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VetBooks.ir
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VetBooks.ir

TEXTBOOK of

Veterinary
Diagnostic
Radiology
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

TEXTBOOK of

Veterinary
Diagnostic
Radiology Seventh Edition

DONALD E. THRALL, DVM, PHD

Emeritus Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina

Radiologist and Quality Control

IDEXX Telemedicine Consultants
Clackamas, Oregon
 3251 Riverport Lane
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St. Louis, Missouri 63043

TEXTBOOK OF VETERINARY DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY,

SEVENTH EDITION ISBN: 978-0-323-48247-9
Copyright © 2018 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check
the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of
each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and
duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on
their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages
and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Previous editions copyrighted 2013, 2007, 2002, 1998, 1994, and 1986.

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-323-48247-9

Senior Content Strategist: Jennifer Flynn-Briggs

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Design Direction: Maggie Reid

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

 Contributors
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Kate Alexander, DMV, MS, DACVR Robert Cole, DVM, DACVR

Veterinary Radiologist Assistant Professor
Associate Professor, Diagnostic Imaging Department of Clinical Sciences
Department of Clinical Sciences Auburn University
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Auburn, Alabama
University of Montreal
Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada Marc-André d’Anjou, DMV, DACVR
Radiologist
Graeme Allan, DVSc, MVSc, FACVSc, DACVR Service Vétérinaire d’Imagerie Médicale Animages inc.
Radiology and Ultrasound Specialist Longueuil, Quebec, Canada
Veterinary Imaging Associates
Newtown, New South Wales, Australia Sarah Davies, BVSc, MS, DACVR
Adjunct Professor Veterinary Radiologist
Faculty of Veterinary Science Veterinary Imaging Associates
University of Sydney Saint Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
William Tod Drost, DVM, DACVR
Fabrice Audigié, DVM, PhD Professor in Radiology
Professor in Equine Imaging and Locomotor Pathology Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
CIRALE The Ohio State University
USC Biomécanique et Pathologie Locomotrice du Cheval Columbus, Ohio
Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort France
Sue J. Dyson, MA, VetMB, DEO, PhD, FRCVS
Robert J. Bahr, DVM, DACVR Head of Clinical Orthopaedics
Associate Professor Centre for Equine Studies
Veterinary Radiology Animal Health Trust
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
Center for Veterinary Health Sciences
Oklahoma State University Stephanie C. Essman, DVM, BS, MS, DACVR
Stillwater, Oklahoma Assistant Professor
Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery
Marianna Biggi, DVM, PhD, FHEA, DECVDI-LA, MRCVS Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Veterinary Radiologist College of Veterinary Medicine
Head of Vet-CT Equine University of Missouri
St. John’s Innovation Center Columbia, Missouri
Cambridge United Kingdom
Lisa J. Forrest, VMD, DACVR
Lisa G. Britt, DVM, MS, DACVR Professor
Clinical Assistant Professor in Radiology Department of Surgical Sciences
Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery School of Veterinary Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Missouri Madison, Wisconsin
Columbia, Missouri
Paul M. Frank, DVM, DACVR
James C. Brown Jr., DVM, MS, DACVR Radiologist
Veterinary Radiologist Antech Imaging Services
IDEXX Telemedicine Consultants Hillsborough, North Carolina
Raleigh, North Carolina
Lorrie Gaschen, PhD, DVM, Dr. Med. Vet.
Valeria Busoni, DVM, PhD, DECVDI Professor
Associate Professor of Veterinary Diagnostic Imaging Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine Louisiana State University
University of Liège Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Belgium

v
 vi CONTRIBUTORS

George A. Henry, DVM, DACVR Stephanie Nykamp, DVM, DACVR

Clinical Associate Professor of Radiology Associate Professor
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences Department of Clinical Studies
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College of Veterinary Medicine Ontario Veterinary College

University of Tennessee University of Guelph
Knoxville, Tennessee Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Jennifer Kinns, BSc, VetMB, MRCVS, DACVR, DECVDI Mark Owen, BVSc, DECVDI, FANZCVS
Assistant Professor; Residency Program Director Adjunct Associate Professor
Diagnostic Imaging/Radiology Veterinary Diagnostic Imaging
Departments of Small and Large Animal Clinical Sciences Institute of Veterinary, Animal & Biomedical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine Massey University, New Zealand
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan Anthony Pease, DVM, MS, DACVR
Section Chief
Martha Moon Larson, DVM, MS, DACVR Diagnostic Imaging Department of Small Animal Clinical
Professor of Radiology Sciences
Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Tech Michigan State University
Blacksburg, Virginia East Lansing, Michigan

