UNIT II MOBILE COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES

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Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

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 Mobile Network Evolution
1G 2G 3G 4G
AMPS, NMT GSM/GPRS/ WCDMA/HSPA+ LTE
TACS EDGE CDMA2000/EVDO LTE-A
cdmaOne TD-SCDMA

1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Mid 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s
analog Digital voice Mobile Mobile Internet
voice + Simple data broadband More & faster

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4
 Network Architecture Evolution

2G 3G 4G

• Circuit- • Circuit-switching • Packet-

switching for voice switching for
for voice • Packet-switching everything
for data • IP-based

Telecomm
IP-based Internet
Infrastructure
5
Evolution of Cellular Networks

1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G

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• 1G (First Generation) is the name given to the
first generation of mobile telephone networks.

• Circuit-switched technology.
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).
• Analog system.
• Basic mobility.
• Poor voice quality.
• Poor security.

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 2G(GSM)
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications
• Concurrent development in USA and Europe in the 1980’s
• The European system was called GSM and deployed in the
early 1990’s

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 GSM Services
• Voice, 3.1 kHz
• Short Message Service (SMS)
– 1985 GSM standard that allows messages of at most 160 chars. (incl. spaces) to be sent between
handsets and other stations
– Over 2.4 billion people use it;
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
– GSM upgrade that provides IP-based packet data transmission up to 114 kbps
– Users can “simultaneously” make calls and send data
– GPRS provides “always on” Internet access and the Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
whereby users can send rich text, audio, video messages to each other
– Performance degrades as number of users increase
– GPRS is an example of 2.5G telephony – 2G service similar to 3G

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 GSM Channels
Downlink
Channels
Uplink

• Physical Channel: Each timeslot on a carrier is referred to as a

physical channel
• Logical Channel: Variety of information is transmitted
between the MS and BTS. Different types of logical channels:
– Traffic channel
– Control Channel
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 GSM Frequencies
• Originally designed on 900MHz range, now also available on 800MHz,
1800MHz and 1900 MHz ranges.
• Separate Uplink and Downlink frequencies
– One example channel on the 1800 MHz frequency band, where RF carriers are
space every 200 MHz

UPLINK FREQUENCIES DOWNLINK FREQUENCIES

1710 MHz 1785 MHz 1805 MHz 1880 MHz

UPLINK AND DOWNLINK FREQUENCY SEPARATED BY 95MHZ 11

2G Network Architecture (GSM)
Operations and Support
Subsystem

BTS

UE
MSC

HLR/AuC
BSC

Base Station Network

Subsystem Subsystem
12 12
2G Based on Circuit Switching (CS)
End-end resources
reserved for “call”
• link bandwidth, switch
capacity
• dedicated resources: no
sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
• call setup required
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 2G
• Digital data can be compressed and multiplexed much
more effectively than analog voice encodings.
•Multiplexing -multiple analog message signals or digital
data streams are combined into one signal.

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• Allows for lower powered radio signals that require less
battery power.
• Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed
much more effectively than analog.
• CODEC introduction -program that encodes and decodes
digital data stream or signal.
•Translates data from digital to analog and voice .

Speaker

Voice CODEC
0101110

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 2G
•Advantages:
• The digital voice encoding allows digital error
checking
•increase sound quality
•lowers the noise level
Going all-digital allowed for the introduction of
digital data transfer.
•SMS –“short message service”
•E-mail

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 2G
Disadvantages

• Cell towers had a limited coverage area.

• Built mainly for voice services and slow data.

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 2.5G
2G Enhanced

The best way to predict the future is to invent it.

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• Lies somewhere between 2G and 3G.

• The development of 2.5G has been viewed as a

stepping-stone towards 3G.

• Was prompted by the demand for better data

services and access to the internet.

• Provides faster services than 2G, but not as

faster as advanced as the newer 3G systems.
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• Extends the capabilities of 2G systems by
providing additional features, such as a packet-
switched connection(GPRS) in the TDMA-based
GSM system, and enhanced data rates (HSCSD
and EDGE).

GPRS: General Packet Radio Services.

