23.

ALTERNATING
CURRENT

1.INTRODUCTION
A majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and consumed in the form of
50-Hzor60-Hz sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and voltage. It is used for household
andindustrial applications.
AC has several advantages over DC. The major advantage of AC is the fact that it can be
transformedinto any form, whereas direct current (DC) cannot. A transformer permits voltage to
be stepped up or down for the purpose of transmission. Transmission of high voltage (in terms of
KV) implies that less current is required to produce the same amount of power. Less current
permits thinner wires to be used for transmission.
In this chapter, we will introduce a sinusoidal signal and its basic mathematic equation. We will
discuss and analyse circuits where currents i(t) and voltages v(t) vary with time. The phasor
analysis techniques will be used to analyse electronic circuits under sinusoidal steady-state
operating conditions. The chapter will conclude with single-phase power.

2.SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS
AC, unlike DC, flows first in one direction, then
in the opposite direction. The most common AC RMS value
waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. Peak
In discussing AC signal, it is necessary to value
express the current and voltage in termsof Peak-to-
maximum or peak values, peak-to-peakvalues, Peak
effective values, average values, or
instantaneous values. Each of these values has a
different meaning and is used to describe a
different amount of current or voltage. V(t)=V0
sin t. Where Vo is the peak
voltage,   2f is the angular frequency expressed in
radian per second (rad/s), f is the
frequencyexpressed in Hertz (Hz), t is time 1 cycle
expressed in second (s).
Figure 23.1: Sinusoidal
Waveform.
2.1 Instantaneous Value
The instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value of voltage or current at one particular instant.
The value may be zero, if the particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity of the
voltage is changing. It may also be the same as the peak value, if the selected instant is the time
in the cycle at which the voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are
actually an infinitenumber of instantaneous values between zero and the peak value.
23 . 2 | Alternating
Current

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

It is always advisable to find symmetries in functions while calculating rms and average
value to reduce the period of integration.It helps a lot in avoiding unnecessary
calculations when functions are defined part by part.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR
821)

2.2 Average Value

t
2
fd
Average value of a
function,from t to t t2
. We can find the value fdt graphically if
t , ist defined as
1
of  the
1
<f>=
2
t2  t1 t
graph is simple. It is the area of f-t graph from t2  t1. 1
t

 idt
Iavg  0 ,where i is the instantaneous value of the current.
t


0
dt

2.2.1For Sinusoidal Variation of Current and Voltages

t

 io sin  dt
Case I: Average value over complete cycle 0
. Similarly Vavg  0
t


dt
0
t/2
 o sin  dt
o
Case II: Average value over half cycle i t/2  2i ; Similarly Vavg2i o
Iavg  0
 

0
dt

Illustration 1: An electric heater draws 2.5 A current from a 220-V, 60-Hz power supply. Find
(JEE
MAIN)
(a) The average current
(b)The average of the square of the current
(c) The current amplitude
(d)The supply voltage amplitude

Sol: In AC circuit, the average value of current over a long time interval is zero but I2 is not zero.
The r.m.s. value of
Imax Vmax
current and voltage is given by I  and V  .
rms rms
2 2
(a) The average of sinusoidal AC values over any whole number of cycles is zero.
 Physics | 23.
3

I 
2
=I
(b)RMS value of current rms =2.5 A so, 2
 I   6.25 A2
av
rms
I
(c) Irms  m
So, current amplitude I = 2 Irms  2 2.5A  3.5 A
m
;
V
(d) V  220V  m So, supply voltage amplitude V  2 V  2 220V  311 V.
rms
2 m rms

2.3 Effective Value (RMS Value)

This is the value of AC signal that will have the same effect on a resistance as a comparable value
of direct voltage or current will have on the same resistance. It is possible to compute the effective
value of a sine wave of current to a good degree of accuracy by taking equally
spacedinstantaneous values of current along the curve and extracting the square root of the
average of the sum of the squared values. For this reason, effective value is sometimes called
RMS value. t
2
f2dt
Root mean square value of a function, from t to t is 
defined as f t1

rms
1
2
t2  t1
T I2dt T I2 sin 2
dt
The magnitude of is given by I 2
 0
0 0
I20
I   
rms rms 2

T
T dt
dt
2
II  0 0

 0.707 I V0 V   0.707 E

I0
eff rms Wher I0 is the peak value of the current. rms 0A
0 2 e Similarly ef f
or

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

RMS value is actually more important because in the context of power transmission,the loss
in energy due to a resistor plays an important role. And the power is given by i2R, where R
is the resistance.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR
821)


Illustration 2:Find the RMS value of current I = Im sin t from (i) t=0 to t=
 3 (JEE
(ii)t= to t  MAIN)
 2 2

Sol: In AC circuit over time interval 0  t  T the RMS value of current is given by

T T

 I0 sin  
2 2
Irms   
0 dt I 2
0 I2Tdt T
where T 
2 
0
0
23 . 4 | Alternating
Current
3
 2

 I2 sin2
I
m0
2
sin
2
Im
m
 (t)dt
I
(i) Irms  (t)dt  m
 (ii) Irms 2  m
 m A

I2
2 2 I2
2 2
 


MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The RMS value of one cycle or half cycle (either a positive or negative cycle) is same.
GV Abhinav (JEE 2012, AIR
329)

