausthal University of Technology, Wright Patterson Air Force Base,
Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany and Ohio, USA
Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute,
Goslar, Germany Przemysław Stefanski
Rice University, Houston, Texas,
Christian Schilling USA and Wroclaw University of
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
Germany Nikolay D. Stoyanov,
Ioffe Physical Technical Institute,
Stéphane Schilt St. Petersburg, Russia
Université de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel,
Switzerland Frank Szmulowicz
Air Force Research Laboratory,
Paul Schuele Wright-Paterson Air Force Base,
Sharp Laboratories of America, Ohio, USA
Camas, Washington, USA
Boris Tadjikov
Xiaomeng Shen Pranalytica, Inc., Santa Monica,
Arizona State University, Tempe, California, USA
Arizona, USA
Jan Tarka
Siva Sivananthan Rice University, Houston, Texas,
Sivananthan Laboratories, Inc., USA and Wroclaw University of
Bolingbrook, Illinois, USA and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
List of Contributors xli

William E. Tennant Joachim Wagner

Teledyne Imaging Sensors, Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
Camarillo, California, Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
USA Germany

David Z. Ting Hong Wang

California Institute of Technology, Nanyang Technnological
Pasadena, California, USA University, Singapore

Frank K. Tittel Tao Wang

Rice University, Houston, Texas, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
USA University, Hong Kong, China

Lionel Tombez Xiaojun Wang

Université de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, AdTech Optics, Inc., City of
Switzerland Industry, California, USA

Mariano Troccoli Yingjian Wang

AdTech Optics, Inc., City of Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine
Industry, California, USA Mechanics, Hefei, China

Stanley Tsao Jean-Eric Wegrowe

Northwestern University, Evanston, École Polytechnique, Palaiseau,
Illinois, USA France

Alexei Tsekoun Ulrike Willer

Pranalytica, Inc., Santa Monica, Clausthal University of Technology,
California, USA Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany

Raphael Tsu Zheng Xu

University of North Carolina at The Hong Kong Polytechnic
Charlotte, Charlotte, North University, Hong Kong,
Carolina, USA China

Gene Tsvid Yury P. Yakovlev

AdTech Optics, Inc., City of Ioffe Physical Technical Institute,
Industry, California, USA St. Petersburg, Russia

Magnus C. Wagener Quankui Yang

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Fraunhofer Institute for Applied
University, Port Elizabeth, Solid State Physics, Freiburg,
South Africa Germany
xlii List of Contributors

Jinkyoung Yoo Yong-gang Zhang

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA and Information Technology,
Shanghai, China
Robert J. Young,
Lancaster University, Lancaster, Yong-Hang Zhang
United Kingdom Arizona State University, Tempe,
Arizona, USA
Georgy G. Zegrya
Ioffe Physical Technical Institute, Chuanle Zhou
St. Petersburg, Russia Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois, USA
John Zeller
Magnolia Optical Technologies, Qiandong Zhuang,
Inc., Woburn, Massachussetts, USA Lancaster University, Lancaster,
United Kingdom
Qiaozhi Zha
The Hong Kong Polytechnic Markéta Zíková
University, Hong Kong, China Institute of Physics, Prague, Czech
Republic
Weijun Zhang
Anhui Institute of Optics & Fine Hans Zogg
Mechanics, Hefei, China ETH Zurich, Zurich Switzerland
Part I: Historic Overview
Chapter 1
Role of Symmetry in
Conductance, Capacitance,
and Doping of Quantum Dots
Raphael Tsu
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

Tim LaFave, Jr.

University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Birth of the Superlattice
1.2.1 Response of a time dependent electric field and Bloch oscillation
1.3 Resonant Tunneling in Manmade Quantum Wells
1.3.1 Time dependent resonant tunneling
1.3.2 Quantum cascade laser with superlattice components
1.3.3 Type II superlattice
1.3.4 Terahertz sound in Stark ladder superlattices
1.3.5 Cold cathode
1.4 Size Dependent Dielectric Constant «(a)
1.5 Role of Symmetry in Capacitance of Few Electron Quantum Dots
1.5.1 A classical correspondence between quantum dots and atomic structure
1.5.2 Toward a general solution of the Thomson problem and atomic structure
1.5.3 The dielectric function and atomic dimension
1.6 Symmetry: Key in Interaction with Nanotechnology
1.7 A Few Important Considerations
References

1.1 Introduction
A significant difference between classical and quantum systems involving
interactions is generally accepted. Classical systems are characterized by
potentials for interactions with physical parameters like mass and charge
3
4 Chapter 1

involving constitutive equations such as stress, strain, electric potentials and

waves, and elastic, gaseous, and electromagnetic fields. Without explicit
wave motion, classical equations of motion also involve phase because time
is involved with all motion. When waves are present, such as sound and
electromagnetic waves, phase is definitively involved in determining
interactions, leading to modulation and ultimately to parametric amplifica-
tion. The existence of de Broglie waves for all matter mandates a wave
representation. Thus, quantum mechanics becomes the most important
addition to all interactions. However, as with classical systems, we need to
recognize that all parameters, including strain, thermal expansion, dielectric
constant, and magnetization in electric and magnetic fields are also
expressed in terms of constitutive relationships constructed on positive
definite average quantities in the absence of phase. These quantities are
typically characterized by the catch-all phrase random phase approximation
(RPA) introduced by Bohm and Pines1 3 to allow interactions to be
represented by parameters.
To most engineers, RPA is simply the square moduli. Therefore, in
reality, classical interactions expressed by averaging parameters are not
different from quantum interactions using RPA in terms of real and
imaginary parts of constitutive parameters such as the dielectric function,
and others, such as the dependence of uniaxial stress on bandgaps. Common
to all interactions is a dependence on symmetry, which may be distinguished
from phenomenological expressions as detailed many-body expressions.
Here we stress the degree of applicability of RPAs as parameters in quantum
devices. We shall show that whenever phase coherence in any interaction
exceeds the range of interaction, the applicability of RPA is in question. This
frequently occurs in nanometer-scale devices and materials. The examples
we have chosen include a few electrons in nanoscale capacitors, type-II
alignment in heterojunction superlattices, and resonant tunneling devices
where the original band structures are completely transformed when two
adjacent layers have the same energy and momentum, allowing for the
strongest interaction in opening new gaps for bandgap engineering. This is
quite similar to the formation of molecules from atoms. Molecular chemists,
especially polymer chemists, are involved with this sort of issue every day! In
other words, what we stress here are familiar day-to-day concerns for most
theoretical chemists! These points are discussed in terms of practical devices
including superlattices and resonant tunneling, particularly the physics of
quantum dots involving the capacitance of a few-electron system and
doping, as well as the type-II superlattice with broken bandgap alignment.
The strange conductance oscillations and the blinking of light emission
belong to systems where new considerations must be adopted. These
considerations include choosing which boundary conditions to use or, more
precisely, how to develop meaningful boundary conditions in interactions of
Role of Symmetry in Conductance, Capacitance, and Doping of Quantum Dots 5

close encounters. Asked about his legacy of the famous Wigner–Seitz cell,
Frederick Seitz explained to Tsu, “The coordinates I introduced, ,100>,
,111>, and so on will outlast the validity of the Wigner–Seitz cell!” In other
words, determination of boundary conditions in quantum mechanics is a
fundamental issue. In our view, the validity of boundary conditions depends
on determining the degree of accuracy required of a given interaction. The
boundary condition for a large interfacial plane separating two regions is very
different from that of a curved common interface of nanometer dimensions.
The issue is whether averaging is to be applied to the boundary conditions
determining the wavefunctions or to the wavefunctions to be used at the common
boundary. In essence, we need to revisit the issue and applicability of RPA—
the difference between averaging probability densities versus wavefunctions as
commonly used in quantum mechanics. Learning to appreciate a new concept
needs a vehicle. This is why some of the background on the development of
manmade materials must be revisited—particularly those concerning the role
of coherence.

