JS 1 THIRD TERM BASIC SCIENCE NOTE

2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION

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 WEEK 1 & 2
HABITAT
A habitat is the dwelling place of a living thing or it is a place or environment where an organism
normally lives.
Types of habitat
There are two types of habitats which are
1. Terrestrial habitat 2. Aquatic

Terrestrial habitat: This habitat refers to the land environment. It can be arboreal (in or on a
tree), under the ground e.g. earthworm.
Terrestrial habitat is further divided into four which are;
a. Marsh: This is a terrestrial habitat that is usually waterlogged at some times of the
year especially during the rainy season.
b. Savanna or grassland: This is a terrestrial habitat made of grasses and shrubs
c. Rainforest: this is a terrestrial habitat made of tall trees that are always in strata or canopies.
d. Desert or arid land: This is a terrestrial habitat without vegetation

Aquatic habitat: this is water environment in which organisms live naturally it includes ponds,
lakes, rivers, sea etc. there are three types of aquatic habitats which are
a. Marine habitat: This is made up of salt water.
b. Freshwater habitat: This does not contain salt.
c. Estuarine: This is a mixture of both salt and freshwater.

Examples of organisms found in the different habitats

TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
a. Marsh: animals found here include snakes, fishes, frogs, earthworms, birds, crabs.
Examples of plants found here include algae and water lilies.
b. Rain forest: Animals found here include monkeys, snakes, snails, squirrels, lizards and bats.
Plants found here include iroko, obeche, orchid, Mistletoes, mangos. Etc.
c. Savanna or grassland: animals found here include antelope, elephant, lions, tiger, zebra,
cows, goat, kangaroo, gazelle and grass cutter. Plants found here include spear grass,
palm, elephant grass baobab, acacia etc.
d. Desert or arid land: Animals found here include lizards, snakes, tortoise, chameleon etc.
plants found here include cactus.

AQUATIC HABITAT:
a. Marine: Animals found here include crab, tilapia, crayfish, starfish, periwinkle shrimp,
shark etc. Plants found here include seaweed, algae, planktons, sesuvium,
b. Estuarine: Animals found here include crab, mosquito lava, water snail, worms,
mudskipper and fishes. Plants found here include planktons, Algae, Red mangrove
(Rhozophora racemosa), white mangrove (Avicinia nitida).
c. Fresh water: Animals found here include protozoa, tilapia fish, hydra, water boatman;
pond skater etc. plants found here include water lily, water hyacinth, spirogyra, water
lettuce, hornwort, water weed.

Adaptive features of animals to aquatic habitat

1. Possession of streamlined body for buoyancy when swimming

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2. Possession of gills for breathing
3. Fishes have swim bladder to adjust to change in water pressure
4. They have fins for swimming
5. They counter shield to avoid being noticed by predators.
6. Possession of lateral lines to detect dangers
7. The ability to feed by filter method.

Adaptive features of aquatic plants

1. They have poorly developed root system
2. Their leaves and stems are covered with thin cuticles
3. Their leaves have well developed air space which make them buoyant and help them absorb
oxygen.
4. They have broad leaves to hasten up the rate of transpiration (loss of water from leaves
of plants)
NOTE: Plants that can survive in water are called hydrophytes.

Adaptive features of terrestrial animals

1. Possession of lungs for breathing
2. Possession of limbs for movement
3. They have scales on their skin to reduce loss of water through evaporation
4. Most desert animals are nocturnal (active at night) this helps them to survive the heat of the
desert during the day
5. Most desert animals are able to burrow into the ground and hide
6. The desert camel drinks a lot of water which it stores in his hump and can survive
high temperatures of about 40 C.
0

7. Rainforest animals are able to climb to get food from trees

8. Most rainforest animals are able to camouflage (blend with their surroundings) in order for
them to hide from their predators and prey.
Adaptive features of terrestrial plants
1. Rains forest plants have buttresses which help to support their height
2. The trees are in layers which ensures that trees of same height are found in the same place
so facilitate photosynthesis
3. Rainforest plants contains climbers so that they can get sunlight for photosynthesis
4. Desert plants have well developed root system with a long tap root that is able to penetrate
deep into the ground to obtain water
5. Desert plants possess adventitious roots (spreading roots)
6. Desert plants have thick cuticles for storing water to prevent transpiration
7. Desert plants possess spongy leaves to reduce transpiration
8. The leaves of desert plants are reduced to spines to reduce transpiration

Definition of terms
1. Ecology: This is the study of plants and animals in relation to their environment.
2. Environment: This is the total surrounding, living and non-living, physical and chemical
that affects an organism.
3. Habitat: This is the natural dwelling place of an organism

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4. Niche: This is the specific portion of a habitat occupied by an organism and the role the
organism plays in the habitat. It can also be defined as the functional position of an organism
within the community.
5. Population: This is the total number of organisms of the same species living together in
an area for example, the total number of lizards in the JMC compound.
6. Population density: This is defined as the number of individual organisms per unit area
or volume of the habitat.
Population density = number of organisms
Area of habitat
7. Community: This is the total number of organisms of different species living in an area. For
example, the number of all lizards, human and other animals and plants in JMC.
8. Trophic level: This is defined as each step in the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
9. Food chain: This is the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another as a result of
one organism feeding on another. Or the transfer of energy through food from the producer
to the consumer. Example;

Grass grasshopper toad snake hawk bacteria

(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiaryconsumers) (Decomposer)
NOTE: A food chain always begins with a producer which is usually a green plant.
Food web: This is a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment
with two or more interrelated food chains.

Practice questions
State two adaptive features in a named
a. A named aquatic plants b. A named terrestrial plant

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c. A named desert plants e. A named aquatic animal
d. A named rainforest plants f. A named terrestrial animal

Relationships between organisms in the same environment

Organisms in the same environment interact with each other in various ways. The interaction is
called Association. Thus, Association simply means an interaction between one organism and
another in an ecosystem. They are:
1. Competition 3. Commensalism 5. Symbiosis
2. Parasitism 4. Saprophytes 6. Predation

a. Competition: This is an association whereby species of organisms stay and compete among
themselves for food, shelter, light, space etc. The two types of competition are the intra-
specific competition and interspecific competition.
 Intra-specific competition is said to occur when a particular specie of organism
competes among themselves for available nutrient while
 Interspecific competition occurs when various species of organisms compete among
themselves for available nutrient e.g. A herd of cattle feeding on grass vegetation.
b. Parasitism: This is an association between two living organisms in which one of the
organisms benefits from the other. The organism that benefits is called a Parasite while the
organism it depends on for its food and shelter is called a Host. A host animal is always
larger in size than the parasite.
c. Commensalism: This is an association between two organisms in which one of the
organisms benefits from the other organism but none of them are harmed e.g. Epiphytes
growing on top of another plant.
d. Saprophytism: This is an association of a saprophyte with decaying organic matter.
Examples of saprophytes include most fungi and certain bacteria.
e. Symbiosis: This is a mutual relationship between two organisms in which both benefit from
each other. Example is an association between symbiotic bacteria with the root of
leguminous plants.
f. Predation: This is an association occurring between large and small Animals. The large
animal is called a Predator while the small Animal that is eaten up is called a Prey. E.g. A
hawk and a chick.
Ecosystem
This is a stable self-sustaining environment produced by an interaction between living (biotic
component) and non- living things (abiotic component). Or the interaction between living things
and the nonliving things in an environment.