2.4 Difference between Sine and Cosine Representation of AC Signal

The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 900 phase difference. For
example, sin t  cos

t  90  . Multiples of 360 may be added to or subtracted from the argument of any sinusoidal
0 0

function, without
changing the value of the function. To realize this, let us consider

V1  VP1 cos 10t   

 VP1 sin 10t  900  …
(i)
200  200 
 VP1 sin 10t   Leads V2  VP2 sin 10t   …
110 0
 400 
(ii)

by 1500. It is also correct to say that v1lags v2by 2100, since v1 may be written as

V1  VP1 sin 10t  2500  V …

(iii)

VP

VPsin(t+ Vpsin
) t

t


-VP
Figure 23.2: Representation of voltage as sine and cosine function
 Physics | 23.
5

3.POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
t

Average power in alternating current circuit over time t is  vid

Pavg  , where V andiare
defined as
0
the
t t

0
dt
instantaneous values of voltage and current respectively. Let V= V0 sin t; i  i0 sin t    ,
Average power over a cycle

idrsint. sint 
T
T v  2 1 
v i
sin tcos sin2tsin dt
 o o oo
2

 1
0  
Pavg  0
;   V0i0 cos  ocsmrismrV
s
T T 2

0
dt

The term cos is known as power factor.

If the current leads voltage, it is said to be leading, whereas, if it lags voltage, it is said to be
lagging. Thus, a power factor of 0.5 lagging means the current lags voltage by 60 o (as cos10.5 =
60o). The product of Vrms and irms gives the apparent power, while the true power is obtained by
multiplying the apparentpower by the power factor cos

Thus, apparent power = Vrms  irms and true power=apparent power  power factor

For   , the current and voltage are in phase. The power is thus, maximum (V rms  irms). For  
90 the power is zero. The current is then stated wattless. Such a case will arise when resistance in
the circuits is zero. The circuit is purely inductive or capacitive. The case is similar to that of a
frictionless pendulum, where the total work done by gravity upon the pendulum cycle is zero.
We shall discuss more about the power and power factor later, shortly after we define impedance
and its properties.

Illustration 3: When a voltage Vs

2 sin (t+15o) is applied to an AC circuit, the current in
 200 thecircuit is found
to be I=2 sin (t+) then average power consumed in the circuit is (JEE
MAIN)

(A) 200 W (B)

2 W (C) W (D) 200 W
400 2 2
100

Sol: Power in any AC circuit is calculated as P  V I cos where  is phase angle between
av rms rms
V and I.
200 2 2
Pav  Vrms Irms cos 
2
. 
cos 300  6 100 W

4.SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS Writing KVL along the

circuit (see Fig.
23.3), VS iR=0
4.1 Purely Resistive Load
23 . 6 | Alternating
Current

Vs = Vm sin t
Vs Vm sint
Or I   I sint . i
R
R R m

We see that the phase difference between potential Figure 23.3: AC voltage
differences across applied to resistive
resistance, VR and iR is 0. load
23 . 6 | Alternating
Current
2
Vm Vrms Vrms
I  I  <P> = V I cos

m  rms
R
R rms R rms

4.2 Purely Capacitive

t
Writing KVL along the circuit shown in Fig. 23.4
q Vs = V sin


m
V   0 And current in the circuit is
S
c i C

dq dcv dcvm sint Vm cost Figure 23.4: AC

I   dt  dt dt msint voltage applied to
 cv  1/ .
capacitive load
C
Vm
 cost  I cost
m
XC
1 and is called capacitive reactance. Its unit is Ohm (  ). V-
where  T

XC C t
From the graph of current versus time and voltage versus time,
it i
is clear that current attains its peak value at
T before the
a time
t
4
T
time at which voltage attains its peak value. Corresponding to phase
difference.
Figure 23.5
4
2 T 
 ◻t   i leadsv by  / 2 diagrammatically (phasediagram)
represented as
T c c
4 2

Since   900 <P>= Vrms Irms cos 0 Im

,
The current leads the voltage by  / 2 in a capacitive circuit
Vm

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
<P>=0 doesn’t mean it is zero in any period less than the time period. In actuality, first
the capacitor gets charged up, gaining energy during the first half cycle, and loses it for
the next half cycle.So overall, power becomes zero.Same goes for the inductor in a
different fashion (magnetic field plays a role there).
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR
821)

4.3 Pure Inductive Circuit

di di
Writing KVL along circuit, V L 0 ;L  V sint; Ldi  V sintdt ; t

Vs = V
dt  
s


m
dt m m sin
Vm
i cost  C ; <i>=0 ; C=0; i
L
L
Vm Vm
i   cost I  From the graph of current versus time Figure 23.6: AC
voltage applied to
and voltage
inductive load
L
m
XL
 Physics | 23.
7
versus
time, it is clear that voltage attains its peak value before the time
T  2 T 2 
at a time ◻t   
4
T
at which current attains its peak value. Corresponding to , the
4 T 4 T 2
phase difference
23 . 8 | Alternating
Current

V T
t

Figure 23.7: Variation of current and voltage with respect to time

Vm
Diagrammatically (See Fig. 23.7) it is represented as

Im
ipurely
lags behind V by  / 2 since   900 , <P>=V
inductive I =0. The current lags voltage by  / 2 in a
rms rms cos
L

circuit.