1.2 Birth of the Superlattice

Superlattices, manmade quantum materials, were introduced to expand the
available solids such as silicon for transport devices and GaAs for light-
emitting devices. The success of applying simple concepts to convince the
solid state device community was not based on luck but involved some
sound considerations. These included the application of Pippard’s simple
formula to calculate the current in a periodic band without the usual
shifted distribution function in standard textbooks used in the derivation of
Ohm’s law4 as well as some considerations not publicly known. Among
these publicly unknown considerations is how Frank Herman delivered the
band-edge alignment of GaAs/AlAs heterostructure—the best rules for
band-edge alignment have yet to be developed. Our view is that there is no
single recipe for the determination of band-edge alignment, but that certain
situations, particularly those having different symmetry, require special
considerations. We shall also go into some detail as to why resonant
tunneling was introduced.
Periodicity in real space leads to periodic Brillouin zones, which in turn
lead to Bragg refraction, causing an electron to be reflected. Without
scattering, oscillations result with zero average current in any given cycle.
With scattering, negative differential conductance (NDC) follows and is
the origin of gain. Therefore, low scattering gives rise to high coherence—
high NDC—the essential feature of amplifiers. Therefore, it is essential to
have the overall thickness of the layers below the electron scattering length
to acquire sufficiently long coherence, estimated by Esaki and Tsu to be
three times the mean free path. From the theoretical side, for scattering
representable by a finite mean free time, the transport equation in the most
general form may be exactly represented by Chamber’s path integral.4 This
6 Chapter 1

allows us to dispense with the need of Monte Carlo computations. Besides,

the Chamber’s path integral was used to develop the highly nonlinear
frequency response of a superlattice (SL).5
The physical realization of SLs in terms of NDC was finally achieved
with GaAs, with Ga1 xAlxAs as barriers in forming a periodic system.
There were a couple of very interesting facts in the development of the first
operating SL. How did we assign the band-edge alignment of the
heterojunction? Esaki asked Frank Herman, Director of the Large Scale
Computation Department of IBM, San Jose, who gave the world the first band
structure of Si to compute the band-edge alignment, whether the electron
affinity or the work function may be used to determine the alignment. He said
the answer is no. He added that he did it by aligning the 1s electron state
of the As atom between GaAs and AlAs, resulting in a rule of thumb: 80%
of the bandgap difference goes to the conduction band and 20% to the
valence band. Esaki was overjoyed at this point, but was quickly cooled
down by Frank’s statement that the accuracy is probably no more than
10%, which may negate our applicability. Esaki reminded Frank that he
should reveal this sort of accuracy estimate after we have our paper
published! In fact, this is one of the most difficult theoretical treatments
even today,6 particularly in dealing with type II with the so-called broken-
gap alignment.
Another very important issue involved the fact that IBM did not have
nearly as good results as Bell Labs (BTL). The IBM team was reminded by
a comment made by Al Cho, who jokingly claimed that Esaki’s cigar
smoking kept them from getting better materials. In reality, it was because
of the need to operate the GaAs injection laser at room temperatures (RTs)
that BTL was led to a developmental program on the double-heterojunc-
tion (DH) laser with two GaAlAs barriers to confine the excited species as
well as operate as light reflectors. They established a simple rule of not
exceeding 30% Al for minimizing strain-induced defects. Once the IBM
team finally learned, the difference was night and day! Another issue had
developed when Esaki asked Tsu to take a survey after he presented our
NDC result at IBM. Tsu told Esaki that more than 90% of those in the
IBM auditorium voted yes! He went on to claim a mandate to continue the
program. Ian Gunn got up and stated that he voted no, because NDC is
due to domain oscillations of GaAlAs alloy as in the Gunn diode. Tsu
followed to his office offering an idea of building a single GaAs well with
double barriers of GaAlAs on each side. Gunn reassured him that he
would be the first to support the idea. This idea leads to resonant
tunneling! However, Esaki did not want L. Chang and Tsu to get involved
in such a venture seemingly destined to fail because of pin holes! It was not
until he knew that the Nobel Prize in physics was decided for him and Ivar
Giaever, together with Brian Josephson, that he agreed to try the resonant
Role of Symmetry in Conductance, Capacitance, and Doping of Quantum Dots 7

tunneling route.7 Resonant tunneling has developed into something

possibly more important than the SL (see for example, reasons given by
Tsu in Ref. 8). Modern electronics are driven by a need for speed. Speed
primarily dictates all operational features. We have basically returned to
3D structures, for example, when the source-to-drain separation is less than 10
nm with the cross-sectional area for the electron path of about 100 nm2.
We are moving away from 2D monolithic designs.

1.2.1 Response of a time-dependent electric field and Bloch

oscillation
The Bloch frequency is defined by vB
eFd/ħ, in which F is the applied
electric field, and d is the period of the SL. The condition for NDC becomes
vBt  1. Therefore, the physics of NDC in a manmade SL is intimately
related to the subject of the well-known Wannier–Stark ladder. Since these
earlier treatments, many arguments have appeared against the existence of the
Stark ladder with a finite number of periods. Using a vector potential to
preserve symmetry, Krieger and Iafrate9 were able to remove the objection.
The issue is similar to the fact that the states of a hydrogen atom in a constant
field are not discrete. Strictly speaking, stationary states do not exist, yet there
is no confusion in treating the problem in terms of transitions between
stationary states. By side stepping the issue of stationary states, they showed
that optical transitions involving a selection rule are consistent with the notion
of the Stark ladder.
Lebwohl5 showed that the exact transport solution using Green’s function
is the same as Chamber’s path integral method for the distribution function f,
with a force F, velocity v, and constant collision time t:
Z t0 Z t0
1
f ¼ f0 ðE DEÞ exp½ ðt0 tÞ=t dt0 , where DE ¼ F  v dt00 : ð1:1Þ
t
1 t