Jimmy C. Lattimer, DVM, BS, MS, DACVR Kathryn L. Phillips, DVM, DACVR
Associate Professor of Radiology Veterinarian
Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital University of California, Davis
College of Veterinary Medicine Davis, California
University of Missouri
Columbia, Missouri Rachel E. Pollard, DVM, PhD
Assistant Professor
Wilfried Mai, Dr. Med. Vet., MS, PhD, DECVDI, DACVR Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences
Associate Professor of Radiology School of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine University of California, Davis
University of Pennsylvania Davis, California
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Elissa K. Randall, DVM, MS, DACVR
Angela J. Marolf, DVM, DACVR Associate Professor
Associate Professor Department of Environmental and Radiological Health
Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences
Sciences Colorado State University
College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences Fort Collins, Colorado
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado Elizabeth Riedesel, DVM, DACVR
Professor
Federica Morandi, DVM, MS, DECVDI, DACVR Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Professor and Director of Radiological Services College of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences Iowa State University
College of Veterinary Medicine Ames, Iowa
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee Ian D. Robertson, BVSc, DACVR
Clinical Assistant Professor
Rachel Murray, MA, VetMB, MS, PhD, DACVS Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences
Senior Orthopaedic Advisor College of Veterinary Medicine
Centre for Equine Studies North Carolina State University
Animal Health Trust Raleigh, North Carolina
Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
Celeste Guaraglia Roy, DVM, Diplomate AVDC
Nathan Nelson, DVM, MS Veterinary Dentist and Oral Surgeon
Clinical Associate Professor Telemedicine
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences IDEXX Telemedicine Consultants
North Carolina State University Clackamus, Oregon
Raleigh, North Carolina
Valerie F. Samii, DVM, DACVR
Adjunct Professor
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
 CONTRIBUTORS vii

Tobias Schwarz, MA, Dr. Med. Vet., DVR, DECVDI, Susanne M. Stieger-Vanegas, DVM, PhD
DACVR Associate Professor
Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies Diagnostic Imaging
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The University of Edinburgh Clinical Sciences

Easter Bush Veterinary Centre College of Veterinary Medicine
Roslin, Scotland, United Kingdom Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
Gabriela S. Seiler, Dr. Med. Vet., DECVDI, DACVR
Associate Professor Radiology Donald E. Thrall, DVM, PhD, MS, DAVCR
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences Emeritus Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina Raleigh, North Carolina
Radiologist and Quality Control
Kathy Ann Spaulding, DVM, DACVR IDEXX Telemedicine Consultants
Clinical Professor Radiology Clackamas, Oregon
Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine William R. Widmer, DVM, MS, DAVCR
Texas A&M University Professor Emeritus, Radiology
College Station, Texas Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
School of Veterinary Medicine
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
VetBooks.ir
 Preface
VetBooks.ir

A
s with all previous editions, this book serves primarily interpreters. Details of positioning, and specific anatomic features
as an instructional aid for students of imaging, principally of the body part in question are some of the topics covered
the veterinary student. However, another goal is to in these introductory chapters. These basic chapters offer a
provide useful information for those pursuing advanced training framework upon which to base an understanding of more
in imaging and those in private veterinary practice. Students detailed chapters dealing with specific anatomic areas.
at all levels should be able to find material in the 7th edition Veterinary imaging is becoming increasingly complex and
that helps in the interpretation of basic and challenging images. in private practice there is continuing transition from analog
Valuable features of prior editions such as the self-assessment to digital imaging. As a result, chapters on the basic principles
questions and the normal anatomic material has been retained of digital imaging and the MR imaging features of brain disease
and widespread revision in content has been undertaken. The in small animals have been expanded. Also, the breadth of the
normal anatomy material remains dispersed throughout the CT and MR imaging features of diseases outside of the brain
text so that it can be consulted conveniently, and it is also has been broadened, and chapters covering the physical
available on the Elsevier website. principles of ultrasonography and CT and MR imaging updated
The interface between the book and the world-wide web significantly. New chapters in the 7th edition cover dental
is an important feature of this book. The web portal hosts radiographic technique and interpretation, and radiographic
self-assessment exercises that can be completed online and contrast media, important topics absent from prior editions.
feedback obtained immediately. For some chapters, movies are Details regarding techniques that were once a mainstay of
available online that will assist in the explanation of complex veterinary imaging, such as the upper gastrointestinal examina-
subjects, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic tion and myelography, remain available on the Elsevier website
resonance (MR) imaging physics, or dynamic disease processes, for reference when needed.
such as tracheal collapse and esophageal disorders. The basis of interpretation used in this textbook remains
As in the 2nd through 6th editions, all chapters have been centered upon description of radiographic abnormalities in
reviewed carefully, making for an extensive, substantive revision. terms of Roentgen signs—changes in size, shape, location,
No chapter has escaped in-depth scrutiny, ensuring that the number, margination, and opacity. I believe that students who
latest and most accurate information is included. Chapters have a firm understanding of Roentgen sign description will
covering the basic aspects of interpretation, applicable when be less inclined to make errors by jumping immediately to a
assessing radiographic images of the axial and appendicular diagnosis rather than thoroughly considering radiographic
skeleton in small and large animals, and the thorax and abdomen changes in an orderly and efficient manner.
in small animals, should be of particular value to beginning Donald E. Thrall