EDGE: Enhanced Data for Global Evolution.
HSCSD: High Speed circuit-switched data.

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 3G
• Large capacity and broadband capabilities.
•Allows the transmission of 384kbps for mobile
systems and up to 2Mbps.

•Increased spectrum efficiency –5Mhz–

-A greater number of users that can be simultaneously
supported by a radio frequency bandwidth.

• High data rates at lower incremental cost than 2G.

• Global roaming
 3G
• CDMA –Code Division Multiple Access.
• Does not divide up the channel by time or frequency.
• Encodes data with a special code associated with each
channel.

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 Inter-Generation Technologies
• CS networks need to be able to connect with PS networks and
other distinct cellular networks
– The internet is a good example of PS network

• GPRS (General packet radio service)

– 2.5G packet switched technology
• EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution)
– 2.75G packet switched technology
• HSPA (High Speed Packet Access)
– 3.5/3.75 packet switched data technology
– There were a few quick iterations on this technology, thus “variants”

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 Evolution to 4G
CDMA GSM/UMTS IEEE Cellular IEEE LAN

2G CDMA IS-95A GSM TDMA IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.11

IS-136

2.5G CDMA IS-95B GPRS IEEE 802.11a

3G CDMA 2000 E-GPRS

EDGE
WCDMA
FDD/TDD
TD SCDMA
LCR-TDD
IEEE 802.11g

Fixed Wi BRO
3.5G 1x Ev-DO
Rev O/A/B
HSDPA
FDD/TDD
HSUPA
WiMAX IEEE 802.11g
FDD/TDD
802.16d

LTE HSPA+ Mobile WiMAX

3.9G UMB 802.20
E-UTRA 802.16e
IEEE 802.11n
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 Technology moving towards 4G
Mobility

4G
1995 2000 2005 2010+

High speed
3G LTE

3G
(IMT2000)
Mobile
Medium
CDMA/GSM/TDMA WiMAX
speed (WiBRO)
2G
(Digital)
CDMA/GSM/TDMA
High Speed
1G WPAN
WLAN
(Analog)
5 GHz
Low speed WLAN
2.4 GHz
WLAN
Bluetooth Data Rates

~14.4 kbps 144 kbps 384 kbps <50 Mbps <100 Mbps 26
 Mobility

High speed

Medium
speed
3thGeneration 4th Generation
(IMT-2000)
2G
2.5G
(2001) (2007-2010)
Walking/ 2G
Local area

Standing/
Indoor Data Rates
0.1 1 10 100 27
 4G

• Seamless Roaming
• "Seamless" and "wireless," when put together,
represent a technology of wireless Internet that
hands you off to another network without
interruption so you may continue your activities
online without even noticing that you connected
into another network. Another name for it is
"seamless roaming."

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 Seamless Connection of Networks in 4G
Cellular 2.5G
(GSM etc.
Cellular 3G
(UMTS etc.

Digital
Audio/Video
Broadcast Connection Layer

Core IP Network

Cellular 4G
Short Range
PAN/LAN/
MAN/WAN
WLAN/
HIPER-LAN
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Features of 4G:
•Faster and more reliable.
100 Mb/s (802.11g wireless = 54Mb/s, 3G = 2Mb/s)
•Lower cost than previous generations
•Multi-standard wireless system.
–Bluetooth, Wired, Wireless (802.11x)
•Ad Hoc Networking.
•IPv6 Core.
•OFDM used instead of CDMA.

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 vs.

Technology 3G 4G
Frequency
Band 1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz

Bandwidth 5-20MHz 5-20MHz

Data Rates Up to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps stationary
Access W-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-CDMA
FEC Turbo-codes Concatenated codes
Switching Circuit/Packet Packet

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• Smart Antenna

• Beam radio signals directly at a users to follow

the users as they move.
•Allow the same radio frequency to be used for
other users without worry of interference.
•Seamless handoff between towers/access points.
•One transmit antenna, two receive antennas.
–Allows connection to two access points at
once.

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 Smart Antenna
Space Division
Past Multiple Access
(SDMA)

Now

Past
Now

Same time and

frequency

Beam Tracking

Smart Antenna Technology 33

Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM)

Basic idea:
Using a large number of parallel narrow-band
subcarriers instead of a single wide-band carrier to
transport information.