Starting with the distribution function for constant relaxation time t given by
Eq. (1.1) and with
1 @E
vx ¼ ,
ħ @kx
then
Z Z Zt0  
1 1 1 @Eðt0 Þ @EðtÞ dt
hvx i ¼ 3 f vx dk ¼ 3 f0 dk  exp½ðt  t0 Þ=t :
4p 4p ħ @kx @kx t
k 1
ð1:2Þ
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 After the centre decoration is placed put on candlesticks or lamps, carafes,
decanters, salts and peppers and any large objects which are to be used,
leaving places for bread plates, relish dishes and the like. These things should
be arranged symmetrically, not as if they were men on a checker-board, but
with the sort of symmetry which the leaves on a vine have. If there is not
some evidence of design in the arrangement of a table, it will look littered.
Add now to the napkin at each place, everything which will be needed
during the meal, or until the serving of the sweet at luncheon or at dinner, or
until the serving of fruit as a last course at any meal. The finger bowl, doily
and silver needed for these courses are frequently arranged on the plate to
be used and brought to each place at the beginning of the course.
At the left of the place lay the forks in the order in which they are to be
used; at the right lay the knives in the same order with their edges toward
the plates; at the right of the knives lay the soup spoon. If the dessert spoon
is put on the table it is placed at the right of the knives and the soup spoon.
Spoons are laid on the table with the hollow of the bowl up, and forks with
the ends of the tines up.
Besides the silver each place needs a glass for water—glasses are turned
up, not down—and others suitable for any beverages which are to be served.
A salt cellar will be needed if individual salts are used. These are not
regarded favourably at present but are tolerated if each has a spoon. And
either a small butter plate or a bread and butter plate and butter knife are
put at each place except sometimes at dinner when butter is not served.
When meals are formally served a plate is put at each place which is
removed when the first course is brought.
One cannot lay places correctly without knowing the menu for the meal.
The food to be eaten determines the objects needed for eating it.
When the table is set with the exception of the food, the sideboard or
serving table, or both should be arranged. On these are put dessert or fruit
plates arranged with finger bowls and silver, all the china not to be heated
which will be needed for the courses of the meal, any seasonings or bottled
sauces which the family are in the habit of asking for, a crumb tray and
napkin or scraper, a small napkin or doily with which a spot of gravy or fruit
juice could be quickly removed from the tablecloth, a water pitcher and a
serving tray. If after-dinner coffee is made on the table, it is convenient to set
out all the articles needed for this on a tray on the sideboard. Room must be
kept on the serving table for the vegetable dishes which are usually left there
during the course to which they belong.
A few minutes before a meal is served is the time to place food such as
pickles, jelly, bread, butter and milk on the table or the serving table and to
fill the glasses with water. If ice is put into each glass it should be done
carefully with a spoon. It adds to the appearance of butter balls and helps to
keep them cool if a lettuce leaf is laid in the dish under them. They keep their
shape and firmness better if kept in a bowl of water when in the refrigerator.
At luncheon or breakfast bread is served on a plate or tray, or the loaf, board
and knife are put on the table. At dinner a piece of bread is laid by each
place or tucked into each napkin. Hot biscuits keep hot longer if a napkin is
spread over the plate and folded over them. Cold bread or crackers, also
cheese, are often served on a folded napkin, they look better so than on a
plate.
In laying the table, time, steps and thought can be saved by taking as
many things as possible from one place at one time. That is, after the linen is
on the table. First put on everything needed from the sideboard, then
everything needed from the china closet, then everything needed from the
pantry. All the articles from each place can sometimes be brought in one trip
with the help of a tray. If the flat silver is kept in a basket, it is better to carry
the basket from place to place and take out what is needed. This saves steps
and some handling of the silver.
When the places where the dishes and silver are to be kept are first
decided upon, and when the order in which the table is set is first learned,
both should be done with the thought of saving steps and of opening
drawers and doors as seldom as possible.
Tables should be set without noise. Not only because it is disagreeable to
hear the rattling of dishes but because thumps, and clatter, and jingle mean
scars on the table, nicks in the china, scratches on the silver and a lack of
that dainty carefulness without which a table is never perfectly set.
Waiting.—"Waiting" requires more "head" than other household
employments. One can keep accounts slowly and laboriously, one can sweep
without possessing much tact, one can even cook without possessing a great
degree of administrative ability, or do laundry work without a good memory.
To "wait" cleverly requires all these qualities.
 The object of waiting is that the needs and wants of those seated at table
shall be supplied without effort, often without consciousness on their part. It
also preserves the orderliness of the table, and makes inquiries about
people's wishes unnecessary. One occasionally hears the objection made to
careful waiting that it makes people thoughtless for the comfort of others. I
would suggest that conversation made agreeable and amusing to others
requires greater and more continued thoughtfulness than passing the beans
and the butter.
The waitress should have in her mind a plan of the meal including not only
the food but also the china, silver and linen needed for serving it. If a meal is
more than two courses long, it is often better to have the plan written out.
This is a little trouble, but saves mistakes, and the necessity of stopping to
think when one has not time to think.
The waitress is expected to be in the dining room when the family enter
for the meal. She should be ready to serve the first course as soon as they
are seated. If this course is oysters or grape-fruit or some such thing, plates
containing it are set before each guest. Two plates can be brought at once if
there are no plates already on the table; if there are, the waitress can only
bring one plate for she must remove the empty plate before she can set the
other down. When the plates are all on the table she will then pass anything
which accompanies the course. Sometimes various small relishes and biscuits
such as are required with raw oysters can be put on the tray and all passed
at the same time.
When the course is finished the soiled plates are removed two at a time
and after that anything from the table belonging to the course. The soup
plates are then brought and set before the hostess if the soup is to be served
on the table. The tureen is placed before her, uncovered, and the cover
deposited on the serving table. The waitress stands at the left of the person
serving, takes each plate as it is ready and places it before a guest. If the
soup is served from the pantry or the serving table, the plates are brought
two at a time, as for the former course.
With a few changes in detail to be noted below, courses are served as one
or other of the two described. This is an outline for serving a course.

Remove the food of the preceding course.

Remove the plates.
Remove relishes, biscuits, etc., belonging especially to that course.
Remove unused plates and silver belonging especially to that course.
 Bring the plates for or containing the next course.
Bring the chief dish of the course.
Serve each person.
Pass anything which completes the course, like sauce or gravy.
Pass anything which accompanies the course, like vegetables, or
sometimes, a salad.
See that glasses are filled, and guests supplied with butter.
Listen for the answer when any one is asked to accept a second helping
or consulted about his wishes.
After an interval, pass a second time anything of which a second helping
may be taken, provided there is none of it on the plate.