Applie Induced
d voltage
voltag
e

Figure 23.8: AC voltage applied to purely inductive circuit

5.IMPEDANCE
We have already seen that the inductive reactance XL  L and capacitance reactance XC  1/
L play the role of
an effective resistance in apurely inductive and capacitive circuit respectively. In the series RLC
circuit, the effective

resistance is the impedance,defined as Z 

R  XL  XC
2
…
(iv)
 be represented by the diagram
The relationship between Z, XL, and XC can
shown in Fig. 23.9. Following is a diagrammatic representation of the
relationship between Z, XL and XC.
Z
The impedance has SI unit of Ω. In terms of Z the current may be rewritten as I(t) XL - XC

V0
= sint  …(v)


 Z
R

Notice that the impedance Z also depends on the angular frequency  ,as
Figure 23.9:
do XL and XC.
Impedance
Triangle
Using the above equations for phase  and Z, we may readily recover the
limit for simple circuit (with only one element).
23 . 8 | Alternating
Current

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

By now, students should get a clear idea of individual behaviour of inductor, capacitor and
resistor and be able to visualize phasors. They should never get confused whetherinductor,
capacitor is leading, etc.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)

The upcoming series of circuits would be easy to understand because they are just a superposition
of individual phasor diagrams.

6.MIXED AC CIRCUITS
6.1 LR Circuit
If VR, VL and Vsare the RMS voltage across are R, L and the AC source respectively. Then,

VS VR2  R2 
L  L Where is r.m.s value of source current.
 V2 I2 X2
Is

The total opposition to the current is called impedance and it is denoted by Z.

VS
Z=  R2   R2 
L
IS X2 2L2

VL
R VR
V S
V
L VL S
 IS
VR
(a) (b)

Figure 23.10: (a) AC voltage applied to LR circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R
and L

1
 XL  1 L 
The phase angel  by which the applied voltage leads the current is   tan    tan 

 R   R 

Illustration 4: An alternating voltage of 220V RMS at a frequency of 40 cycles/second is supplied

to a circuit containing a pure inductance of 0.01 H and a pure resistance of 6Ω in series. Calculate
(a) The current, (b) Potential difference across the resistance, (c) Potential different across
inductance, (d) The time lag. (JEE
MAIN)
Vrms
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit R2  . In LR circuit,
 . The RMS value of the current
is Z  2
is Irms L  L 
the
Z
current lags the applied voltage by phase angle obtained as   tan1 .
 
 R 
The impedence of the L-R series circuit is given by:
1/2 1/2
2 2 2
Z = R2  L 
2
 R  2fL 
   
 Physics | 23.
9
1/2
2
= 62  2  3.14  40  0.01  = 6.504 Ω
 
Vrms 220
(a) RMS value of the =   33.83 A
current: Irms Z 6.504
(b)The potential difference across the resistance is given by: VR=Irms  R=33.83  6= 202.83 V
(c)Potential difference across the inductance is given by:

VL = Irms  ( L ) = 33.83  2  3.14  0.01  = 96.83 V
 L 
(d) Phase angle   tan1 ; so,  = tan-1 (0.4189=22.46)
 
 R 

 22.46
Now time T  0.0623 s.
lag= 360 360
9
Illustration 5: A H inductor and a 12 Ω resistance are connected in a series to a 225 V,
50 Hz ac source.
100
Calculate the current in the circuit and the phase angle between the current and the source
voltage. (JEE MAIN)
Vrms
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit  . In LR circuit,
is Z  . The RMS value of the current
R2 is Irms the
  L  Z
current lags the applied voltage by phase
2 angle obtained as   tan
1 .
L  
 R 
9
Here X = L =2 fL  250 
 9
L
100

So, Z
 12 
2
R2   15
 L 9 2
X2
V 225  XL   9 
(a) l=   15A and (b) tan1  tan1  tan1 3 / 4 
37o

Z 15  1 
 R
 
 
2
i.e., the current will lag the applied voltage by 370 in phase.

Illustration 6: A chokecoil is needed to operate an arc lamp at 160 V (RMS) and 50 Hz. The arc
lamp has an effective resistance of 5Ω when running of 10 A (RMS). Calculate the inductance of
the choke coil. If the same arc lamp is to be operated on 160V (dc), what additional resistance is
required? Compare the power losses in both cases.

(JEE
Sol: The choke coil is a LR circuit having large inductanceand ADVANCED)
small resistance. The potential difference across the resistor and
inductor is added vectorially:V2=V 2+V 2. Ark lamp
R L L R
As for the lamp, VR=IR  10  5  50V , so when it is connected to 160 V ac source
though a choke in series,V2=V 2+V 2, 160
V =2   152 V V V
R L L
L R
502

152 VL
And as, V =IX =I L  2fLI L=  =4.84 102H
L L
2fI 2  50  10
23 . 10 | Alternating
Current
V = V0sin t
Now the lamp is to be operated at 160 V dc; instead of choke, if Figure 23.11
additional resistance r is I put in a series with it, V = I(R+r), i.e. 160
= 10(5+r) i.e. r = 11Ω In case of AC, as choke has no resistance,
power loss in the choke will be zero, while
23 . 10 | Alternating
Current

the bulb will consume P=I2 R=102  5=500 W. However, in case of DC,as resistance r is to be used
instead of choke, the power loss in the resistance r will be PL=102 X 11=1100 W
While the bulb will still consume 500 W, i.e., when the lamp is run on resistance r instead of
choke, more than double the power consumed by the lamp is wasted by the resistance r.