Components of the ecosystem

The ecosystem is made up of two components which are:
1. Biotic component 2. Abiotic component
1. Biotic component: These include all the living things (plants and animals) and can be
grouped into producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Abiotic component: These are the non-living components such as:
 Climatic factors like rain fall, temperature, humidity, wind, and sunlight

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  Inorganic materials and nutrients like oxygen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus
 Edaphic like soil, rocks and topography.
 Other factors like dust, storm, fire and water.

Instruments used for measuring abiotic component.

S/N COMPONENTS INSTRUMENT
1. Amount of rain fall Rain gauge
2. Wind speed Anemometer
3. Wind direction Wind vane
4. Turbidity of water Secchi disc
5. Relative humidity Hygrometer
6. Pressure Barometer
7. Light intensity Photometer
8. Density Hydrometer
9. Temperature Thermometer

Factors that affect only terrestrial habitat

These factors include
1. Temperature 5. Pressure
2. Rainfall 6. Hydrogen ion concentration
3. Wind 7. Relative humidity
4. Light
8. Edaphic or soil factors like soil texture, soil structure
9. Topography like elevation, type of drainage, degree of exposure.
Factors common to aquatic habitat
1. Temperature
2. Rainfall 8. Current
3. Wind 9. Density
4. Light 10. Dissolved gases
5. Pressure 11. Tidal movement and waves
6. Salinity
7. Turbidity

Practice questions
1. List four abiotic factors that can affect only aquatic habitat and not affect
terrestrial habitat
2. List four abiotic factors that can affect only terrestrial habitat but not aquatic habitat
3. List four abiotic factors that is common to both habitats
4. Briefly explain: (i) Turbidity (ii). Salinity (iii). Relative humidity

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 WEEK 3: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND SAFETY
Human beings carry out a lot of activities in the environment to earn their livelihood and make
life comfortable. These activities include farming, refuse disposal, construction, transportation,
industrialization and urbanization
The earth is home to all living things. The part of the earth in which living things live is called
the biosphere. Non-living things are essential to living things for their survival.
The sun is the primary (main) source of energy on the earth. It gives out radiant energy which is
used by green plants to manufacture their food through the process of photosynthesis.
Herbivores (animals which feed on plants) eat plants and use energy from the plants to carry out
their activities. Carnivores (animals which feed on flesh) feed on the herbivores and obtain
energy needed to carry out their life activities.

Importance of a Balance of Resources in the Environment

 Living things depend on the non-living environment. Therefore, there is always a balance
between them.
 If rainfall fails and drought occurs, lack of water will reduce the growth of plants. Herbivores
may die and this will affect animal population.
 If the human population is more than the food supply, people may die

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen cycle involves the complex process by which nitrogen is naturally added and removed
from the soil. It is a sequence of reactions indicating the various means by which nitrogen is
added to and removed from the atmosphere and soil. The process involve in Nitrogen Cycle are:

1. Nitrogen fixation
a. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Bacterial like Rhizobium which lives in the root nodules of
legumes can fix atmospheric nitrogen into the plant. The plants give bacteria carbohydrate
while the bacteria supply nitrogen to the plants.
b. Electrical Discharge: Lightening can also fix nitrogen into the soil. During lightening,
nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide or nitrogen (II) oxide. The
nitrogen (II) oxide then changes to nitrogen (IV) oxide which the dissolves in rain water to
form nitrous oxide and nitric acid which later forms nitrates in the soil.
c. Free Living Nitrogen Fixation: Bacterial cells like Azotobacter and Clostridium live freely
in the soil and also fixes nitrogen into the soil.
d. Industrial Nitrogen Fixation: Ammonia is produced industrially by direct combination of
nitrogen with hydrogen (obtained from water) at high temperature and pressure. Later, it is
converted into various kinds of fertilizers, such as urea which is applied to the soil to enhance
the fertility of the soil.

2. Ammonification
The process of formation of ammonia from dead and decayed plants and animals and their waste
product is called ammonification.

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3. Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia compounds first by nitrifying bacteria called Nitrosomonas into
nitrite and later into nitrate by another bacteria called Nitrobacter is known as Nitrification.

4. Assimilation
In nitrogen assimilation, plants finally consume the nitrates made by soil bacteria and use them to
make amino acids and other vital chemicals for life.
NOTE: plants can only make use of nitrate.

5. Denitrification
This process returns nitrogen to the atmosphere by converting nitrate to nitrogen gas by certain
bacteria. This is the only stage that nitrogen can be lost from the soil.

Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

This is the continuous movement of water from the Earth to the atmosphere by evaporation and
back to from the atmosphere to the Earth in form of rainfall.

 Plants take in water from the soil and lose it to the atmosphere by transpiration. Only a small
percentage is used for photosynthesis. Animals also take in water constantly from their foods
and drinks and send most of these water back to the atmosphere when they breathe out and
when they pass out feces and urine.

 As the sun shines on both land, rivers and sea, water is lost (through evaporation and
transpiration) to the atmosphere in form of water vapor. This water vapor cools and forms
clouds. These clouds condense (become water) and fall as rain. Part of this rain soars into
land and some of it (called run-off) flows into streams, rivers, and finally into the seas. These
events take place always and make up the water cycle

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 NOTE: The water that leaves the plant, animals and water bodies go back to the atmosphere
through transpiration, respiration or evaporation. The water condenses, precipitates and falls
back to the Earth as rainfall.

WEEK 5
CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is a major and essential element found in nearly every compound involved in the
metabolism of living things. Carbon cycle simply means the continuous use of carbon by both
plants and animals and back to the atmosphere.
 In the presence of sunlight, green plants use carbon IV oxide (CO2) and water to make food.
Animals feed on plants and take in plant materials which contain carbon compounds.
 When plants and animals respire, they give off CO2.
 As plants and animals decay, they give off CO2 into atmosphere.
 When plant and animal materials burn, they also give off CO2.