Detail (a).—It is the custom for the host to serve the fish and do the
carving. Perhaps it is a survival from the days when these things were the
trophies of his hunting and fishing. The hostess serves the soup, salad and
dessert.
Detail (b).—If the family is large the plates for the meat should be put on
the serving table and one placed before the carver at a time. The waitress
stands beside the carver with the next plate in her hand and puts it before
him when she removes the one which is ready to pass. Or if the waitress is
too much occupied to do this, three or four plates can be put before the
carver, then three or four more.
Detail (c).—A vegetable requiring a separate plate, such as asparagus or
corn on the cob, is served after the other vegetables. A plate for it is first put
at the left of each place and then the vegetable is passed. Salad, when
served with the meat course, is arranged for and passed in the same way.
Detail (d).—Everything to which a guest is to help himself is passed to him
from the left side that he may comfortably use his right hand. Things which
he has already accepted, like a serving of meat or a cup of coffee, are placed
before him by the waitress.
Detail (e).—Some authorities say that the people on one side of the table
should be served in the order in which they sit, then the people on the other
side in the same order, without regard to sex or precedence. This is well
enough for a table full of people of about equal age and importance, but in
an ordinary family there are apt to be guests or a grandmother to whom all
slight deferences are due. I took a meal with a family not a great while ago
at which the two small children were served before the guests and their
mother. Extraordinary spectacle!
 The question whether the hostess shall be served first or not is much
discussed. I can only say that I have never yet seen a "guest of honour" who
would not have been glad if the hostess had been served before her.
The outline for serving a course, with the addition of the suggestions
above, holds good until dessert. At the end of the course before dessert, the
table is cleared of everything except the decorations and glasses. The carving
cloth is lightly folded together and carried away. Crumbs are removed and
any disarrangement restored to order. Then the dessert plates, arranged with
finger bowl, doily and silver are brought from the sideboard. As soon as one
is placed before each guest the dessert is served. If it is served by the
hostess the waitress takes the first plate from before the hostess as soon as
it is ready and replaces it with an extra one which she has in her hand. She
brings back the one she removes from before the guest whom she served
and places it before the hostess when she removes the one filled in her
absence.
The conventional dress for a waitress is a plain black frock with white
collar and cuffs, a large white apron with a bib and shoulder straps, and a
small cap. At breakfast she usually wears a light-coloured cotton frock instead
of the black one as this is more suitable for the work she does in the
morning. Her shoes should be comfortable for her own sake, and noiseless
for the sake of others. The same cleanliness and daintiness which are
necessary in her work should also be hers personally. I cannot believe that it
is ever very difficult to persuade a girl to this. Probably a mistress need only
express an interest in her waitress's hair, and teeth, and hands, and pretty
looks and they will soon be well cared for. Such interest on the part of the
mistress is not merely requited with an improvement in the appearance of
her waitress. A girl who can put a dainty collar on herself has taken a long
step toward being able to put a dainty collar on a chop-bone; if her hands
are clean and soft, she will not like disgusting dishwater or soppy glass-
towels any better than her mistress does.
Waiting and elaborate methods of serving meals may easily become a
nuisance and a burden instead of a help and a pleasure. To try for
"appearances" to which the skill and strength of a waitress or a maid-of-all-
work are unequal is to produce a worried hostess and nervous, wearied
guests. A certain degree of order, daintiness and formality should characterize
every meal, but these things do not depend upon the number of courses, nor
upon the presence of a waitress.
 In a household where there is no maid, thoughtfulness beforehand can
prevent any getting up from table except between courses. All the food and
accessories for a course must be placed on the table and served by some
member of the family, and the plates must be passed from hand to hand.
Sometimes two or even three courses can be agreeably put together, as
when a salad is served with the meat course, or fruit and coffee are brought
with the dessert. Often in this way a dinner can be acceptably served with
only one or two clearings of the table, which under other circumstances
would have been five or six courses long. A large tray on the serving table
upon which the plates and dishes can be put and all removed together is a
great assistance. Upon such a tray, also, everything necessary for a whole
course can often be brought from the kitchen at one trip. The article known
as a dinner wagon is even better as an assistant than a tray.
In a small family it makes less confusion if only one person does the
necessary waiting. A daughter rather than a mother should do this, or the
person who has not done the cooking rather than the person who has. In a
large family two people should do the waiting, partly for speed, partly
because it is hard work. There is the further advantage that work done by
two people is much more cheerful than work done by one. I have little
patience with families in which one sister does all the housework for a week
or a month, and then another takes it for the same length of time. It is well
enough to divide the work into departments and sometimes exchange those,
but no sister should rock on the veranda while the other washes the dishes
alone. In the first place it is not economic—two could do the work more
quickly and then both could rest. And besides, what a loss of companionship!
The most helpful and intimate talks I have ever had with one of my sisters
have been while we were washing dishes together.
In households where there is but one maid, it is wise to make her duties
as waitress few and simple. She is probably not trained for the work, and
besides, if she has cooked the meal, she is hot and tired just at the moment
when she should be fresh and alert. Under such conditions the waiting is not
likely to be well and quickly done. If the maid does those things which
prevent any getting up from table, that is really enough for her to do. If,
however, you wish her to pass plates and vegetables, at least serve the sauce
on the platter with the fish, have the gravy for the meat and the sauce for
the pudding placed where the server can help them, and depend upon those
seated at the table to pass the bread, butter, pickles and jelly which are
before them.
 In clearing the table, the large tray mentioned before is an aid which
should be allowed to one maid. Any piling of dishes as they are removed,
however carefully done, looks unpleasant; taking two plates to the pantry at
a time costs many steps. The large tray on the serving table is a compromise
between these alternatives which I have found good.
Waiting, like table setting cannot become excellent unless it is
characterized by an almost exaggerated carefulness. Whether the meal is
elaborate or extremely simple, evidences should never be lacking of minute
thoughtfulness and of the use of careful hands.
The Pantry.—A pantry is like a tea basket, or a handy box, or a ship's
cabin. It is a small space containing a great variety of useful things. The one
virtue necessary above all others in such a space is orderliness. Without it
convenient compactness becomes crowded confusion.
Things not connected with pantry work should have a place found for
them elsewhere.
Things most frequently used should be on the shelves and in the drawers
which require least reaching and stooping.
Things of the same kind should be grouped together except when this
violates the previous rule. That is, for the sake of keeping all the platters
together, it is not necessary to use precious space on the most practicable
pantry shelf for a platter only used at Thanksgiving and Christmas.
Dish Washing.—Dish washing is such a frequent and important part of
pantry work that it deserves a few words of description, perhaps of praise.
Dish-washing accessories should be within arms' reach as one stands at
the sink. They are: a dishpan, soap, borax or ammonia, towels—soft ones for
the fine dishes, coarser ones for the heavier dishes—a dish drainer, a sink
strainer for scraps. To these may be added a mop and a dishcloth if you feel
you must have these articles, but I wish I could convert you to the use
instead of a small-sized whisk, or a little fibre broom such as is sold for
cleaning sinks. Broom straws softened by warm water will not scratch cut
glass and yet are stiff enough to use for washing pots. The little broom can
be scalded and dried through and through on the back of the stove. It does
not smell, and dish washing done with it is as different from dish washing
done with a cloth, as eating with a fork is different from eating with your
fingers.
 In a pantry where many dishes are washed a folding table is a serviceable
accessory to dish washing. It can be set up to receive the dried dishes, and
folded again when no longer needed.
The list of accessories for dish washing done where there is no running
water is slightly different. One must then have one or two kettles of hot
water on the fire. The dish drainer must have a tray to stand on or be
replaced with pans. The sink strainer will not be needed. A bowl can be used
instead, but not a tin receptacle, for scraps of food sometimes combine to
form acids which eat or discolour tin.
The Preparation.—For the work of dish washing, first get yourself ready.
Put on an apron, preferably one with a bib. If your sleeves are long, either
turn them back or cover them with half-sleeves which button tightly round