• Advantages:
-Very easy and efficient in dealing with multi-path.
-Robust again narrow-band interference
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 Cellular Network Standards
3GPP 3GPP 3GPP2 Wimax
Generation
Circuit Packet Forum
Switched Switched

2G GSM cdmaOne

GPRS
2.5G
2.75G EDGE

3G UMTS CDMA2000

3.5G HSPA/+ CDMA EV-DO

4G LTE UMB WiMAX

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 What is LTE?
• LTE stands for “Long Term Evolution”
• Fourth-generation (4G) cellular technology
from 3GPP
• Deployed worldwide
• 4G LTE: First global standard
– Increased speed
– IP-based network (All circuits are gone/fried!)
– New air interface: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-
Division Multiple Access), MIMO (multiple antennas)
• Also includes duplexing, timing, carrier spacing, coding...

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 Features of 4G:

• Some of the features of 4G LTE are:

– Support interactive multimedia, voice, video.
– High speed, high capacity and low cost per bit (Speeds of up to 20
Mbps or more.)
– Global and scalable mobile networks.
– Ad hoc and multi-hop networks.

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 Features of 4G:
4G system provides an end to end IP solution
where voice and data streamed multimedia can
be served to users on an ” Anytime, Anywhere ”
basis at higher data rates than previous
generation.
Wider bandwidth.
End-to-end QoS.
Higher security.
Offering any kind of services anytime, anywhere.
Affordable cost and one billing.
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 What is GSM?

• GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a set of

mobile communications standards and protocols governing
second-generation or 2G networks, first developed and
deployed in Europe.
• It uses 4 different frequency bands 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800
MHz, and 1900 MHz.
• The uplink frequency range for GSM networks is typically
between 890 - 915 MHz, while the downlink frequency range is
between 935 - 960 MHz,

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 Features of GSM
• Supports international roaming
• Clear voice clarity
• Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
• Low powered handheld devices.
• Ease of accessing network
• International ISDN compatibility.
• Low service cost.
• New features and services.

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Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
System Architecture

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GSM Architecture

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Various Interfaces used in GSM

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 GSM Architecture
• BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and
signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching
subsystem. BSS having two components BTS and BSC.
• NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the
core network of GSM. That carried out call and mobility
management functions for mobile phone present in network. NSS
have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
• OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional
entity which the network operator monitor and control the system.
OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.

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 GSM Architecture
1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment
and software needed for communication with a mobile network.
Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower
and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver
which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two
performance of sending and receiving.

2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates

wireless communication between user equipment and a network.
Every tower has BTS.

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 GSM Architecture
3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple
BTS. You can consider the BSC as a local exchange of your area
which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.

4. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is

associated with communication switching functions such as call
setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all
functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further
components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.

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 GSM Architecture
• VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which
contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in
the service area of MSC. If you are going from one state to another state
then your entry is marked into the database of VLR.
• HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing
pertinent data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network. If
you purchase SIM card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains
all data like your ID proof, which plan you are taking, which caller tune you
are using etc.
• AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.

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 GSM Architecture
EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that
keeps the record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are
banned in the network then you can’t enter the network, and you
can’t make the calls.
PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN
connects with MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog
telephone systems. Now almost entirely digital in its core network
and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed telephones.
The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but
PSTN.

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 GSM Architecture
5. OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and
maintain the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some
interfaces. Total three interfaces are there:

Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between

MS and BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U
interface of ISDN.
Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

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 GSM Services

1. Bearer services/ data services: GSM specifies different mechanism

for data transmission, The original GSM allowing for data rates of up
to 9600 bits/s. Bearer services permit transparent or non transparent
data transmission.

 Transparent bearer services: Transparent bearer services only use

the physical layer to transmit data. Data transmission has a
constant delay at throughput if no transmission error occurs.
 Non-transparent bearer services: Non-transparent bearer services
use protocols of layer two and three two three to implement error
correction and flow control.(data link layer and network layer).
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 GSM Services

2. Tele services such as:

Video calls
Short text message(SMS).
3. Supplementary services are advanced services such as:
Conference calls.
Call waiting.
Call forwarding.