6.2 RC Circuits
VR
IS
R VR 
V S
VC
VS
C - C

(a) (b)

Figure 23.12: (a) AC voltage applied to RC circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R
and C

If Vs, VR and VC are RMS voltages across a source, resistance and capacitor respectively

VS  VR2  C  IS  R2  C
V2 X2
VS
Impedance of circuit, Z=  R2   R2  1
C
IS X 2
2 C
1
 X C
 1  1 
VS leads IS by   nat  tan  
R


   CR 
The current leads the applied voltage by angel  .

Illustration 7:An ac source of angular frequency  is fed across a resister R and a capacitor C in
series. The current registered is I. If now, the frequency of source is changed to /3 (but
maintaining the same voltage), the current in the circuit is found to be halved. Calculate the ratio
of reactance to resistance at the original frequency .
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: The impedance of RC circuit is:

 1 V
Z R2  2 . The RMS current is Irms  rms

  C Z

According to the given problem, I= V V

…
Z 1/2 (i)
R2  1 / C  2
 


And for frequency  , I  …

of  (ii)
3 2 V 1/2
R2  3/ C 2 
 
 
Substituting the value of I from equation (i) in (ii),
 1  9 1 3
4 R2   R2  i.e..  R2
 Physics | 23.
11
 5

2 2
C  C 2
2 C22
 
23 . 12 | Alternating
Current

X 1 /
c  3R 2
1/2
5 3
So  
   5
that, R R R

Illustration 8: In an RC series circuit, the RMSvoltage of source is 200V, and its frequency is 50
Hz. If R = 100 Ω
100
and C  F , find

(a) Impedance of the circuit 220
(b) Power factor angle V50HZ
(c) Power factor (d) Current 
(e) Maximum current (f) Voltage across R

(g) Voltage across C (h) Max voltage C R

across R Figure 23.13
(i) Maxvoltage cross C ( j)<P>
(k) <PR> (l) <PC> (JEE
ADVANCED)
Sol: The impedance of RC circuit is

Z  R2  1
 2
 C
Vrms
 XC
The RMS current is I  . The phase angle between current and voltage is given by tan 
. The RMS
rms Z I0 V0 R
value of current and voltage is I  and V  . Power developed in circuit is P 
VrmsIrms cos .
rms rms
2 2

XC 106  100 
 100

250
(a) Z  100 2
R2 
  1002 
XC2
X
(b) ta   C    450
n 1
R
1
(c) Power factor= cos 
2
Vrms 200
(d) Current   
Irms 2A Z 100
2

(e) Maximum current

=Irms 2  2A

(f) Voltage across R=VR,rms=Irms R= 2  100 V

(g) Voltage across C= VCrms = IrmsXC = 2  100 V

 Physics | 23.
13

2 VR,rms=200 V
(h) Max voltage across R=

(i) 2 VCrms=200 V
Max voltage across C=
23 . 12 | Alternating
Current
1
(j) <P>= V I cos  200  2  W
rms rms
2
(k) <PR>Irms 2R=200 W

(l) <Pc>=0

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

We observed here that inductor’s reactance is directly proportional to the frequency used
in the circuit and vice-versa for capacitor. So a combined circuit of them can be used as a
frequency filter. High frequencies can be received by noting the voltage across capacitor
and low frequencies can be noted using the inductor.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR
134)

XL
Vs = V sint V

 V
I
90o I

L C
XC
(b)
(a)
Figure 23.14: (a) AC voltage applied to LC circuit (b) Phasor diagram for voltage drops across L
and R

6.3 LC Circuits

From the phasor diagram V  I XL  XC   I Z;   90 0

6.4 RLC Circuits

2
For LCR series circuits VsV
R

 VL  C
2
V

2  1
Impedance of circuits R2  XL  2 =
R  L  2
C
Z  
 c
X

 XL  XC    1  
V leads I by   tan1 L 
= tan1 c
S S  R   
   R 
 
R
Power in LCR circuit= VrmsIrms cosf  VrmsIrms  VR Irms
Z
 Physics | 23.
13

VR VL-
R

VS  VL VS

VL-
VC
L


C VC V IS
VC R
(a) (b)
-
Figure 23.15: (a) AC voltage applied to LCR circuit. (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across L, C
and R

Where cos  is called the power factor of the LCR circuit.

6.4.1Resonance in RLC Circuits

At a particular angular frequency  of the 1

XL  or  L= , the impedance of the
source, when
XC circuit
0C
becomes minimum and equal to R and therefore, the current will be maximum. The circuit is
then said to be

in resonance. The resonance angular frequency  andfrequency V0 given by

0 1 1
 2 .0 2 L
C
The variation of RMS current with the frequency of the applied voltage is shown
in the Fig. 23.16. If the applied voltage consists of a number of frequency
rm I
s
components, the current will be large for the components having frequency V0.
The Q factor of an LCR series circuit is given 0L
. A direct current of a
by Q=
R
flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of theconductor. An
alternating
current on the other hand, flows mainly along the surface of the V0
conductor. This effect is known as the skin effect. The reason is that V
when ac flows through aconductor, the flux change in the inner part Figure 23.16
of the conductor is higher.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The idea of resonance is used in TV channelsfor clarity: a particular frequency is

assignedto a channel and when this frequency is received by the receiver,the current
corresponding to this frequency becomes maximum. This helps in maximum possible
separation of channels, thus increasing their individual clarity.
It is also used by intelligence agencies to intercept the signals of anti-social elements.
They generally use frequency of a very high order.
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR
113)
23 . 14 | Alternating
Current