Dead plants and animals may form coal or petroleum in the soil and when the products are
burnt, CO2 is released to the atmosphere. All these events make up the carbon cycle.

THE PROCESSES IN CARBON CYCLE

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Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere or dissolved in water is used for photosynthesis and
respiration respectively. During Photosynthesis, glucose is manufactured by the green plants,
other organic compounds are synthesized by the plant e.g. lipids and proteins. These organic
compounds are stored inside the plant.

During respiration, these organic compounds are oxidized and decomposed after which carbon
dioxide is liberated. The organic compounds in plant are made available to plant parasites. They
are also made available to animals directly or indirectly.

Finally, both plants and animals live and die. When death occurs, there is decay by action of
certain fungi and bacteria. During decomposition process, the carbon compounds present in dead
plants and animals are made available to the decomposers. Fermentation process releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere while some are dissolved in water thus balancing the entire carbon
cycle in nature.

UNIQUENESS OF MAN
Characteristics of mammal
Human beings are mammals. Mammals are animals with the following characteristics;
1. They give birth to their young ones alive
2. They have hairs on their body
3. They have mammary gland (breast)
4. They show parental care for their young ones.

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5. They have well developed brain
6. They have four chambered heart
7. They are warm blooded or homoeothermic.

Characteristics of primate
Primates are group of mammals with the following characteristics
1. They have nails on their hands and feet and not claws
2. They can grasp things with their hands
3. They all have eyes in front of their head
4. They can stand up right.

Differences between man and other primates

1. Man has S curved backbone which make man balanced and walks in an upright position
2. The brain of man is larger than another primate.
3. Man has thumbs.

Uniqueness of man
Man is unique and more advanced than other animals and primates because man has a large
cerebrum and because of this large cerebrum, man is able to carry out the following activities
which other animals can never do.

1. Reasoning 4. Inquisitiveness
2. Problem solving 5. Measurement
3. Observation 6. Inference

WEEK 5. : CHANGES IN LIVING THINGS

Growth
This simply means an increase in the mass of living being. Growth could be a gradual or a rapid
irreversible increase in height and weight or size of an organism. It deals with increase in
quantity.

Development
This is a series of orderly changes by which a living organism comes into maturity. In other
words, it is an increase in quality of any living organism from infancy to adulthood.
Developmental changes can be observed by appearance of certain features, characteristics or
capabilities these lead to transition from one stage of life to another.

Major indices of growth & developmental changes in living things (human beings)
The major indices of growth changes in living things are
a. Height: An infant at birth has the maximum height of 50cm which keeps on increasing
gradually till late adolescent.
b. Weight/size: The weight of an infant at birth is within the range of 2.5-3.5 kg. It
increases as the young infant feeds and grows.
c. Puberty: This is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures

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into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. There is a great change in both boys &
girls

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 as their enter puberty stage. In girls, there is breast enlargement, increase in hip size, and
development of pubic hairs under their armpit and in their genitals. In boys, voice grow
deeper, enlargement of penis, production of sperm & wet dreams etc.
Developmental changes can be divided into;
1. Infancy 4. Adulthood
2. Childhood 5. Old age
3. Adolescence
Characteristic features of the stages of development
1. Infancy-babyhood (age 0-11 months)
a. A new born baby’s head is very large in proportion to the rest of his body.
b. Shoulder and hips are narrow
c. The abdomen protrudes slightly
d. The scalp may be temporary bruised or swollen especially in hairless newborns.
e. New born genitals are enlarged and reddened with male infants having unusually large
scrotum.
f. Weight at birth is from the range of 2.5-3.5kg & length of 50cm
g. Growth of temporal teeth
h. Sitting & crawling
2. Childhood (1-12 years)
a. Walking
b. Learning to talk & speaking
c. Growth of permanent teeth at six years
d. Develop capacity to learn, remember & symbolize information
e. Increase in the speed of learning & information processing & memory retention
f. Limbs grow rapidly while head grows slowly
3. Adolescence stage (age 13- 17)
4. Changes THAT
CHANGES in adulthood
OCCCUR (old IN
age)BOYS CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN FEMALES
a. Appearance of grey
a.Rapid increase in height hair a.Enlargement of
b. Decline in reproductive
b.Development of broad activities breast b.Broader hips
c. Weakness
shoulder of organs like bones, kidney and liver.
c.Appearance of hair on the pubic region and
d. Change
c.Growth in pattern
of facial hairsof movement, in some elderly, armpit
use of walking sticks is applied.
d.Growth of hair under armpit and pubic d. Commencement of menstruation
region
e. Voice becomes thinner
e. Breaking and deepening of voice
f. Pimple on the face
f. Wet dreams (escape of semen from the
g. Rapid increase in height and weight
penis during sleep)
g. Increase in size of penis

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 e. Develop the ability to listen to evaluate the views of others.
f. Have the ability to distinguish between needs & wants.
g. Understand that no talent can overshadow the act of preparation.
Temporal and permanent changes occurring during development.
The developmental changes could be temporal or permanent. Permanent changes occur when
they remain with the individual for life and are not reversible. Those features associated with
each human developmental stage are permanent. While those changes that can be reversed or
does not remain in an individual for life are said to be temporary examples are growth of pimples
in male and female adolescence, malnutrition, fatness, enlarged stomach after a meal, bed
wetting, sweating and rise in body temperature.

Classification of Growth & Development as Temporal or Permanent Change

TEMPORAL CHANGES PERMANENT CHANGES
Growth of pimples in both male & female Growth (Increase in height & in weight of the
adolescents body)
Malnutrition Reproduction
Fatness & Enlarged stomach after meal Nutrition
Bed-wetting, sweating & rise in body temperature Puberty changes

WEEK 6: CHANGES IN NON-LIVING THINGS

Different ways that matter undergo change

Matter undergoes two different types of change. They are:

1. Temporary change 2. Permanent change.

1. Temporary change: In this kind of change, the identity and composition of the matter is not
changed but the physical state is changed. This type of change is reversible that is, the
original substance can be derived from the new substance after the change. Examples of
temporary change include melting of ice, dissolving salt in water, melting of candle wax,
melting of iron.
2. Permanent change: In this type of change, the identity and composition of the matter is
totally changed. This type of change occurs when substances react to form other substances.
The change is not reversible that is the original substance cannot be derived from the new
substance. Examples of permanent change include; burning of substances, drying of plant
leafs, decay of plants and animals and the reaction of acid and base to form salt and water
only.