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GSM Protocol Architecture

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 GSM Protocol Architecture
Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers −
Layer 1 − The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.

Layer 2 − The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified version of the
Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the
Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.

Layer 3 − GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers −

Radio Resource Management (RR),

Mobility Management (MM), and

Connection Management (CM).

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 GSM Protocol Architecture
• GSM Layer 1, Layer 2 and Layer 3 modules of MS(Mobile
Station),BTS(Base Transceiver Station),BSC(Base Station
Controller) and MSC(Mobile Switching Center).
• All the modules such as radio, LAPD, LAPDm, RRM, MM, CM,
BTSM, BSSMAP, SCCP, MTP as described in 3GPP

54
 Physical layer. Layer 1
• Layer 1, which is a radio interface, provides the functionality
required to transfer the bit streams over the physical channels
on the radio medium.
• Channel mapping (logical to physical)
• Channel coding and ciphering
• Digital modulation
• Frequency hopping
• Timing advance and power control
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 GSM protocol Layer 1 (Physical Layer)

• FDMA/TDMA is the air interface(radio), also called Um

interface.
• BTS takes this format from MS and convert it to 64kbps digital
format for the digital link and interfaces with BSC. BSC
communicates with MSC in the same format.

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 Signaling Layer 2
• Layer 2 is based on the LAPDm protocol, which is a variation of
the ISDN LAP-D protocol. The main task of LAPDm is to provide
a reliable signaling link between the network and the mobile
station.

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 GSM protocol Layer 2 (LAPD, LAPDm)

• GSM protocol Layer 2 is the data link layer, which does following
three main functions.
- Establish, maintain and tear down the link
- Flow control
-Error detection
- Work on the Layer 3 frames
• At Layer 2 LAPD and LAPDm is used. LAPD is the ISDN(Integrated
Services Digital Network) protocol for D Channel. LAPDm is the
modified version of LAPD for mobile station.

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 Network layer Layer 3
• Radio resource management (RR)
• Mobility management (MM)
• Connection management (CM)
• Radio resource management. Radio resource management (RR) comprises
procedures required to establish, maintain, and release the dedicated radio
connections. The RR sublayer functions include:
• Channel assignment and release
• Ciphering
• Modification of channel modes, e.g., voice and data
• Handover between cells
• Frequency redefinition to enable frequency hopping

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 Network layer. Signaling Layer 3
• MS measurement reports
• Power control and timing advance
• Paging
• Radio channel access

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 Network layer. Signaling Layer 3
• Mobility management. The mobility management (MM)
sublayer handles functions and procedures related to mobility
of the mobile user. This includes procedures for:
• Authentication
• Location registration and periodic updating

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 Network layer. Signaling Layer 3
• Connection management. The connection management (CM )
sublayer contains the functions and procedures for call control.
This includes procedures to establish, release, and access
services and facilities. The CM consists of three sublayers,
namely, call control (CC), supplementary services (SS), and
short message services (SMS).

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 GSM Frame Structure
• Time is divided into units called "burst periods," each lasting
about 0.577 milliseconds.

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GSM Frame Structure

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 What is LTE?
• LTE stands for “Long Term Evolution”
• 4G cellular technology. 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) :
umbrella term for a number of standards organizations which develop
protocols for mobile communications.
• The 3GPP, the international organization that developed the widely
used UMTS WCDMA/HSPA 3G standards, also developed by LTE.
• 3GPP Release 10 defines LTE-Advanced (LTE-A).4G LTE- First global
standard
– Increased speed
– IP-based network (All circuits are gone/fried!)
– New air interface: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access), MIMO
(multiple antennas)
• Also includes duplexing, timing, carrier spacing, coding... 65
5G, 6G, and 3GPP standard version roadmap

66
 What is LTE?
• LTE is defined as a wireless broadband standard for mobile communication
and data transfers, built on GSM, UMTS(universal mobile
telecommunication systems), and other existing mobile technologies and
improving upon them in terms of bandwidth capacity and transfer speeds.