the wrist.
Next put away all food.
Then prepare the dishes. Gather the glass together. Empty the tumblers
which have contained water, but fill with water those which have contained
milk. Collect the cups and saucers, emptying the cups and rinsing out dregs
or tea leaves. Scrape the plates thoroughly with a spoon, not with a knife,
and pile each kind together. If there is much gravy or sauce upon them, rub
them off quickly with a discarded crust or a celery stalk. Put the silver into a
bowl or pitcher and pour water upon it. Platters should be scraped like the
plates. Fill cream pitchers, gravy boats and vegetable dishes with water.
All this preparation is not old-maidishness and a waste of time. It saves
time, and dishes, and disgust.
The Process.—When the dishes have been made ready for washing, pour
a generous supply of hot water into the dishpan. Put into it a little borax, or a
larger supply if the water is hard. Lay in two or three glasses. They should be
put in edge first, wet inside and out at the same moment, and not laid close
enough to touch each other. Take them out one at a time and immediately
wipe them dry and bright. They become streaked if allowed to drain. Replace
those taken out with others to be washed. Set the wiped glasses in a space
prepared for them on a shelf or table, or if there is little room in the pantry
put them on a tray which can be carried at once to the cupboard. After the
glasses, wash and wipe any other glass which is not greasy, but leave
anything which is until after soap has been put into the water.
 Neither the glass nor any of the dishes should be touched with one's bare
hand after it is lifted from the water, but should be held always with the
cloth, wiped and polished with the cloth and set down at last with a hand still
covered.
When the glass is finished, put soap into the water with the aid of a soap
shaker or any other contrivance which prevents the soap from lying in the
water or from being stuck on a fork. Make good suds, but not strong suds,
for this injures colour and gilding.
Dishes are usually washed in the order of greasiness, therefore the cups
and saucers come next after the glass and after these any plates which are
but slightly soiled. These cleaner dishes often need no rubbing with cloth or
brush, but can be lifted out of the water and placed in a drainer or pan, the
cups on their sides, the plates on edge. Rubbing, however gentle, at last
wears off decoration. Dishes must never lie soaking in the dish-water
because this also injures their decorations. A few of the same kind should be
put in the water at a time, washed and immediately removed. This is the
chief preventive of chipping and breaking, and it also allows room enough in
the water for thorough washing.
The silver is the next thing to wash. If the water has cooled by this time it
should be changed, or if one has to be economical, it can be partially
changed and more soap added. Usually the flat silver can all be put into the
water at once, then washed a few pieces at a time and laid carefully in a
drainer or pan. Some housewives prefer to wipe the silver, like the glasses,
immediately from the dish-water, but as it has to be washed with soap, there
is a good reason for rinsing it. Larger pieces of silver must be put in like the
dishes, a piece or two at a time, to prevent dents and scratches.
Next wash plates, never allowing small ones and large ones in the water
together, then platters, vegetable dishes, milk pitchers, salad bowl and gravy
boat, putting not more than one or two in the water at a time.
As often as dishwater becomes cool or greasy, change it. This is a fixed
rule for those who have an ample water supply. If however, it is necessary to
be extremely economical with water, it is better to stint the dishwater than
the rinsing water.
There are two extreme ways of rinsing dishes and a middle way. One of
the extremes is to immerse the dishes in a pan of hot water and wipe them
therefrom. This is indeed cleanly but it takes much water and many towels.
The other extreme is to arrange them in a drainer and either pour scalding
water over them or immerse them for a moment in scalding water and then
leave them to dry by their own heat which they do almost instantly. A zealous
housewife finds it hard to believe that this is as good as wiping, but the
smooth, shining dishes which result from it convince her.
The middle way is to set the dishes in a drainer and pour scalding water
over them as in the other case, but this time to complete the work by wiping
each piece. They are so nearly dry that the wiping is but a small act, often
little more than a keen inspection and a rub for good measure.
Delicate china must not be rinsed with extremely hot water as a sudden
change of temperature sometimes breaks it as it does glass.
The rinsing method first described is best for silver for it should be
thoroughly rinsed in very hot water and dried with a cloth and vigorous
rubbing. Any evaporating process leaves it dull and spotted. As one wipes it,
any piece discoloured or dull should be laid aside for special attention. Egg
stains can be removed with a little salt, or often just with rubbing them with
a cloth which has been used to apply silver polish. If one has no covered
shelf or table on which the silver can be laid as it is wiped, it is well to spread
a towel to receive it. This saves noise and scratching.
Carafes, decanters, vinegar cruets or any narrow necked articles can be
cleaned with chopped white potato, or with crushed egg shells. A
combination of crushed egg shells, ¼ cup of salt and ½ cup of vinegar is
also good for this purpose. A slim paint brush—the kind used to paint window
casings, not pictures—is excellent for washing bottles. The brush end will do
the washing and the handle end with a towel over it will do the wiping. There
are regular bottle brushes but I have found a paint brush better than any one
I have yet tried.
Steel knives, whether plated or not, need special care. They should never,
never be laid in water but held in the dish washer's hands while they are
washed, then wiped perfectly dry. If they are silver plated they are polished
like the rest of the silver except that they are wet as little as possible. If not
plated they must be scoured as often as used. This helps to keep them sharp
as well as bright. Rest the blades flat on a board when cleaning them,
otherwise they may be bent or even broken. After they have been scoured,
they must be washed with the same care as before and dried thoroughly.
Avoid anything, whether hot water or excessive friction, which greatly heats
the blades, for this breaks the handles by expanding the steel pieces which
run up into them.
Discoloured knife handles will sometimes whiten if scoured with a piece of
lemon dipped in salt and washed off quickly with hot soapsuds. Powdered
pumice also whitens them.
After the dishes are washed and wiped, all the cloths and brushes used
should be thoroughly washed in hot suds, then carefully rinsed. If they can
be hung out in the sun, that is best, but if not, they should be hung where
they will dry before they are needed again. One may not be able to spare
time to wash or even rinse the towels after every dish washing, but they
must positively be washed once a day. Sticky and unpleasant-smelling table
appointments quickly result from neglected towels and dishcloths.
And what can be said in praise of dish washing? Well, it is making things
clean and there is always satisfaction in that; it is a sign that one more thing
is finished and there is satisfaction in that, even though another begins at
once; and, personally I like dish washing because it is work that after a little
practice can be done almost entirely with hands and eyes, and so the time it
takes may be a rest time, or a thought time, or a prayer time as one wills it.
Silver Cleaning.—Some people say silver must be cleaned once a week,
others once a fortnight, others contend that once a month is enough. A
general rule cannot be made, however, for a thing which depends entirely on
particular climate, particular light and heating apparatus and particular
standards of care and orderliness. One can only say polish it as often as it
needs polishing and not oftener.
Those silver polishes which are intended to be rubbed on the articles and
then removed with very hot water are the more desirable. A silver polish
which is hard on hands is to be avoided, not merely for the hands' sake but
for the silver's.
To clean silver, one requires a soft cloth and a soft hair brush for applying
the polish; also several other soft cloths, a piece of chamois skin and a clean,
soft brush for polishing.
Rub the polish on smooth surfaces with a soft cloth, on filigree or
engraving with a soft brush. Wash in very hot water, wipe with soft cloths,
polish with chamois skin and a soft brush. Never touch the silver with bare
hands after it comes out of the hot water. To wear a pair of chamois gloves
while doing this work is an excellent help and protection.
 If silver not constantly in use is kept in canton-flannel bags in a box where
there is a piece of gum camphor, it will be as bright when it is taken out as it
was when it was put in. The bags are better than tissue paper, for this
sometimes contains chemicals which discolour the silver. New silver usually
comes in such bags, but the time and money necessary for making bags for
older pieces, are saved again and again by the unaided care they take of the
silver committed to them. White canton flannel is not good for this purpose,
it soils easily and the chemicals used for bleaching it discolour silver.
There remains but to say that ideal dining room and pantry work combine
military order with a daintiness which puts pansies into finger bowls. That
simple loveliness and devoted thoughtfulness are more necessary in table
service than heavy damask and beautiful china. And that, above all, one must
not think that care and work expended upon meals are put to a poor use.
Family meals are deeply hallowed by long custom and by sacred associations.
We shall not be wrong to try earnestly and gladly to make the meal hours
times of loveliness and thankfulness and laughter.
 IX