Causes of change in matter

Matters changes when there is an alteration in certain factors which include:
1. Change in temperature: When heat is applied to a substance, the internal structure
especially the bond loosens up and this causes a change in that matter.
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2. Change in chemical: Chemical reactions changes the chemical bonds of the substances
involved. When bonds are broken in the reactant, new bonds are formed to get the product.
3. Change in pressure: The pressure exerted on a substance can alter the original shape or
nature of the matter leading to formation of a new substance.
4. Nature/ Type of substance: Some substances naturally change their form whenever they
are exposed to form other substances. These substances are called radioactive substances
e.g. Uranium, Radium etc.
Physical and Chemical Change

Changes that non-living things undergo whether temporary or permanent are classified as either
physical or chemical change

1. Physical change: this is a change that is reversible and no new substance is formed. During
this change, the physical appearance of the substance is changed but the composition
remains the same. This is a temporary change. Examples of physical change
i. Change of state of matter
Solid liquid gas
ii. Melting of candle wax
iii. Melting of iron
iv. Dissolving salt in water.
2. Chemical change: This is a change that is not reversible and in which new substances are
formed. In this change, a substance is transformed into a chemically different substance as
a result of chemical reactions. This change is permanent. Examples of chemical changes
include:
i. Burning of paper and clothes.
ii. Reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water only (neutralization
reaction)
iii. Rusting of iron
iv. Slaking of lime
v. Burning of magnesium ribbon in air or oxygen.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE.

S/N PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. It is easily reversible It is not easily reversible
2. No new substances are formed New substances are formed
3. There is no change in the mass of There is a change in mass of substances that
substances involved in such change undergo the change
4. It does not involve any great heat change It involves great heat change.
except latent heat change which occur
during change of heat

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WEEK 6:

CHEMICALS
 A chemical is defined as substances with specific molecular composition in the form of
solid, liquid or gas which can be useful or hazardous. Chemicals are essential for
everyday life (food, medicine, clothing, etc.) and are also used in various industries
(agriculture, manufacturing, etc.)
 Examples of chemicals around us include: toothpaste, salt, bleach, cosmetics,
baking powder, vinegar, drugs etc.
 Chemicals are produced by means of chemistry; or obtained by or used in a chemical
process. (Chemical means involving or resulting from a reaction between two or more
substances)
 They can be in the form of elements, compounds and mixtures.
Chemical industry can be defined as an industry that uses chemistry to make chemicals
from other chemical substances.

Types of Chemical Industries

a. Petrochemical Industry: processes crude oil and natural gas to produce a wide range of
chemicals (plastics, synthetic fibers, and fuels). E.g. ExxonMobil, Shell.
b. Pharmaceutical Industry: develops, manufactures, and distributes medicines and
pharmaceuticals. E.g. Pfizer, Emzor.
c. Agrochemical Industry: develops and produces pesticides, herbicides, and other
agricultural chemicals. E.g Olam agri, Novartis.
d. Industrial Gases Industry: produces gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
and carbon dioxide for various industrial applications. E.g Air Liquide, Linde
e. Plastic Industry: produces plastic products, such as PVC pipes and fittings. E.g. Chimex
Industries Limited, Dangote Industries Limited.
f. Cosmetic Industry: produces cosmetics used to enhance or alter one's appearance. E.g.
Honeywell Industries Limited, Zaron Cosmetics.

Raw materials for chemical industries include Air, Water, Coal, natural gas, petroleum,
plant oil, Salt, limestone, sulfur, metals (such as - iron, aluminium, copper, silver, gold, tin)
etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICALS
1. Classification Based on Quantity Produced:
a. Heavy or Bulk Chemicals: these are chemicals which are produced or made in large
quantity with low degree of purity. Examples include

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): Used in the production of fertilizers.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Used paper production.

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 
Chlorine (Cl2): Used for water disinfection.

Ammonia (NH3): Used in the production of fertilizers

Fine Chemicals: these are chemicals (such as drugs) that are produced in relatively
small amounts and with a high degree of purity. Examples include drugs, fragrances,
food additives, fungicides, pesticides, herbicides etc.

2. Classification Based on Their Chemical Composition: Some chemicals exist in

gaseous, liquid or solid form. Some exist as an element while some exist as a
compound.
 Solid Chemicals - Gold, Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Iron etc.
 Liquid Chemicals - Water, Methanol, Sulphuric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Ammonia etc.
 Gaseous Chemicals- oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorine etc.
 Elements: gold, oxygen, carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen.
 Compounds: water H2O, salt NaCl, carbon dioxide CO2

3. Classification Based on Uses:

a. Pharmaceutical chemicals: these are chemicals formulated to act as a remedy on living cell.
Pharmaceutical chemicals can be herbal derived from plants or produced in synthetic form as
drugs. Examples are:
 Drugs: Used for treating and preventing diseases.
 Vaccines: Prevent infectious diseases.
 Antibiotics: Combat bacterial infections.
 Analgesics: Relieve pain.

b. Agrochemicals:These are chemicals used for Agricultural purposes. Examples are:

 Fertilizers: Provide essential nutrients to plants for growth.
 Pesticides: Control pests like insects, weeds, and fungi.
 Herbicides: Specifically target weeds.
 Insecticides: Control insect populations.
 Fungicides: Prevent fungal diseases in plants.

c. Industrial Chemicals: These are chemicals used as raw materials for the production of other
substances such as glass, paints, plastics etc. Examples are:
 Organic Chemicals: Derived from organic compounds (Ethylene, propylene, benzene,
toluene, phenol, and other petrochemicals) used in the production of pharmaceuticals,
dyes, pesticides, plastics, and other fine chemicals.
 Inorganic Chemicals: Primarily derived from minerals (Sulfuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, sodium hydroxide, chlorine, ammonia) used in various industries for
manufacturing fertilizers, acids, alkalis, and other industrial chemicals.

d. Cosmetics: These are chemicals produced and used for improving one’s beauty. examples:
 Skincare products: Moisturizers, cleansers, and anti-aging products.
 Hair care products: Shampoos, conditioners, and styling products.

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  Makeup: Products for enhancing appearance.
 Fragrances: Perfumes and colognes.
e. Laboratory Chemicals: These are common chemicals that can be found in the school
laboratories for student’s practical. These chemicals are required for research and production
of some other chemicals. Examples include: water, acids, bases, indicators, ethanol etc.

f. Nuclear Chemicals: these function based on the activities within the nucleus of the atom.
Some of the chemicals can split to form other chemicals and particles (Radiation).
 Radiotherapy is an example of positive use of nuclear chemicals while manufacture of
nuclear bomb is a negative use of nuclear chemicals.
 Examples - Uranium, Radon, Plutonium, Radium, Thorium, Francium, Carbon -14 etc.