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 Features of 4G:

• LTE transports big data packets to an internet protocol system

(IPS).
• The previous generations of data transmission standards —
i.e., the GSM and CDMA — only carried small quantities of
data compared to LTE.

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 Features of 4G LTE
• A core network based on IP addresses
• A network architecture that has been simplified
• A brand-new radio user interface
• A novel modulation technique
• Support interactive multimedia, voice, video.
• High speed, high capacity and low cost per bit (Speeds of up to 20
Mbps or more.)
• Global and scalable mobile networks.
• Ad hoc and multi-hop networks.
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 Features of 4G LTE
4G system provides an end to end IP solution
where voice and data streamed multimedia can be
served to users on an ” Anytime, Anywhere ” basis
at higher data rates than previous generation.
Wider bandwidth.
End-to-end QoS.
Higher security.
Offering any kind of services anytime, anywhere.
Affordable cost and one billing.
70
 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• The 3GPP standards group develops and maintains LTE and 5G
technologies
• LTE technology is evolving to 5G and beyond, with enhancements
like LTE-A and LTE-M. 5G promises faster speeds and lower latency
than 4G.
• LTE enhancements LTE-A (LTE Advanced): Improves data speeds,
coverage, and network efficiency
• LTE-M (Long-term evolution machine): A low-power wide-area
network (LPWAN) technology that's well-suited for IoT applications
• VoLTE (voice-over LTE): An improved version of 4G LTE for voice
and video calls
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 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• An LTE network uses a multi-user variant of the OFDM
modulation scheme called orthogonal frequency-division
multiple access (OFDMA).
• OFDMA allows the LTE downlink to send information from a
base station to different users faster and with improved signal
efficiency than 3G. The uplink data is amplified using single-
carrier FDMA, which minimizes the transmit power needed by
the mobile station.

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 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• Telephone equipment's(TE’s) upper layers are centered on TCP/IP,
acuminating in an all-internet protocol network, similar to wired
communications.
• LTE allows for simultaneous data, voice, video, and messaging
traffic.
• LTE enhances the design and performance of past networks.
• LTE employs the resource block concept, a group of 12 subcarriers
in a single slot.
• A transport block is a group of resource blocks with the same
coding or modulation.

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Evolutions from 2G to LTEA

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 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• LTE is a packet switch IP technology based on
OFDMA digital modulation scheme to support
channel bandwidth up to 20 MHz
• Antenna techniques with multiple-input multiple-
output (MIMO), such that multiple data streams
are delivered and received on a given frequency
time by multiple antennas.
• An example of 4 x 2 MIMO where four antennas are
transmitting on the network side, and two are
receiving on user equipment (UE).
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 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• LTE Data speed of up to 100 Mbps in downlink (DL) with 50
Mbps in uplink (UL).
• As LTE is a pure packet switch architecture, the provisioning of
voice and other Circuit Switch (CS) domain services were
initially diverted to reuse the existing CS infrastructures, either
3G UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) or the
2G GSM

76
 What is eNodeB?
• The eNodeB, or evolved NodeB, is a critical component of the LTE network
architecture. It functions as the base station for LTE cellular networks. In addition, it
serves as a high-speed data switch that interfaces with UE devices and the core
network infrastructure.

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 LTE eNodeB Functions
NodeB Network Interfaces
• BBU: Base Band Unit, manages the entire base station system. The management
involves uplink and downlink data processing, signaling processing, resource
management, operation and maintenance.
• RRU: Remote Radio Unit, is used to transmit and receive baseband signals, modulate
and demodulate RF signals, process data, and amplify the power of signals.
• CPRI: Common Public Radio Interface standard defines a flexible interface between
BBU and RRU. The purpose of CPRI is to allow replacement of a copper or coax cable
connection between a radio transceiver and a base station.
• Jumper: RF jumper, transmits and receives RF signals. One part is connected to RRU
and other end is connected to antenna system.