ix
 Acknowledgments
VetBooks.ir

I
t is impossible for one person to prepare a meaningful, participation. Appreciation is also extended to all who have
comprehensive textbook of veterinary imaging, and I would used prior editions of this work and provided meaningful
like to acknowledge the many talented authors who took feedback, thereby allowing this 7th edition to be what I believe
time from their busy schedules to prepare material for this is the best yet. I also wish to acknowledge IDEXX Telemedicine
book. Several new authors have also contributed to this 7th Consultants for permission to include several images in this
edition and many familiar names are again found as contributors. edition.
The expertise of this team heightens the quality of the informa- Donald E. Thrall
tion contained on these pages and I am honored by their

x
 CHAPTER 1
Radiation Protection and Physics
VetBooks.ir

SECTION I
of Diagnostic Radiology

Physics and Principles

Donald E. Thrall • William R. Widmer
e

Nucleus


e
of Interpretation
1 Radiation Protection and Physics of Diagnostic Radiology
Donald E. Thrall • William R. Widmer
2 Digital Radiographic Imaging
Ian D. Robertson • Donald E. Thrall
3 Canine and Feline Dental Radiographic Technique
Celeste Guaraglia Roy
4 Physics of Ultrasound Imaging
Wm Tod Drost
5 Principles of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Marc-André d’Anjou
6 Radiographic, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Contrast
Media
Mark Owen
N
7 Introduction to Radiographic Interpretation
Donald E. Thrall
H

1
1
 CHAPTER 1
Radiation Protection and Physics of
VetBooks.ir

Diagnostic Radiology

Donald E. Thrall • William R. Widmer

X
-rays were discovered on November 8, 1895, by Wilhelm The energy of electromagnetic radiation is described accord-
Conrad Roentgen, a German physicist.1 X-rays were ing to the formula:
put to use quickly for medical purposes, and many speed of light
sophisticated applications were soon devised. For example, Energy = Planck’s constant ×
wavelength
angiography was described in 1896, only 1 year after the initial
discovery of x-rays. Roentgen’s finding revolutionized the Planck’s constant is a proportionality constant between the
diagnosis and treatment of disease, and in recognition he was energy of a photon and its wavelength, and the speed of light
awarded the first Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901. More than is also a constant. Therefore the energy of electromagnetic
120 years after their discovery, imaging using x-rays is one of radiation is inversely proportional to wavelength. The biologic
the most important and widely used diagnostic tests in people effects of electromagnetic radiation are a function of the
and animals. energy.
The unit of energy for electromagnetic radiation is the
electron volt (eV). One electron volt is the energy gained by one
BASIC PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS electron as it is accelerated through a potential difference
of 1V. On an absolute scale, this is a very small amount of
X-rays and gamma rays are part of the spectrum of electro- energy. However x-rays with energy of only 15 eV* can produce
magnetic radiation. The only distinction between x-rays and ionization of atoms. Ionization occurs when an electron is
gamma rays is their source; x-rays are produced by electron ejected from the atom, in this case by an x-ray. This creates
interactions outside the nucleus, and gamma rays are released an ion pair consisting of the negatively charged electron and
from inside the nucleus of unstable atoms having excess energy. the positively charged atom (Fig. 1.2). When x-rays strike a
There is a false impression that gamma rays are more energetic person they can result in ionizations in DNA, leading to (1)
than x-rays, but this is not universally true. The energy of a mutations, (2) abortion or fetal abnormalities, (3) suscepti-
gamma ray depends on the amount of energy released by the bility to disease and shortened life span, (4) carcinogenesis,
unstable atom, and the energy of an x-ray depends on the and (5) cataracts.2 This is why it is so important to minimize
energy of the electron that interacts with the atom. Familiar exposure of personnel working in a radiation environment.
types of electromagnetic radiation other than x-rays and gamma Of course, radiation also causes ionizations in patients under-
rays include radio waves, radar, microwaves, and visible light going medical imaging procedures, but the risk of radiation
(Table 1.1). injury from isolated imaging procedures is offset by the diag-
Electromagnetic radiation is a combination of electric and nostic value of the procedure. Radiation workers, on the other
magnetic fields that travel together, oscillating in orthogonal hand, are subject to potential low level exposure repeatedly
planes in sine-wave fashion (Fig. 1.1). Sine waves are character- in the course of their work and the chance for damage is
ized by two related parameters—frequency and wavelength. increased. Also important is the fact that radiation damage
The velocity of electromagnetic radiation is constant, the speed to DNA can be amplified biologically because DNA controls
of light, and is the product of the frequency and wavelength: cellular processes that extend into subsequent generations of
daughter cells. Additionally, although only 15eV of energy is
Velocity (speed of light in m sec) required for ionization of biologic molecules, the energy of x-rays
= frequency ( second ) × wavelength (m ) used for medical imaging is much higher, and each photon can
lead to multiple ionizations in tissue.
Because the speed of light is constant, frequency and The relative risk of biologic injury from x-rays or gamma
wavelength are inversely related; therefore, as frequency rays is greater than from other types of electromagnetic radiation.
increases, wavelength must decrease, and vice versa. For example, the wavelength of visible light is 10,000 times
Properties of x-rays and gamma rays are given in Box 1.1. longer than the wavelength of x-rays, and the wavelength of
Some properties of electromagnetic radiation cannot be radio waves is even longer (see Table 1.1). Therefore, the energy
explained adequately by the theories of wave propagation of light waves and radio waves is many orders of magnitude
illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Therefore the photon concept was lower than the energy of x-rays, meaning that light and radio
developed to explain the apparent particulate behavior of x-rays
and gamma rays. A photon can be considered as a discrete
bundle of electromagnetic radiation as opposed to a wave. This
makes it easier to understand how x-rays create an image or *The electron volt (eV) should not be confused with the concept of
cause radiation damage. In this book, the terms x-ray and photon kilovoltage peak (kVp) applied in an x-ray tube during an exposure;
are used interchangeably. kVp is discussed later in the Production of X-rays section.