4. Classification Based on Hazardous Nature:

Some chemicals are highly hazardous and pose lots of danger after low exposure with human
body. Moderately hazardous chemicals pose minimal danger on exposure.
a. Toxic: Substances that can cause death or serious injury if ingested, inhaled, or absorbed
through the skin. E.g. mercury, cyanide, arsenic etc.
b. Corrosive: Substances that can destroy living tissues or damage materials. E.g. acids and
bases
c. Flammable: Substances that easily catch fire. E.g. Gasoline, alcohol, acetone.
d. Explosive: Substances that can undergo rapid combustion, producing heat, light,
and pressure. E.g Nitroglycerin, dynamite.
e. Oxidizing: Substances that can cause fires by releasing oxygen. E.g. Hydrogen peroxide,
potassium permanganate.
f. Carcinogenic: Substances that can cause cancer. E.g. Asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde.

Non-Hazardous Chemicals: These chemicals pose no known danger to the body nor to the
environment e.g. water, oxygen, table salt, sugar etc.

Safety laboratory measures when handling chemicals

These are actions taken by the individuals to prevent hazards in the laboratories. They include:
1. The use of hand gloves is highly recommended.
2. The use of laboratory coat or overall is very important while working in the laboratory: This
is to protect their clothes and their skin from direct contact with the chemicals in cases of
accident.
3. Wearing a protective cover such as the goggle to cover the eyes is essentials: Some
chemicals are hazardous and can lead to blindness if it eventually comes in contact with the
eyes. Thus protective wears such as goggles are used to protect eyes from any danger.
4. It is not advisable to eat or drink in the laboratory because gaseous chemicals can
contaminate the food.
5. Follow safety guidelines for chemical storage and handling
6. Adhere strictly to laboratory rules which include

18
 i. Do not handle any chemical or perform unauthorized experiment without guidance from
your teacher.
ii. Never taste anything in the laboratory
iii. Never smell anything directly instead use your gloves to waft a little sample to your nose.
iv. Don’t bring any chemical close to your nose or nose of your fellow students.
v. Always wash your hand before leaving the laboratory.
7. Handle equipment properly as specified below
i. Consider all chemicals to be hazardous unless you are told otherwise. This is the best
safety measure. The material safety data sheets (MSDS) are always available to inform
you of any hazard and precautions to follow.
ii. Excess reagents are not to be returned to the stock bottles. Instead dispose of the excess
iii. Many common reagents like alcohol and acetone are highly flammable
iv. Never pour water into acid instead pour acids into water.
8. Always read and adhere to signs, symbols and instructions on the chemical container (Read
key words e.g. caution, hazardous, toxic, danger or carcinogen).

Practice questions
1. Define chemical?
2. Enumerate three major classifications of chemicals?
3. Differentiate between a toxic chemical and a flammable chemical?
4. In a tabular form, list one example of the following group of chemicals:
i. Nuclear ii. Agrochemicals iii. Laboratory iv. Industrial v. Corrosive

WEEK 7
CRUDE OIL AND PETROCHEMICALS
Crude oil simply means unprocessed / unrefined oil that comes out from the ground in a
liquid form. Crude oil is dark in color, viscous and foul-smelling liquid.
 Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydro-carbon (contains carbon and hydrogen)
existing as liquid in the earth crust.

19
 It is a fossil fuel which originates from decaying dead plants and animals that sediment in
the ancient seas millions of years ago.
 Crude oil is measured in barrel, which is equal to 159 liters.
Origin of Crude Oil in Nigeria
In Nigeria, crude oil was reportedly first discovered in Oloibiri - Bayelsa State, in the Niger
Delta, in 1956.

Crude oil producing states in Nigeria

 Akwa Ibom  Edo  Lagos
 Delta  Imo  Anambra
 Rivers  Abia
 Bayelsa  Ondo

Process of refining crude oil

 It is separated by applying the method of Fractional distillation. This is a method in
which petroleum is separated into different portion called fractions. It is achieved by
subjecting the crude oil or the petroleum to a high temperature; the various fractions are
obtained at different heat temperatures.
 Thus, the first gas that comes out while heating the petroleum is Methane at 400C.This is
a gas used for cooking in our various home. Thus, application of further heat will lead to
derivation of other components such as petrol, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil,
bitumen& other residues.
 Each of the fractions of the crude oil is collected at various temperatures in
their respective fractionating column or tray.
 The residue of the crude oil called bitumen is obtained at the temperature of about 5000C
while the lighter components sediments at the top layer.
 The most volatile component is found in the upper part of the tower while the viscous &
solid components are collected at the bottom.

20
 Uses of crude oil fractions
The fractions of crude oil separated by fractional distillation process and their various uses
are as follows:
a. Refinery Gases: Useful fuel for cooking, heating, and industrial processes.
b. Petrol (Gasoline or Premium Motor Spirit): Used as fuel for cars, motorcycles, and other
internal combustion engines.
c. Naphtha: Used as petrochemical feedstock for producing plastics, detergents, and
synthetic fibers.
d. Kerosene: Used as jet fuel, domestic heating, and lighting.
e. Diesel Oil (Automotive Gas Oil): Used as fuel for diesel engines in trucks, buses, and some
cars.
f. Fuel Oil: Used as fuel for large industrial boilers and ships.
g. Lubricating Oil: Used for lubrication of machinery and engines.
h. Bitumen: Used for surfacing roads, roofing materials, and waterproofing.

Petrochemicals
Meaning: Petrochemicals are organic substances that are derived from refining the crude oil or
petroleum.
Uses of petrochemicals
Petrochemicals are used as raw materials for industrial production of essential materials such as
plastics, paints, synthetic rubber, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
a. Methane: This is used in the manufacture of ammonia, carbon monoxide & Carbon black
b. Ethane: This is used in the production of ethylene.

21
 c. Benzene: Used to produce plastics, synthetic fibers, detergents, rubber, dyes, drugs,
and pesticides.
d. Phenols: This is used in producing dyes, explosives, pharmaceuticals and perfumes.
e. Ethylene: Used to produce plastics, antifreeze, detergents, and solvents.
f. Propylene: Used to produce plastics, synthetic rubber, fibers, and paints.

Petrochemical products: Examples include plastics, paints, synthetic rubber, fertilizers,

pesticides, detergents, cosmetics & food additives etc.

Importance of crude oil and petroleum products in Nigeria

1. It is the major source of revenue to the Government of Nigeria.
2. It is the source of energy for powering plants/generators.
3. It provides easy transportation system e.g. aero planes/motor vehicles can move from
one place to another through the use of petroleum products.
4. It provides employment opportunities to numerous youths in labor market.
5. It provides raw materials for heavy & small industries e.g. plastic bags, bottles,
rubber utensils, toilet seat-cover, paints, pipes & resins (gums).