Illustration 9: In the circuit shown in the Fig. 23.17, find (JEE

MAIN)
(a) The reactance of the circuit
200V, 50Hz
(b)Impedance of the circuit
(c)The current 
(d)Reading of the ideal AC voltmeters 2

H 100 
100
F
(These are hot wire instruments and read RMS 
values)
V1 V2 V3

Sol: In series LCR circuit, the V4

Z 2 where XC
 R   XC  XL
impedance is 2
V5


and XL are the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance
Figure 23.17
respectively.
2 1
(a) X  2fL  250   200 X = =100 
L 100

C 250  106

 The reactance of the circuit X=XL-XC=200-100=100 

Since XL>XC, the circuit is called inductive.

(b) Impedance of circuit R2  1002  2

Z=   100 
X2 1002
vrms 200
(c) The current   
Irms 2A Z 100
2
(d) Readings of ideal voltage

V1 : IrmsXL  2
V
200 V2 : IrmsR
2 V
 100
2V
V3 : IrmsXc 
100  1 V , which also happens to be the voltage of source.
100 0
V4 : Irms R2 
V4 : IrmsZXL 200 V,
2

Illustration 10: A resistance R, inductance L and a capacitor C all are connected in series with ac
supply. The resistance of R is 16 Ω and for a given frequency, the inductive reactance of L is 24 Ω
and capacitive reactance of C is 12 Ω. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp, find: (JEE
MAIN)
(a) The potential difference across R, L and C
(b)The impedance of the circuit
(c) The voltage of ac supply
(d)Phase angle
2

Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance isR2Z XC  XL where XC and XL are the capacitive
reactance and

inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage and current is given by  
 Physics | 23.
15
 XL  XC 
tan1 .
 R 
 
23 . 16 | Alternating
Current

(a) Potential difference across resistance: VR=iR = 5 

16  80 V Potential difference across inductance: VL=i
L  5  24  120 V Potential difference across
 
capacitor: Vc  i 1 / C  5  12  60 V
  2
R2   1  L  2

(b) Z
16   
 C   2  20 
 
 12  


(c)The voltage of ac supply is given by: V  IZ  5  20  100 V

1  L   1/ c   24  12 
(d)   tan    tan1   tan1 0.75  36046"
 R   16 
 

Illustration 11: An oscillating voltage drives an alternating current through a R

resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor that are all connected in series. Calculate Vrms
the RMS voltage across each another by multiplying the reactance or resistance
of each element by the RMS current. To calculate the RMS current, divide the  L
RMS voltage by the impedance. (JEE ADVANCED) lrms C

Sol: In series LCR circuit, the Figure 23.18

Z where XC and XL are
impedance is 2

R   XC  2
XL the

 XL  XC  
capacitive reactance and inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage
and current is given by   tan 1
. Find the current in the series circuit, and multiply the
resistance or
 R 
 
reactance of each element with the currrent to find the voltage drop
across it.

1 1
1.Calculate XC; XC   =17.68 k 
C  
2 60.0Hz 0.15F

2.Calculate XL ; XL  L  2 60.0Hz  25mH  9.42 

3.Calculate the impedance:

Z 2

 R 2   XL  XC 
2
9.9k   0.00942k   20.25 K 
2
 17.68k 
Vrms 115 V
4.Divide the voltage by the Irm    5.7
impedance: mA Z 20.25 k 
s

5.Multiply the current by the resistance: Vrms.R  IrmsR  5.68 mA(9.9k )  56 V

6.Multiply the current by the inductive reactance: Vrms.L  IrmsXL  5.68 mA( 9.42k )  54 V

7.Multiply the current by the capacitive reactance:

Vrms.C  IrmsXC  5.68 m A(17.68k  )  100V  0.10 KV

 Physics | 23.
17

6.5 Parallel RCL Circuits

Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in
Fig. 23.19. V(t) C
The voltage source is V (t) =V0 sin t .  R L

Unlike the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous voltage acrossall

three circuit elements R, L, and C are the same, and each voltage is
in phase with the current through the resistor. However, the current Figure 23.19 Parallel LRC
through each element will be different. circuit
In analysing this circuit, we make use of the results derived before.
The current V … (i)
V(t)
in the resistor is I (t)   0  sint  I sint
R R0
R R
Where I = V /R. The voltage across the inductor is V (t)  V(t)  V
R0 0dIL …
sint  L (ii)

0
t L dt
I V0 V0 V    
(t)  sint'dt'  cost  0 sin t  I sin t 

which gives L  L X
2

 L0 
2
…
(iii)
L    
0 L

where IL0  V0 / XLandXL  L is the inductive reactance.

Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t)=V0 sin t =Q(t)/c,

which implies
I dQ V     …
(t)   CV cost  0 sin t  I sin t  (iv)
C 0
dt   C0  
X 2 2
C    

where IC0  V0 / XC and XC 

is the capacitive reactance.
1 / L

Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current is simply the sum of all
three currents.
  …
(v)
I(t)  I (t)  I (t)  I (t) = I  sint  I sin t  I
sin t 
R L c R0 L0   C0  
2 2
   
The current can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 23.20


ICO

  
I0 ICO
 +ILO

IRO


IL
O

Figure 23.20: Phase difference between current and voltage

→ → → →
From the phasor diagram, we see that. I0  IR0  …
IL0  IC0 (vi)
23 . 18 | Alternating
Current
And the maximum amplitude of the total current, I0 , can be obtained as
 Physics | 23.
19

→ → → → → 2
1
I0  I0  IR0  IL0   (Ic0  I L0 ) 
1  1   1 1 …
 IC0 I2R0 V 
 C  L V   (vii)
0 R   XC
2
0 R   
XL 

Note however, since IR(t), IL (t) and IC(t) are not in phase with one another, I0is not equal to the sum
of the maximum
amplitudes of the three currents: I0  IR0  IL0  IC0 …
With I0 = V0 /Z, the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is (viii)
given by:
2
1 1
1  1
  C   1  1
L   …
R  XC XL 
Z 2
R  2
= (ix)

The relationship between Z, R, XL and XC is shown in Fig. 23.21 which shows a relationship between
Z, R, XL and XC in a parallel RLC circuit.

1 - 1
1/
Z XC XL


1/R

Figure 23.21: Impedance

triangle
V0  V0  
 IC0  IL0  XC V R V0 

From the phasor diagram, we see that the phase can be     0
obtained as: tan X
V L
  IR0 
 R t    0  XC XL 
R …
(x)
 
 2

The resonance condition for the parallel RLC circuit is given by  =0,
which implies:
…
1 1 (xi)

XC XL
The resonant frequency is: 0
…
1 LC (xii)


which is the same as for the series RLC circuit. From Eq. (xii), we readily see that 1/Z is minimum
(or Z is maximum) at resonance. The current in the inductor exactly cancels out the current in the
capacitor, so that the total current
in the circuit reaches minimum, and is equal to the current in the
resistor: I0 V …
0 (xiii)
R
As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average power is

V2 Z
2 2 V2
P(t) V20
IR (t)V(t) IR  sin   0
 …
  (t)R 0 t (xiv)

2R 2Z  R 
R
Thus, the power factor in this case is
23 . 20 | Alternating
Current
Power factor
= P(t) Z 1
   …
V2 / R 2 cos (xv)
0 1  R
2Z  RC 
  L

 Physics | 23.
21

Illustration 12: The image shows an inductor (L=0.22 mH) in series with L R
a 15  resistor. These elements are in parallel with a second 15 
resistor. An AC generator powers the circuit with an RMS voltage of 65V.
R
In the limit of high frequency, the inductor behaves like a very large
resistor. In such a case, nearly all of the current flows through the branch
with the lone resistor. Calculate the current by dividing the RMS voltage 
by the single resistor.
Figure 23.22
In the limit of low frequency, the reactance of the inductor approaches
zero.
In such a case, the current flows through each resistor equally.
Calculate the
equivalent resistor and divide the voltage by the equivalentresistance to determine the current.
(JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: For very high source frequency, the reactance of the inductor becomes practically infinite so
that the current doesn’t flow through the inductor. Thus, the inductor acts as an open circuit. For
very low source frequency, the reactance of the inductor becomes practically zero, and
theinductor behaves as a short circuit.

1.Calculate the current at high Vrms 65 V

frequency: Irm   
s
4.3 A R 15
R 15 
1
1 1
2.Calculate the equivalent resistance at low frequency: Req       7.5 3.
R R 2 2
Divide the voltage by the equivalent V 8.7 A
resistance: I  rms 
65V
rms
Req 7.5

Illustration 13: For the circuit shown in Fig. 23.23, current in inductance is 0.8 A while its
capacitance is 0.6A. What is the current drawn from the source? (JEE
ADVANCED)
IL
C
I IC


Figure 23.23

Sol: For LC circuit, total current in the circuit is I  I0 sin t    =I L

+ IC. The current in the
inductor lags the applied
voltage by phase  
while in capacitor, the current leads applied In parallel ac
difference of
voltage by circuit,
2 2
V  V0 sint is applied across both the inductorand capacitor, current in inductor lags the applied
voltage while current in capacitor leads the applied voltage.
V   V  
So, I = sin t   0.8 cost ; I  sin t   0.6 cost
L   C  
X 2 X 2
C   C  
So, the current drawn from the source, I  IL  IC  0.2cost , i.e. I0  0.2 A

7.MORE ON POWER FACTOR

 23 . 22 | Alternating
Current
(a) The factor cos present in the relation for average power of an ac circuit is called power
factor.