78
 LTE eNB Functions
• Radio Resource Management
• Radio Bearer Control
• Radio Admission Control
• Connection Mobility Control
• Dynamic allocation of resources to UEs in both uplink and downlink
(scheduling)
• IP header compression and encryption of user data stream
• Routing of User Plane data towards Serving Gateway
• Scheduling and transmission of paging messages Scheduling and
transmission of broadcast information Measurement and measurement
reporting configuration for mobility and scheduling

79
 Evolutions from LTE to LTEA
• 3GPP Rel 10 introduced LTE-Advanced to enhance data
throughput and spectral efficiency with two major features.
• The first is carrier aggregation (CA) techniques, which allow the
increase of the overall channel bandwidth by aggregating two
or more LTE carrier components.
• Enhanced MIMO technology, which allow for significantly
improved data throughput and spectral efficiency compared to
standard LTE.

80
 Evolution of LTE-A Pro and 5G New Radio(5G NR)
• 3GPP publishes specifications, the responsibility of
designating any technology as a specific generation or “G”
rests with the International Telecom Union (ITU), an arm
of the United Nations.

81
 Evolution of LTE-A Pro and 5G NR
3GPP Rel 15 introduces 5G NR, a new unified radio interface that
significantly improves the performance, efficiency and scalability
of cellular networks. 5G NR brings a set of innovative features,
including:
• Massive MIMO that utilizes many antennas
• Beamforming and tracking that enables millimeter-wave bands
for cellular mobile operation
• Scalable OFDM and flexible frame structure to adapt the
wireless link to diverse needs and different kinds of spectrum
• Advanced channel coding that enables efficient use of wider
bandwidths
82
 Evolution of LTE-A Pro and 5G NR
• LTE-A Pro in Rel 15 further improves performance and expands the
reach of cellular and mobile technology to many new areas and
industries above and beyond improving traditional mobile
broadband services.
• These include cellular V2X, digital broadcast TV services, public
safety, private networks and others.
• Many 5G NR enhancements, such as IoT and V2X, are introduced
in LTE-A Pro and further improved and perfected in 5G NR.
• These enhancements will be forward and backward compatible.
83
 Evolution of LTE-A Pro and 5G NR
5G is the fifth generation of cellular technology. It is designed to increase speed, reduce latency, and improve flexibility of
wireless services.

84
 LTE-A Pro
Features
• Gigabit LTE
Providing peak speeds up to 2 Gbps, utilizing both licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands.
• LTE IoT
Ability to connect and manage many IoT devices with years-long battery life, extended
coverage and varying low data speeds.
• Private LTE
Bringing secure, high-performance cellular technology to private and local networks that are
custom built and managed by large enterprises for specific uses.
• Cellular V2X
Connecting vehicles to other vehicles, infrastructure and everything else around them to
improve safety and enable better autonomous driving.
• Terrestrial Broadcast
Using existing (and new) mobile networks to efficiently provide public broadcast services (e.g.,
terrestrial live TV).
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5G Key Concepts

86
5G Key Concepts

87
5G Key Concepts

88
 5G Services
5G International
Telecommunication Union
(ITU) services created a mid-
speed gap. These services
include:
 Enhanced mobile
broadband (eMBB)
 Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency
Communication (URLLC)
 Massive machine-type
communications (mMTC)
89
 5G Services
The highest throughput belonged to eMBB, which supported use
cases like:

• Smartphones
• Gaming
• Fixed wireless access
• SD-WAN
• Mobile computing
• Virtual reality, augmented reality and extended reality
• Car infotainment and connectivity
90
 5G Services
URLLC was ideal for applications that required low latency and
reliability, such as:
• Autonomous vehicles
• Public services
• V2X
• UAVs
• Rail
• Industrial and manufacturing
• Critical infrastructure
91
 5G Services
mMTC was crucial for use cases that required energy efficiency,
including:
• Tracking
• Sensors
• Simple metering
• Agriculture
• Infrastructure

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 5G Services
The benefits of these 5G ITU services, there remained an unfilled gap
for mid-speed applications, such as:
• Logistics
• Smart home
• Machinery
• Industrial cameras
• Smart metering
• Industrial wireless sensors
• Connected health care
• Video surveillance and security (alarms)
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 5G New Radio
• To provide a significant enhancements in areas like flexibility,
scalability and efficiency, both in terms of power usage and
spectrum.
• The 5G New Radio is able to provide communications for very
high band with transmissions like streaming video as well as
low latency communications for remote control vehicle
communications as well as low data rate low bandwidth
communications for machine type communications.