WEEK 8
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
WORK: This is defined as the force applied in moving an object over a distance. Work is said
to be done on an object when energy is transferred to the object. E.g. kicking a ball at stationery
will get the ball rolling when energy is transferred.
 Again; if one succeeds in lifting a bag of sand/cement and remain stationery at a place, no
work is done. Work is done when you multiply force applied over distance covered.

 The S.I unit for work is Joule (J),

 The SI unit of Force is Newton (N) and
 The SI unit of Distance is Meter (M)

Practice examples
1. A force of 50 N is applied to push a box over a distance of 10 meters. Calculate the work
done.
2. If 200 J of work is done to move an object 250 cm, what is the magnitude of the force
applied?

22
 3. A force of 80 N is applied to move an object, resulting in 640 J of work done. Over what
distance was the object moved?
4. A worker lifts a 50 kg sack to a height of 2 meters. Calculate the work done, given that
gravity g = 9.8 m/s2.
5. If 2940 J of work is done to lift a mass to a height of 6 meters, find the mass of the object.
(Assuming g = 10m/s2)
6. Calculate the height to which a 15 kg object must be lifted to perform 735 J of work, with
gravity g = 10m/s2.

ENERGY: This can be defined as ability of a body to do work. The unit of Energy is Joule
(J). Energy is found in many things and thus there are different types of energy.
 Water in a reservoir is said to possess energy as it could be used to drive a turbine down
the valley. The amount of work that is done tells us how much energy has been
transferred from one form to another.
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY- Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be transformed from one kind to another
 Energy Transformations occur when the energy of an object changes or transforms
from one type to a different type of energy. Examples of Energy transformation
a. Light bulb: Electrical Energy Light Energy + Heat Energy
b. Car Battery: Chemical Potential Energy Electrical gy

Practice examples
1. A boy of mass 20kg stands on a building floor 12m above the ground level. Calculate his
potential energy. [take g=10m/s2]
2. A body of mass 8kg is moving with a velocity of 10m/s, calculate the K.E of the body?
3. A 10 kg object has a potential energy of 196 J. Calculate the height at which the object
is located. [take g=10m/s2]
4. A moving object has a kinetic energy of 800 J and a mass of 50 kg. Calculate the velocity
of the object.
5. A 5 kg object is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. How high will it go
before coming to a stop?

POWER: This is defined as the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is used
or transferred. The S.I Unit for power is Watt (W), the larger unit of power is Kilowatt (KW)
and Megawatt (MW)
1KW= 1,000 Watts 1MW= 1,000,000 Watts

23
  In Electrical Energy Power = Current (I) x Voltage (V)
 Engines are measured in Horsepower (hp), 1hp = 745.7 Watts
Practice questions
1. A boy of mass 12kg runs up a set of steps of total height 15m in 30s, calculate the power
expended?
2. A motor produces 1200 W of power to lift a mass of 50 kg to a height of 20 meters.
Calculate the time taken to lift the mass.
3. Calculate the power required to lift 2000g of water through a vertical height of 6m in 2
seconds. (g=10m/s2)
4. A Television set of 80W is used for 8 hours per day for 30 days. Calculate the quantity of
energy consumed by the television in KWh.

WEEK 9
THERMAL ENERGY
Thermal energy is defined as the energy produced due to the motion of the molecules in a
body or an object. It is the total kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. The SI unit of
thermal energy is JOULE.
 The higher the average kinetic energy, the faster the movement of molecules and the
higher the temperature.
 The transfer of thermal energy from one substance to another is called Heat.
 It is important to know that temperature is not the same as thermal energy. For
instance, a large pot of boiling water and a small pot of boiling water have the same
temperature but their thermal energy differs. Thus; large pot has more thermal energy
since it has more molecules than small pot.
 Temperature is defined as measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a
body. OR Temperature is also the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
 The SI unit of temperature is KELVIN. Other units of temperature are degree Celsius
(℃) and degree Fahrenheit (℉)
Temperature conversion
 From Celsius to Kelvin
K = oC + 273
Example: Convert the following temperature from Celsius to kelvin
a. 85oC b. -100oC c. 470oC
 From Kelvin to Celsius
o
C = K - 273
Example: convert the following temperatures from Kelvin to Celsius
a. 900K b. - 46K c. 15K

Illustration of heat transfer when two bodies are in contact

24
In preparation of pap, you first of all dissolve little quantity of pap with a cold water in a
stainless bowl. Then, you pour boiled water over the mixture until it thickens forming a
gelatinous pap. You will observe that the stainless bowl eventually becomes hot. This occurs as a
result of the transfer of heat when two bodies are in contact. The hot pap also transfers some
level of hotness to the stainless bowl.
Again, when you stir a hot water in a kettle with a metal spoon in an attempt to prepare a hot tea.
Leaving the spoon for a short time inside the hot kettle will eventually transfer some level of
hotness into the spoon.
Methods of heat transfer
The three methods of heat transfer are:
1. CONDUCTION: This can be defined as the process by which heat is transferred
through a solid body due to molecular interaction.
 In conduction, heat is transferred by vibrating molecules whose average position remains
the same. E.g. a kettle in direct contact with burner (Gas cooker, stove) get hot because
the burner is hot. The heat from the source has been transferred to the kettle.
 Conduction take place in solid materials. Solid materials can be grouped into two based
on their heat conductivity. They are:
a. Conductors: These are materials that allow heat to pass through them e.g. metal wire,
metal roofing sheet, steel, copper etc.
b. Insulators: These are materials that do not allow heat to pass through them. E.g. wood,
rubber, plastic, glass etc.
Applications of conduction
a. Cooking: Pots and pans are designed to conduct heat efficiently from the stovetop to
the food being cooked.
b. Heating: Radiators and baseboards use conduction to heat the air in a room.
c. Cooling: Ice packs use conduction to cool down injuries.
d. Ironing: The iron's metal plate conducts heat to the fabric, smoothing out wrinkles.
e. Toasting: Toasters use conduction to heat the bread elements until they become brown
and crispy.

2. CONVECTION: This is the transfer of heat from one part of fluid or gas to another by
the actual movement of the fluid /gas from the hotter to the colder part.
 For example, when boiling a pot of water on a stove, the water at the base/bottom of
the pot heat up first. The hot water becomes less dense and cold-water sinks. The
movement of hot and cold water eventually transfers heat throughout the pot.
 Convection occur in liquids or gases but not in solid. It does not take place in a
vacuum too.
Applications of convection
a. Heating Systems: Many home heating systems, such as forced-air furnaces and
radiators, rely on convection.
b. Boiling Water: When water is heated in a pot, the hot water rises to the surface due to
convection.