So, cos = Pac Pavg

. Thus, ratio of average power and virtual power in the circuit is equal to power
ErmsIr
ms factor.
pV
 Physics | 23.
23

(b)Power factor is also equal to the ratio of the resistance and the impedance of the Z
ac circuit.
1
R
Thus, cos =

C
0 R
Z Figure 23.24
(c) Power factor depends upon the nature of the components used in
the circuit.(d) If a pure resistor is connected in the ac circuit then,

  0,cos  E0I0 E20

1; pav   I
2 Erms 2R rms

Thus, the power loss is maximum and electrical energy is converted in the form of heat.
(e)If a pure inductor or capacitor are connected in the ac circuit, then
  90o , cos = 0  Pav =0 (minimum)
Thus is no loss of power.
(f) If a resistor and an inductor or a capacitor are connected in an ac circuit, then    or  
90o. Thus  is in between 0 & 90o.
(g)If the components L, C and R are connected in series in a circuit, then
tan X L  1 / C R R R
  and cos   1/2 ; Power factor cos 
R R Z 2
R2 L  1 / C  Z
 
 
(h)Power factor is a unit less quantity.

(i)If there is only an inductance coil in the circuit, there will be no loss of power, and energy will be
stored in the
magnetic field.

(j) If a capacitor is only connected in the circuit, there will also be no loss of power, and energy will
be stored in the
electrostatic field.

(k)In reality, an inductor and capacitor do have some resistance. So, there is always some loss of
power.
(l)In the state of resonance, the power factor is one.

8.WATTLESS CURRENT
(a) The component of current whose contribution to the average power is nil, is called wattless
current.
(b) The average wattle of power iszero because the average of the second
Irms
component of instantaneous power for a full cycle will be 0 E
cos
E0 sintl0 sinsint  / 2  0
X Z
(c) The component of current associated with this part is called
Wattless current. Thus the current

l0 sin sin t   / 2 is a wattless current whose amplitude is l0 sin

Irm .sin Irm

s  s
If RMS value of current in the circuit Figure 23.25
(c) , then the RMS value
is Irms of a
wattless current will be Irms, sin . A wattless current lags or leads
the e.m.f. by an angle  / 2 . RMS value of wattless current:
 23 . 24 | Alternating
Current
l0 l0 X X
I sin sin ;  . Since sin  , where X is the resultant reactance of the circuit.
rms 
2Z Z
2

9.TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device used to convert low alternating voltage at higher current into high
alternating voltage at lower current, and vice-versa. In other words, a transformer is an electrical
device used to increase or decrease alternating voltage.

9.1 Types of Transformers

(a) Step-up transformers: The transformerwhich converts low alternating voltage at higher
current into a high alternating voltage at lower current is called a step-up transformer.
(b) Step-down transformers: The transformer which
converts high alternating voltage at lower current into a
low alternating voltage EP P S
athigher current is called a step-down transformer. E Load
S

Principle: A transformer is based on the principle of mutual

induction. An e.m.f. is induced in a coil, when a changing
Core
current flows through its nearby coil.
Figure
Construction: Itconsists of two separate coils of insulated wires 23.26
wound
on the same iron core. One of the coil connected to a.c. input is called primary (p) and the other
winding giving output is called secondary (S) winding or coil.
Theory: When an alternating source of e.m.f. E p is connected to the primary coil, an alternating
current flows through it. Due to the flow of alternating current in the primary coil, an alternating
magnetic flux induces an alternating e.m.f. in the secondary coil (Es). Let Np and Ns be the number
of turns in the primary and secondary coil respectively. The iron core is capable of coupling the
whole of the magnetic flux  produced by the turns of the primary coil with the secondary coil.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f in the primary coil,
d
EP  N
...
dt (i)
The induced e.m.f in the secondary coil.
S E 
d ...
N
dt (ii)
ES NS NS
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get  ; Where =K the transformation ratio or ratio.

Ep NP NP
The ES NS
n,  =K
Ep N P

K< 1 for step down transformer. In this case, NS <NP i.e. Ep , and output alternating voltage
and ES <Ep <input
alternating voltage.

K>1 for step up transformer. In this case, and ES >Ep i.e., output alternating voltage is greater
NS  NP
than the
input alternating voltage.
For an ideal transformer (in which there in no energy losses), output power= input power...........(iii)
Let Ip and Is be the current in the primary and secondary coil respectively. E I
Then output power= E I ; input power= E I ; from equation (iii) E =E or s = P ; In
1
general, E  . For
s S p p
 Physics | 23.
25
p s
Ep I S I
same power transfer, voltage increases with the decrease in current and vice-versa. Thus,
whatever is gained in voltage ratio is lost in the current ratio and viceversa. So, astep-up
transformer increases the alternating voltage by
23 . 26 | Alternating
Current

decreasing the alternating current, and a step- down transformer decreases the alternating voltage
by increasing the alternating current.
ouputpower Es IS
For a transformer, efficiency, n=  For an ideal transformer, efficiency, n is
100%. But in a real
inputpower EPIP
transformer, the efficiency varies from 90-99%. This indicates that there are some energy losses in
the transformer.

10. CHOKING COIL

Let us consider a choke coil of large inductance L and low resistance R. Then, the power factor of
the given circuit
will be given by cos  R
= L (as R<< L )
R R2


Now, as we know that R<<L, the power factor is small and hence the power absorbed will be
very small. And also, on account of its large impedance (large inductance), current passing
through the coil is very small. Hence, such a coil is preferred in electrical circuits for the purpose of
adjusting the current to any desired value without having a significant energy waste.