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 5G NR Basics
• 5G is next big evolution in cellular networks from its previous
technologies of LTE, UMTS, and GSM. 5G is simply named as
5G
• 5G offers very high throughput with ultra-low latency and
more connected devices.
• 5G can support diverse applications including AR/VR, IoT,
autonomous driving, 4K streaming, and more.

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 5G NR Basics
• Millimeter Wave, Small Cells, Massive MIMO, Beamforming,
and Full Duplex are the foundations of 5G.
• Major changes seen in 5G architecture is with network
elements, signal processing, interfaces between network
elements, and protocol stack.

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Key features or capabilities of 5G
Compared to 4G

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 5G Generic Architecture
• M2M- Machine to
Machine
• D2D- Device to Device
• IoT - Internet of Things
• IoV- Internet of Vehicles
• MIMO- Multiple Inputs
Multiple Outputs
• Arhitectural functional
planes
• C-Plane Control Plane
• U-Plane- User Plane

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5G Generic Architecture
link types in 5G-3GPP

99
 5G Generic Architecture
DR-OC - Device relaying with operator controlled link establishment
DC-OC - Direct D2D communication with operator controlled link establishment
DR-DC - Device relaying with device controlled link establishment
DC-DC - Direct D2D communication with device controlled link establishment

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 Radio Access Network (RAN)
• RAN is a major component of a wireless
telecommunications system that connects
individual devices to other parts of a network
through a radio link.
• The RAN links user equipment, such as a
cellphone, computer or any remotely
controlled machine, over a fiber or wireless
backhaul connection. That link goes to the
core network, which manages subscriber
information, location and more.
• A gNodeB (Next Generation Node B) is a base
station in a 5G network that enables
communication between user devices and
the core network.
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 What is a gNB (gNodeB)?
• gNodeB stands for “Next-
Generation Node B” . It is a critical
component of the 5G wireless
network architecture. In 5G World
, This is similar to Radio Station in
BTS (2G) , NodeB (3G) , Evolved
NodeB (4G) . gNodeB can also be
deployed in a cloud-based
infrastructure which supports in
flexible and scalable network
deployments

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 Radio Access Network (RAN)
• The RAN, which is sometimes also called the access network, is
the radio element of the cellular network.
• A cellular network is made up of land areas called cells. A cell is
served by at least one radio transceiver.
• 4G LTE -the RAN and the core network changed significantly.
With 4G, system connectivity for the first time was based on
the Internet Protocol (IP), replacing the previous circuit-based
networks.

103
 Radio Access Network (RAN)
• Now, with LTE Advanced and 5G, improvements are coming in
the form of centralized RAN, also called cloud RAN (C-RAN),
and multiple antenna arrays, such as MIMO.
• The first cellular networks were introduced, the capabilities of
RAN have expanded to include voice calls, text messaging, and
video and audio streaming.
• The types of user equipment using these networks have
drastically increased, including all types of vehicles, drones and
internet of things devices.

104
 Components of RAN

RAN components include base stations and antennas that cover a

specific region, depending on their capacity. A RAN is made up of three
essential elements:
• Antennas convert electrical signals into radio waves.
• Radios transform digital information into signals that can be sent
wirelessly and ensure that transmissions are in the correct frequency
bands with the right power levels.
• Baseband units (BBUs) provide a set of signal processing functions
that make wireless communication possible. BBU processing detects
errors, secures the wireless signal and ensures that wireless
resources are used effectively. 105
 Components of RAN
• The RAN
antenna receives
information from
UE and sends it
to the core
network via the
BBUs

106
 RAN Works
• A RAN provides access to and coordinates the management of
resources across the radio sites.
• A handset or other device is wirelessly connected to the
backbone, or core network, and the RAN sends its signal to
various wireless endpoints so it can travel with traffic from
other networks.
• A single handset or phone could be connected at the same
time to multiple RANs, sometimes called dual-mode handsets.