25
 c. Refrigerators use convection to cool food. Cold air is circulated throughout the
refrigerator, drawing heat from the food and transferring it to the cooling coils.
d. In ovens, hot air is circulated throughout the cooking chamber, ensuring even cooking of
food. This is especially important for baking and roasting.
e. Ventilation in houses
f. Land and sea breezes
g. Cooling of car engine

3. RADIATION: This is the transfer of heat from one object to another through space by
electro-magnetic waves.
2. Radiation occur in a vacuum for it does not need any material medium. E.g. The transfer
of heat from the sun to the earth through space directly without passing through any
intervening medium.
3. The distance between the sun and the earth is practically vacuum. Radiation occur when
there is nothing between the hot body and its surroundings.
4. Radiation is the only method of heat transfer that can transfer heat through space.
Conduction and convection can only transfer heat through matter.

Applications of radiation
i. The solar heat from the sun reaches us on earth through radiation
ii. A boy standing few kilometers away from a burning wood/ bush experiences the
heat through radiation.
a. Solar Energy: The Sun's heat is transferred to Earth primarily through radiation.
Solar panels absorb this radiant energy and convert it into electricity.
b. Space Heaters: Infrared heaters emit heat waves that directly warm objects in a
room.
c. Campfires: The heat from a campfire is primarily transferred through radiation,
warming objects and people nearby.
d. Photosynthesis: Plants absorb heat from the sun through radiation and utilize it for
photosynthesis
e. Microwaves: Microwave ovens use electromagnetic waves to heat food
directly, causing the water molecules in the food to vibrate and generate heat.

WEEK 10
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
The kinetic theory of matter states that the particles of matter are in constant random motion. This
theory assumes the particle theory of matter which states that matter is made up of particles.

Postulates of the kinetic theory of matter

According to the kinetic theory of matter;

26
1. Every substance (in the form of solid, liquid and gas) consists of a very large number of tiny
particles called molecules.
2. Molecules are the smallest particles of a substance that can exist in Free State. Molecules
possess the characteristic properties of the parent substance.
3. Molecules are in a state of continuous motion with all possible velocities.
4. The velocity of molecules increases with a rise in temperature.
5. Molecules always attract each other. The force of attraction between molecules is called
intermolecular force of attraction.
6. The empty space between molecules is called intermolecular space.
7. The intermolecular force of attraction increases if the intermolecular space between the
molecules decreases and vice-versa.

THE STATES OF MATTER ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC THEORY

SOLID:
 The particles are held very closely together and are unable to move about freely
 They are held together by forces of attraction and can only vibrate about a fixed position.
 This gives solid substances a fixed shape and volume. There is little or no space between
the particles.
 They have a high density and the force that joins these particles are called cohesion force.
Example of these common solids are a cube of sugar, Sulphur, stone, table, etc.

LIQUID
 The particles in a liquid are quite close together but not as in solids.
 They are a little bit free to move about because the force of attraction is weaker than that
of solids.
 Liquids don’t have a definite shape but takes the shape of whatever containing vessel.
 They have a definite volume at a particular temperature.
 They cannot be easily compressed.
 Some examples of liquids are water, kerosene, palm oil, methylated spirit, petrol, etc.
GAS
 The particles in a gas move about freely and faster with a large distance between each
particle.
 The force of attraction (cohesion force) that holds them together is very weak.
 The particles are constantly moving in all direction.
 Gases can be compressed because of the large spaces between the gas particles.
 Gas can spread out to fill any container therefore they do not have a definite shape or
volume but take the shape of the containers.
 Examples of gases are oxygen, nitrogen iv oxide, carbon (iv) oxide, etc.

27
 Characteristic Solids Liquids Gases
Particle Tightly packed Closely packed but Far apart
Arrangement together not fixed
Particle Vibrate in fixed Move past each Move freely and
Movement positions other rapidly
Shape Definite shape Takes the shape of No definite
its container shape
Volume Definite volume Definite volume No definite
volume
Compressibility Nearly Slightly Highly
incompressible compressible compressible
Density High density Moderate density Low density

Explanation of some phenomena on the basis of kinetic theory

1. MELTING: This is the physical process where a substance changes from a solid to a
liquid.
 When a solid is heated, the particles acquire greater kinetic energy and move violently.
 A point is reached when the forces of vibration overcome the cohesive forces holding the
solid particles together and the crystalline structure collapses.
 The particles are no longer held in fixed positions but are free to move about and the
liquid state is reached.
 The temperature at which this occurs is called the melting point of the solid. E.g. ice
changes to water at 00C.
2. BOILING: this is the process in which a liquid change into gaseous form by absorbing
heat energy.
 When a liquid is heated, the rate of evaporation increases and the value of the
saturated vapour pressure equal the prevailing atmospheric pressure. When this
happens, the liquid is said to boil
 The constant temperature at which a liquid rapidly changes to gaseous state by absorbing
heat is called boiling point.
 Also, on heating a liquid, the intermolecular space increases thereby decreasing the force
of attraction between molecules.
 The molecules become free, acquire more kinetic energy and move randomly in all
directions. Thus, the liquid state changes into gaseous state.
 The boiling point of a liquid change with change in atmospheric pressure. If the pressure
is raised, the boiling point will increase and if the pressure is lowered the boiling point
will decrease. Also, the presence of impurities increases the boiling point of a liquid. E.g.
water boils at 1000C
Factors that affects boiling
a. Atmospheric pressure: the greater the atmospheric pressure, the greater the boiling point
and vice versa.
b. Impurities: presence of impurities increases the boiling point of a liquid.
c. Type of molecule: Volatile liquids boil faster than viscous liquids.

28
 3. EVAPORATION: This is the process of vaporization of liquids at all temperatures.
 When the surface of a liquid is exposed, the molecules near the surface of the liquid will
acquire extra kinetic energy, large enough to enable them break away from the cohesive
force binding them to the neighbouring particles.
 Once free, they escape from the liquid surface to become molecules in the vapour state.
 Evaporation results in decrease in the volume of liquid and lowering the temperature of
the liquid, therefore it causes cooling.
 Also, it occurs at all temperature but increases with increase in temperature. In addition,
it is slower in electrovalent liquids than in covalent liquids.
Factors affecting evaporation
Evaporation depends upon the following factors:
a. Nature of the liquid: liquids like methylated spirit evaporate rapidly they are called
volatile liquids. Others like glycerin may not evaporate at all.
b. Temperature: the higher the temperature, the greater the evaporation.
c. Pressure: the lower the pressure exerted on the liquid, the quicker the evaporation.
d. Dryness or dampness of air: if the air is dry, the evaporation is greater and more rapid.
Damp air hardly makes evaporation possible.
e. Extent of the exposed surface: the larger the area of exposed surface of the liquid, the
greater the evaporation.
f. Relative humidity: at high humidity, the rate of evaporation is lower but at low
humidity, the evaporation is comparatively higher.
Differences between boiling and evaporation
1. Evaporation takes place at all temperature, while boiling takes place at a particular
temperature
2. Evaporation takes place from the surface, while in boiling it is the whole liquid.
3. Evaporation occurs using internal energy of the system, while boiling requires external
source of heat
4. Evaporation produces cooling while boiling does not
5. Evaporation is slow while boiling is fast.