THE KITCHEN

(a.) FURNISHINGS

K ITCHENS have shrunk in size since the days of our grandmothers, not so
much because we know more than our grandmothers as because
conditions of living have changed. Kitchens are no longer used to store winter
supplies which must be kept from the cold, nor are they now used for laundry
and dairy work, spinning and sociability. A house in which there are many
workers, in which there is bountiful providing and constant hospitality, still
needs a large kitchen; on the contrary, an apartment in which the dining
room will barely permit six at table may well have a kitchen in which
everything is within hand's reach.
Many of us have no opportunity to choose whether our kitchens shall be
large or small. In building a new house, however, the opportunity sometimes
presents itself, and some of the things to consider in making the choice are
the number of people who are to work in the kitchen, the size and
elaborateness of the meals to be prepared there, whether there is to be also
a pantry and a store room, whether the laundry work is done in the kitchen
and whether the servant or servants have any other place to sit. In regard to
these two latter considerations, it may be safely said that a small kitchen and
a small laundry are almost invariably better than a large room for both
purposes; and that a tiny kitchen and a tiny servants' sitting room are better
both for health and comfort than a combination. If it is possible, the kitchen
should be used only for cooking, and should contain only such things as are
needed for that work.
As a kitchen is a place where especial cleanliness is necessary, soap and
water should be no enemy to its contents. Probably a room lined with glazed
tiles is the best kitchen, but as yet these are rare.
Walls and Woodwork.—Hard-finish plaster painted some light colour and
given a final coating of enamel paint is a satisfactory but somewhat
expensive finish for kitchen walls.
There are several kinds of wall covering of the nature of oilcloth which
look rather like tiles and may be wiped with water. They are not so good as a
finish which becomes part of the substance of the wall.
Oil and varnish rubbed into plaster walls make them light yellow in colour,
protect them from being discoloured with steam, and produce a surface
which may be frequently washed. A coating of oil followed by a coating of
shellac has much the same result.
Old, rough walls are better covered with a light-coloured, very inexpensive
paper. If this is coated with shellac the walls may be wiped with a damp mop.
Otherwise the paper should be changed frequently. This is the reason it
should be inexpensive. It is well always to get a little more kitchen paper
than is needed, that when necessity arises badly soiled pieces may be
stripped from the walls and new ones fitted into their places.
I once had a whitewashed kitchen and liked it, but it might have looked
odd had it opened on a fire-escape instead of the wood-pile.
Two things are chiefly desirable in the finish of kitchen walls and
woodwork; it ought not to be hurt by soap and water and it ought to be light
coloured. The room is frequently filled with smoke or steam which contains
some greasiness; this can only be removed from the walls and ceiling by
washing them. People have been known to paint kitchens a dark colour with
the idea that they showed dirt less. Dirt should show. Then there is a better
chance that it will be removed. Light colours are needed in the kitchen also to
prevent dark corners, and to increase the light from the windows. Much sun
is a disadvantage to a kitchen; much light is a great advantage. A yellow
kitchen cheers my soul, but many housewives like blue or green better. If you
do your own work, by all means have the kitchen the light colour most
becoming to you, and get your frocks to match; it's a great help.
Floors.—The kitchen floor is a greater problem than kitchen walls. Even
tiles have one disadvantage, they are cold to stand on. There are a variety of
substances resembling mosaic or tiling in appearance which are put down
somewhat like cement or concrete. They are without cracks and easily
mopped, but have the same disadvantage of being hard and cold.
A hardwood floor such as one might have in other rooms is easily spotted
and injured with the things which are rather likely to be spilled or set upon it.
This is true also of a painted floor, with the added objection that heels and
chair-legs quickly mar painted wood.
Linoleum is easily cared for and with reasonable usage lasts well. Oilcloth
is less expensive than linoleum but is in no way so good. Neither of these
floor coverings, nor paint, should be washed with very hot water or with any
strong or gritty cleaning substance, nor should they be scrubbed with a stiff
brush. Such treatment breaks and spoils glossy surfaces. Wash them with a
cloth wrung out of mild luke-warm suds. Wipe them dry, otherwise they will
be streaked.
When linoleum begins to show wear a coat of spar-varnish or carriage
varnish will restore it satisfactorily. These varnishes are not injured by water,
and they dry quickly. A floor varnished at night in dry weather may be walked
on as much as necessity requires the next day. It is better in such a case to
lay down papers to walk on, and move them often to prevent sticking.
Sheets of newspaper or brown paper should be laid all over a floor before
linoleum is put down, otherwise it is almost impossible to get it off the floor
when it is worn out.
I wish to copy here a suggestion for finishing a kitchen floor, for which I
would gladly acknowledge my indebtedness, but I have merely the paragraph
signed G. D. which has been cut from some paper.

Plain, boiled linseed oil is a good finish for the kitchen floor. It should
be put on when the floor is new or clean of other finish, and applied as
needed afterward. Such a floor will have a pleasing, light-brown colour,
will not show marks or scratches, and, kept well oiled, will not spot with
grease. Heat the oil and apply at night, rubbing it in well. In the morning
wipe with cold water, and the floor is ready for use. Wash it with warm
water dashed with a little kerosene.
G. D.