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 RAN WORKS
• In 2G and 3G RAN architecture, the RAN controller manages the nodes
connected to it. The RAN's network controller -- which manages radio resources,
mobility and data encryption -- connects to the circuit-switched core network
and the packet-switched core network, depending on the type of RAN.
• The introduction of C-RAN has split the radios and antennas from the baseband
controller to adapt better to the modern demands of mobile devices.
• Today, RAN architecture divides the user plane and the control plane into
separate elements. The RAN controller can exchange one set of user data
messages through a software-defined networking switch and a second set
through a control-based interface.
• This separation enables the RAN to be more flexible, accommodating the
network functions virtualization techniques, such as network slicing and high
MIMO, that are necessary for 5G

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Cloud RAN(C-RAN)

109
 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
• D-RAN stands for Distributed-RAN, it is one of the early
versions of radio access network where Remote Radio Head
(RRH, also known as RRU) and Base-band Unit (BBU) are co-
located in the physical location for each cell site. So, the RAN is
distributed all over the geographical area.

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 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
Disadvantages:

• Vendor lock-in for both hardware RRH/BBU and software must be from the same vendor
• Insufficient resource sharing. In case of low traffic areas, RAN capacity will not be sufficiently
utilized.
• High operatorial costs. Each site should be visited by field maintenance engineers which directly
impacts OPEX.
• It is an enhanced version of D-RAN. Why? The reason, now the BBU will not be co-located with
RRH in the cell site place. BBU of multiple cell sites will be in the same physical premises and the
resources can be shared dynamically (called as BBU Pool). That is a great achieved approach
with many advantages.

• Interface name between BBU and RRH is called as fronthaul

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 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
Advantages:
• Computing resource sharing constitutes such as CPU, RAM etc.
• Reduced operational costs, where multiple sites can be
maintained from the same physical location. Saving from rental
fees (larger place is required in case of RRH/BBU co-location).
• Improved inter-cell coordination (e.g., eICIC works more
efficiently due to low latency communication between
different sites).

112
Cloud RAN(C-RAN)

113
 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
• The 5G New Radio (5G NR) standard is the latest radio
interface and radio access technology for 5G cellular
technology.
• The interface supports multiple frequency bands, including
sub-6 gigahertz bands and millimeter wave (mmWave) bands,
such as 24 GHz, 28 GHz and higher.
• The mmWave bands offer 1+ gigabits per second download
speeds, but they have reduced ranges compared to sub-6 GHz
services.

114
 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
• C-RAN (or cloud radio access network (RAN)), also known as
centralized RAN.
• As the mobile telecommunications industry barrels toward the
5G future, the amount of data traffic traversing networks is
exploding.
• One of the ways network operators are coping with the reality
and the preparation for the further onslaught that will come
with 5G networks is to transform the RAN. Which in essence,
means centralizing it or placing it in the cloud.

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 C-RAN (or Cloud RAN) Architecture
The Role of C-RAN in 5G Networks

• A C-RAN architecture has three primary components — a centralized Baseband Unit pool, remote
radio unit (RRU) networks, and transport network or fronthaul:

• BBU pool — The BBU pool, located at a centralized site, functions as a cloud or a data center. Its
multiple BBU nodes dynamically allocate resources to RRUs based on current network needs.

• RRU network — The wireless RRU network connects wireless devices similarly to access points or
towers in traditional cellular networks.

• Fronthaul/transport network — Using optical fiber communication, cellular communication, or

millimeter wave (mmWave) communication, the fronthaul is the connection layer between a BBU
and a set of RRUs, providing high-bandwidth links to handle the requirements of multiple RRUs.
• Backhaul Network:
– Connects the centralized BBU pool to the core network.
– Ensures data transmission between the RAN and the core network for further processing and routing.

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 Cloud RAN(C-RAN)
• Benefits of a C-RAN include resource pooling, reusable
infrastructure, simple network operations and management,
multiple technology support, lower energy consumption, and
lower Capital expenditures (capex) and operational
expenditures (opex).

117