4. CONDENSATION AND FREEZING

Condensation is a process whereby a vapour loses some of its kinetic energy to a colder
body and changes into the liquid state. When a liquid cools, it loses heat energy to its
surroundings, causing its temperature to drop. If the cooling continues, the temperature of
the liquid keeps dropping until it reaches the freezing point of the liquid. At this
temperature, the liquid changes into solid.

PHENOMENA SUPPORTING KINETIC THEORY

a. Brownian motion: It was discovered by a botanist named Robert Brown in 1827. This is
the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. It is caused by the collisions

29
 between the suspended particles and the molecules of the fluid. This phenomenon provides
visual evidence of the constant motion of particles in a gas.

b. Diffusion: Diffusion is the movement of particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. In a gas, for example, molecules
move freely and collide with each other, leading to the spreading of the gas throughout a
container.

c. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion that occurs across a semi-permeable membrane. It is

the net movement of solvent molecules (usually water) from a region of lower solute
concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane. This process is crucial for many biological functions, such as the absorption of
water by plants and the movement of substances across cell membranes.

RESPIRATION
This is the process by which food substances are broken down in our body to release energy.
The purpose of respiration is to convert the food we eat to energy. There are two types of
respiration which are
a. Aerobic respiration: this is the type of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy in large amount. The product of this
respiration is carbon iv oxide and water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide water
b. Anaerobic respiration: this type of respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen. This
occurs in some bacteria. The products of this respiration are carbon (iv) oxide and alcohol.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ENERGY
Glucose ethanol carbon dioxide

30
 Difference between breathing and respiration

The human respiratory system is made up of the following parts;

1. The nasal cavity 5. The bronchi
2. The pharynx 6. The bronchioles
3. The larynx (voice box) 7. The lungs
4. The tracheal (wind pipe)
PARTS OF THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

31
 N 0 1!U;•i - -
Pass:agO'WaJY
for air
M o u ith - - -J
1Pl1 $11_g,e,w y tor ·L ...-.......--i-------------------Ph11rvnx [Thro-atl
food nd nir ....J Co rnman pa$-tiiagaway for
E p1g, 1ofl is - - - -+-- - , a r, foo d, m.d Hqu .d

J
• C'Q Ye r l ll !i')l !l li;
- ----- - - .,-----------------l.arynx CVolce box)
Clti ring swairowing Pmiluction of sound-

P1eul!'al membral'.lu
\.'=: -:-:----------------------------ehea c,,vin.dpipeJ
-----,---
Cover U:ie lungs a1:1d llln Ma:ln a rway
the ctiesl c.avlty
Lwlo - - - - - - - - ----::-!-: ':m!
l. E!J - - - -Bronchus
Bronchioles
l'll Branching airways
Organ ,of gas
e ieiCl'l :ang ,e
- - - A.lveo 1
lnMrcostai musc le, - - - , • Air JH14;:$ r,gr gil;i!$ ,El)'C:oh !l 1t9 e,
MoveS, rUJs d'11n iin g
resp ir.ati on

Diaphragm --------------------- 'r.:=-Fr:.

Skeletal mu&ele •
ot ms pirati'on

THE BREATHING PROCESS

Inhalation Exhalation
1 _ lnhalai:t on is ·th e a c 11 1. E:x h arla t io s the a ,c t · on
tii0, 1 •n i,
o ,f · 1n h a t · n g or br e a1h ·1n 9 of , ex h a fiin ,g cnr b rreathing
1 o,u t .
in. 2.Hi
2 . lt i· ' a 1 n act ve pro e 1

i t in v o Ives con'tra c:t iio n

-3_of - m u :sd ,e s ,.,

Diaphi..-a gm co n- t ra Jict :S
m us cl es .
3. D ila ph rag m r ei a,x e s ;arn d
and f Ja tt ,e ns by m ro,v 1i n lbe c0, 1m e d o m ,e sh a p e d .
g
d o w n.
4. Riib cage moves f orw, ,ar 4 . Rib cage mov,e s
d a 1n d ,o ru twa r d . d o w n w a 1 rd a 111 d i n w a r d .
c o n5t ra. cLt.u n g s expand 5. l

6, Size o,f the ,c h e s t c a v ri in c r ,e a 1s e s• .

32
7 .0 xy g e·n is 1:aken 1i n t o ,6 ,. Size of ·th ,e chest c;a'Viity
7. dCarbo
ec 1re a , ·s111e sd"
. oxide i.s taken
t h , e b lo o d . offfrom the blood.

PERCENTAGES OF INHALED AND EXHALED GASES

33
 GASES INHALED GAS EXHALED GAS
NITROGEN 79% 79%
OXYGEN 20.96% 16.02%
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.04% 4.38%
WATER VAPOUR TRACE TRACE

RESPIRATORY DISEASES
a. Common cold: This is caused by virus that destroys the cells of the surface of the nose.
White blood cells carried to the surface because of increased blood supply so that the
surface swells. The swelling causes the stuffy feeling in the nose
b. Asthma: causes difficulty in breathing because the bronchi and bronchioles are
temporary constricted and inflamed. An asthma attack is caused by dust, pollen grains
smoke or temporary shortage of oxygen in an area. The symptoms are coughing, short
breath and wheezing
c. Emphysema: This is caused by air pollutants from industries and cigarette smoking. It
causes coughing, shortness of breath and wheezing
d. Silicosis: This is a lung disease caused by prolonged inhalation of silica dust. It affects
those involved in mining, stone cutting, metal grinding etc.
e. Pneumonia: this is caused by bacteria present in unhealthy cold and wet environment.
The air sac of the lungs are clogged with mucus making breathing difficult
f. Tuberculosis: this is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The lungs
lose its elasticity and are un able to allow gaseous exchange
g. Bronchitis: this is an infection of the main airways of the lungs (bronchi), causing them
to become irritated and inflamed.

34