Just a plain floor is a convenient kitchen floor on all days except on those
when it must be scrubbed. Such scrubbing is hard, dirty work and takes a
good deal of time. And I know of no alleviation; one must down on one's
knees and go at it with a scrubbing brush or it will look all the time as if it
needed scrubbing.
Rugs.—Rugs are needed in the kitchen wherever much continued standing
is done, as in front of the sink and the range or beside the table. They
prevent linoleum or oilcloth from becoming worn in one or two spots, they
are sometimes needed for warmth, and they are always needed to spare the
feet and back of the person who does the kitchen work. It makes as much
difference whether one stands for hours on a soft thing or a hard one, as it
does whether one sleeps for hours on a board or a mattress. It is as well if
kitchen rugs are of so little value that they may frequently be thrown away
without regret. A good doormat too shabby to put before the front door is a
treasure to lay before the washtubs.
The sink.—If the kitchen sink is under or beside a window, the pots and
pans will more surely be clean, and the dish washer will not have the
irritation of working in her own light. Sinks are apt to be set too low. For
comfort and for health the rim should be about even with the dish washer's
waist. It is convenient to have draining boards on both sides of the sink, but
by no means always possible.
Whatever material the sink is made of it will need careful cleaning once
every day with scouring soap or soap-powder and a scrubbing brush. This is
not only good for the sink but for the waste pipes, especially if a pan of hot
soapy water is prepared for the scouring and emptied down the pipes when
the sink is finished. This will do much toward keeping the pipes from
becoming grease clogged. Porcelain or enamelled sinks are, of course, more
easily kept clean than iron or tin ones.
Tables.—In a kitchen where there is no sink, the substitute should be a
steady table placed as far from the stove as possible. If a definite place is
appointed for dish washing even to the choice between two ends of a table,
the appliances needed can be hung within reach, and one will naturally pile
soiled dishes in that place and go there to wash them without taking thought
about it.
Besides this table another will be needed on which cake and bread can be
made, or food can be set without fear of contact with soiled dishes or
dishwater. This table is equally necessary in kitchens where there is a sink.
Sometimes in small kitchens its place is taken by the shelf of a dresser, the
tops of the tubs or a board which, when not in use, folds down beside the
wall or the dresser. The point is to have some place other than the draining
boards where food can be prepared.
You will read in magazines that it is lovely to have kitchen tables covered
with white oilcloth. Unfortunately the statement is not always followed by its
complement, namely, that such a covering must be protected from being
scorched and cut by means of pot boards, asbestos mats or folded
newspapers. Several practical cooks and housekeepers have told me that
there is nothing so good in the kitchen as a zinc-covered table. It is not
pretty but one need never spare it any usage, and at rest times its ugliness
may be covered with a cloth. Spots on zinc which will not yield to soap and
water can sometimes be removed with vinegar.
Plain wooden tables are hard to keep in satisfactory order. They are easily
scorched, easily stained, and they require daily scrubbing.
A pretty kitchen is a pride and delight, but the serviceableness and
practicability of its furnishings must be the first consideration in selecting
them. Things which have to be constantly remembered and guarded take too
much thought and strength to be in place in a workshop. A kitchen should be
bright, orderly and noticeably clean, but I think the less it looks like a sitting
room the better. Wherever it is possible, maids should have some other place
to sit.
Chairs.—For much of the kitchen work a woman needs the reach,
muscular leverage and alertness which she gets from standing. There are,
however, some things such as preparing fruit and vegetables, stoning raisins
and beating eggs which she can do as well sitting down. If the kitchen is as it
should be, a workshop, stools are the best seats with which to furnish it.
They may be scrubbed, they take up little room, and they afford an
opportunity to rest, without an accompanying temptation to loiter. "Sittin'
back" is in some places an equivalent phrase for "inactive." It picturesquely
explains why people work more alertly sitting on stools than in chairs.
If the kitchen is also the maids' sitting room, it must have comfortable
chairs in it. But they should be made of scrubable materials, and cushions
should be covered with wash fabrics. Rocking chairs are the worst possible
kind for a kitchen, they are especially irritating to the ankles and temper of
the cook.
Shelves.—Shelves are necessary for kitchen comfort. They are for dishes,
crockery, utensils which can not be hung up and for stores if one has no store
closet. As it is easier to have things stand one deep on shelves, more narrow
shelves will be needed than wide ones. Some people get along with a few
shelves for the sake of having them shut in with glass doors; others have
many shelves like open book-cases and keep the pans, dishes, cups and
bowls turned upside down. Stores have to be kept in tightly closed
receptacles in either case. Most utensils are the better for being kept on open
shelves or hung on hooks in the light and air. That is a rare pot closet which
is quite agreeable either to eye or nose.
Shelves painted white, or covered with white oilcloth or white paper, are
neat and pleasant to look at. Painted ones are probably the least care, they
have only to be occasionally washed and few things injure them. Plain
wooden shelves ought always to be covered, as they are easily stained and
become darkened with dust.
A special shelf or a special place on some shelf is needed for receipt
books.
Hooks.—Each utensil which is to be hung up should have its own hook. If
two or three are hung on the same hook, it is difficult to take down the
undermost article. Rows of hooks should be so arranged that the hooks
alternate instead of coming directly under each other. Pots and kettles which
are hung up should be turned bottom outward as this protects the insides
from dust. The lids of pots and kettles may be easily hung up on a string
stretched tightly across the inside of a closet door, or against the wall
between two hooks. The handles rest on the string and hold the lids up.
Either a roller for a hand towel or a hook on which one can be hung is a
necessary fixture in the kitchen, for a cook needs to wash her hands many
times a day.
Curtains.—Shades are necessary to modify the light and to draw at night,
but the case seems to be against curtains in the kitchen, even against sash
curtains. There should be nothing at the windows to intercept light and free
currents of air, and nothing in the room anywhere which catches dust and
smoke as curtains do.
Light Fixtures.—Light fixtures are better overhead. An additional side light
by the sink, or near both sink and range when possible is a valuable
convenience.
Clock.—A good clock should be part of the kitchen furniture for the sake of
punctuality. An alarm attachment which can be turned off before it has run
completely down is a help to a cook's over-burdened memory. If it is set for
the time when the eggs will be boiled, or the bread or a cake must be looked
at, or the meat will be roasted, there will then be one less thing to remember
and absence from the kitchen will not so invariably cause disaster.
 An Ornament.—If you or the cook would like an ornament in the kitchen,
the delightful thing to have is a copy of a Delia Robbia terra-cotta. Bright
coloured and washable, like the rest of the kitchen! You will laugh perhaps at
the idea of carrying the matter of brightness and cleanliness so far, but do
you not know how dingy and depressing the kitchens of otherwise clean and
lovely houses often are? It is because things which might be cheerful
coloured are dull coloured, and because many things are half soiled for the
reason that they cannot be easily washed. Sometimes too, it is because
nobody cares whether the kitchen is pleasant or not.