Illustration 14: An ac circuit consists of a 220  resistance and a 0.7 H choke. Find the power
absorbed from a 220V and 50 Hz source connected in this circuit if the resistance and choke are
joined, (a) in series (b) in parallel
(JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: For a seriesLR circuit, R2 

Z and average power dissipated in circuit is
impedance is  2L2 calculated as
P  VrmsIrms cos .
1 1 1 1
In parallel LR circuit   . But for a choke, L is very large, so 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Z R  L  L
(a) Z
in series the impedance
of the circuit is: XL
2
Z

220  2  3.14  50 

 2
 0.7 311
R2  R2 R Figure 23.27
 
2 L 2 2 220
V
Irms  rms
2fL0.707A , cos 
220
  0.707
Z 311 Z 311

and the power absorbed in the circuit, P  Vrmsirms cos  220  0.7070.707  110.08 W
(b)When the resistance and choke are in parallel, the entire power is absorbed in resistance, as the
choke (having 2
V2 220
zero resistance) absorbs no power.  P  rms  =220W
R 220
 Physics | 23.
27

PROBLEM - SOLVING TACTICS

(a) In this chapter, we have seen how a phasor provides a powerful tool for analysing
the AC circuits. Below are some important tips:
1.Keep in mind the phase relationship for simple circuits.
(i)For a resistor, the voltage and phase are always in phase.
(ii) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by900.
(iii) For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 900.
(b) When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for
allelements, and instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On the
otherhand, when circuit elements are connected in parallel, the instantaneous voltage is the
same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents across the elements are out of phase.

(c) For a series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltage. The amplitude of the
voltage drop across
all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In Fig. 23.28, the phasor
diagram for a
series RLC circuit is shown for both the XL  and the capacitive case XL  XC .
inductive case
XC Below is a
phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) XL  XC (b) XL  XC .


VLO

   VLO
V0  
I0 VRO
  
VLO+VCO

 
I0 VR  VLO+VCO
 V0
VC O

O VC
O
(a (b
) )
Figure 23.28: Phase angle between applied voltage and current (a) in RC circuit, (b) in LC circuit

From Fig. 23.28(a), we see that VL0  VC0 in the inductive V0 leads I0 by a phase  . On the
case and other
hand, in the capacitive case shown in Fig. 23.28(b), and I0 leads V0 by a phase  .
VC0  VL0
(d) Students should directly learn the formula for reactance, impedance, etc.to solve any problem
easily.
(e) For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the current
across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In the following
Fig. 23.29, the phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the inductive case
XL  XC and the capacitive case XL  XC .
 
ICO ICO

  
  I0 ICO +
IR  ILO
V 
O
  IR
0 ICO
 
23 . 28 | Alternating
Current
Figure 23.29
 Physics |
23.23

(f) Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit

XL  And XL  XC : From Fig. 23.29(a), we
for (a)
XC (b) see that

IL0  IC0 in the inductive case lead by a phase  .On the other hand, in the capacitive
case shown
and V0 I0
in Fig. 23.29 (b), IC0  IL0 leads by a phase  .
and I0 V0

FORMULAE SHEET

(a) In an AC circuit, sinusoidal voltage source of amplitude V0 is represented

as:V(t) =V0 sinwt. The current in the circuit has amplitude I0 and lags the
applied voltage by phase angle  . Current is represented as: I(t) = I 0 sin ( t
 )
(b) For a single-element circuit (a resistor, a capacitor or an inductor) connected to the AC
voltage source, we
summarise the results in the below table:

Circuit elements Resistance/Reactance Current Amplitude Phase angel 

R R 0
I V0

R0
R

L Inductive Reactance
(/2)
XL  L V0
I  i.e.,current
L
0 XL
lags voltage

by 900
C Capacitive Reactance
(-  / 2 )
1 V0
XC C I  i.e. current leads

C
0 XC
voltage by 900

(c) For a circuit having more than one circuit element connected ina series,we summarise the
results in the below table:

Circuit elements Impedance Z Current amplitude Phase angle 

R C 0 
V0
R 2  X2
L I0  
R 2  X2  
L 2 

R C V0
I0   
R 2  X2
C R 2  X2      0
C  2
23 . 24 | Alternating
Current
R L C   0 if
2
R2   X  X  V0
I0  2 XL  XC
R2   X  X 
L C
L C   0 if XL  XC
 Physics |
23.23

(d) For series LCR circuit,

(i) R2  (XL  XC
the impedance is Z 
)2
(ii) the current lags the voltage by phase angle   tan1
XL  XC 
R
1
(iii) the resonant frequency is 0  .
LC

At resonance, the current in the series LCR circuit is maximum, while that in parallel LCR
circuit is minimum.

(e) Impedance for parallel LCR circuit, is given by

1 1
1  1 2

 

 C   1  1

Z R  L  R  XL XC 
2

The phase angle by which the current lags the voltage is

  1 1   1 
 tan1 R   tan1 R  C
 X X  
L
 L C   

(f) The RMS (root mean square) value of voltage and current in an AC circuit are given as

Vrms V0 I
, and  0
 2
I rm
s 2

(g) Average power of an AC P(t  I V R

rms rms
cos where cos  is the power factor of the
circuit is )
circuit.
Z
0L 1
(h) Quality factor Q of LCR circuit is Q  
L
R R
C V N
(i) For a transformer, the ratio of secondary coil voltage to that of primary coil voltage is 2  2
V1 N1
where N1 is number of turns in primary coil, and N2 is number of turns in secondary coil.
For the step-up transformer, N2 >N1 ; for step down transformer, N2 <N1 .