(b.) UTENSILS
The number and size of kitchen utensils depend upon the space in which
they must be kept and the number of persons in the household. Their quality
and, to some extent, their number depend on what we are able to pay for
them.
If the space for keeping utensils is small, their number must be kept down
to the minimum. Even with ample space, it is well now and then to weed out
superfluous or inadequate utensils, for each adds a straw's weight to the
work of the kitchen. It is only a straw, but you know what happened to the
camel.
One woman who entertains a large family at Thanksgiving and Christmas,
and at other times has a household of two with an intermittent maid, buys
each year at the five and ten cent store the large utensils and serving dishes
needed for the Thanksgiving dinner. She keeps them until after the Christmas
dinner, then gives them away and returns to her usual outfit of small things.
Perhaps you ask, why not use the big ones all the time instead of having two
sizes? Because they take more time, more food, and in the case of the
serving dishes, make a poor appearance. A household which constantly
changes in number needs two sizes, one small and one large, of each thing
in frequent use. Of certain things there should be two or three in any kitchen;
such are, bowls, mixing spoons, platters, paring knives, saucepans and
double boilers. It is well to get such things of different kinds and of
graduated sizes because they are for various uses.
Materials.—The kitchen is prettier if all the utensils are of the same colour
and in general of the same material. Expense and practical usefulness,
however, must be considered before good looks. If the kitchen is blue, do not
buy a bowl with a pink band round it, a cake turner with a red handle and a
brown agate pot, when you can perfectly well get them in suitable colours.
On the contrary, if the brown pot is a more convenient shape and size than a
blue or white one, get the brown one; if a thick iron frying pan cooks food
better than a white agate one, take the iron one.
Enamelled utensils are neat, pretty, seldom acted upon by chemicals in the
food and are cared for more easily than those of any other material. They are
expensive, but last well if they are not abused.
Tin articles are light to handle and cheap, but soon become discoloured
and require a good deal of scouring to keep them in fair condition.
Iron utensils are heavy, hard to keep clean and rarely necessary.
Pots and pans are now frequently made of aluminum. It is a luxury to lift
them and they are pretty, but they are also costly and easily injured.
Copper utensils have become rare; their chief recommendation is beauty.
A College kitchen in Oxford glowing with rows and rows of copper platters
and dish covers and pots and kettles remains in my memory as a glory and a
splendour. But, my stars! what generations of scourers have toiled to see
their crooked images appear in those red-gold surfaces!
Copper articles have a disadvantage beyond requiring much care. If used
for food they should be tin lined and the lining kept in good condition, for
sometimes chemicals in food form a poisonous combination with the copper.
Our ancestors did not have to worry about copper pots. When they were
poisoned, they drowned a witch or went on a pilgrimage, and recovered or
not according to their constitutions.
Wooden conveniences for the kitchen, such as rolling pins and pastry
boards are also gradually giving place to those made of other materials, for
the reason that they are less cleanly and less cool than articles made of glass
or metal.
Selection.—The cook's personal preferences should be considered
whenever kitchen utensils are bought. Many housewives consult their cooks
before purchasing new articles. I know one who sends the cook to the shop
to do the purchasing. That such thoughtfulness and care are not always
exercised is evidenced by the fact that some excellent cooks own a number
of cooking utensils themselves because they do not find them in the kitchens
in which they work, and can seldom persuade their mistresses to buy them.
 The most satisfactory way to get a kitchen outfit is to buy a few things at
a time. They will in this way be more carefully selected, the expense will not
fall heavily on one week or on one month or even on one year, and there will
be things new and old. To have all new things is only a little less inconvenient
than to have all old things.
To give a list of appliances most necessary for the kitchen is to make every
one who reads it wish to improve it. That may be a good reason for giving it.
Be that as it may, here is such a list:

A teakettle
A dishpan
A frying pan
A coffee pot
A tea pot
A broiler
A colander
A meat chopper
A pail
A pastry board
A rolling pin
3 mixing bowls
A meat pan
A pudding dish
A bread board
A bread knife
2 and 3 qt. saucepans
2 and 3 qt. double boilers
A cake tin
3 tins for layer cake
3 bread tins
A cake turner
A can opener
A lemon squeezer
A corkscrew
A fine-wire strainer
A potato masher
An egg beater
A nutmeg grater
A graduated quart measure
 A graduated pint measure
A few spoons of different sizes
A few plates, cups and saucers
A cake box
A bread box
Tin boxes or
Glass jars for flour, meal, sugar, coffee, etc.
A scrubbing brush
A sink strainer
A soap shaker
A holder for scouring soap
A whisk for dish washing
A pin cushion which can be hung up
A memorandum pad which can be hung up
3 pie plates
2 jelly moulds
An apple corer
A few knives and forks
A large wooden spoon
A large agate spoon
A knife for potatoes
A large tray
A salt box
A pepper box
A flour dredger
1 doz. dish towels
6 scrub cloths
2 pudding cloths
6 cloths for pots and pans
Scissors

Does it seem a very long list? You would not cook one day in a kitchen
fitted with these things without thinking of something else you would like to
have. This is an austere list. It contains none of the luxuries which one's
heart desires, such as tongs for hulling strawberries.
Care.—Pots and pans require thorough washing and wiping. Wash them
with a brush, good hot soapsuds, and occasional applications of a scouring
soap. Wipe them with squares of cheese cloth or old flour and sugar bags
washed and hemmed for the purpose. These cloths are better than finer or
heavier ones for they take up water quickly and are no great loss if they are
darkened by tin or iron utensils. The dishcloth is the poorest thing with which
to wipe pots and pans, for it cannot possibly be free from soap and grease.
Scouring soap is not intended for direct application. A brush or cloth
should first be rubbed on the soap, then on the article to be scoured.
Only utensils made of iron may be scraped. Such treatment quickly
defaces and wears out other substances. Scraping may be entirely avoided if
every utensil is filled with water as soon as it is no longer needed in cooking.
Very greasy things should be filled with warm water and kept warm. If a pot
has been burned put a tablespoonful of washing-soda into it and fill it with
water. Set it away for a day or a night, or for both, and at the end of the time
no scraping will be necessary to get it clean. This must not be done if the pot
is made of aluminum, in that case, soak the pot without soda.
Stains may usually be removed from aluminum pots with silver-soap.
Whitening such pots with acids is not a very wise thing to do. The better way
is to reserve them for delicate uses, they will then not become seriously
discoloured.
Do not wash articles made of wood in water in which other things have
been washed, for wood absorbs grease. Nor is it well to scour them with a
brush or a soap coarse enough to roughen their surfaces.
Iron pots and pans cannot be scrubbed too vigorously. Scrub the frying
pan until the inside feels like wet, black satin; it is then truly clean. Both
powdered pumice-stone and salt are good for scouring iron or tin articles
which are smoked or stained.
Unless precautions are taken, food fried or baked in new pans will stick to
them, and will not brown. A new iron frying pan should be scrubbed hard
with soap and sand or ashes, and should then have water boiled in it. New
cake and bread tins should be scoured, greased and baked.
If you find that the kettle is becoming encrusted with lime from the water,
boil vinegar in it. This quickly removes the encrustation if it has not been
allowed to grow thick before the attempt is made.
A careful housewife does not wash coffee pots and tea pots in dish water.
She empties them, rinses them, scours them a little if they need it, rinses
them again, scalds them and finally wipes them dry.
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