2
 CHAPTER 1 • Radiation Protection and Physics of Diagnostic Radiology 3

Electric
field e
Wav
eleng
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th (
)

Magnetic
field

Prop
agatio
n
Fig. 1.1 All forms of electromagnetic radiation are characterized by
oscillating electric and magnetic fields that move in planes at right angles
to each other. Any form of electromagnetic radiation is described by the Photon
wavelength, λ, which is the distance between crests, and the frequency, f,
Nucleus
which is the number of crests per unit time. The frequency and wavelength

determine the specific characteristics of that form of radiation. The velocity
(c) of all forms of electromagnetic radiation is the same—the speed of
light. The product of wavelength and frequency equals the velocity; c = f
× λ. Therefore, because velocity is constant, as frequency increases the
wavelength must decrease, and vice versa.
e

Table • 1.1 Fig. 1.2 The principle of ionization. A photon ejects an electron from an
atom, causing ionization and forming an ion pair, consisting of a negatively
Wavelength of Common Types of Electromagnetic charged electron and a positively charged atom. After this ionization event,
the photon, depending on its energy, may be completely absorbed, or it
Radiation may interact with other atoms to produce more ionization. The ejected
electron can also interact with biologic molecules, such as DNA, and produce
TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC damage. The relative size of the nucleus, electrons, and orbital shells in
RADIATION WAVELENGTH (CM) this figure is not to scale. The “+” symbol in the nucleus designates the
normal nuclear positivity created by the presence of positively charged
Radio waves 30,000 protons. In a neutral atom, this positive charge in the nucleus is balanced
Microwaves 10 by an equal negative charge of orbital electrons.
Visible light 0.0001
X-rays 0.00000001

Box • 1.1
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

Have no charge
Have no mass
Travel at the speed of light
Are invisible
Cannot be felt
Travel in a straight line
Cannot be deflected by magnetic fields
Penetrate all matter to some degree
Cause certain substances to fluoresce
Can expose photographic emulsions Fig. 1.3 Careless and unacceptable approach to radiography. The technolo-
Can ionize atoms gist’s hands are in the primary x-ray beam. Careless habits such as this are
perpetuated because of the stealthy properties of x-rays and lead to
unnecessary personnel exposure that could become biologically
significant.

waves do not produce tissue ionization or DNA damage. Other

forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as microwaves, can the guidelines for safe practice are followed and the technology
lead to biologic damage such as tissue heating but do not lead available to reduce exposure to personnel is used. However,
to molecular ionization. because x-rays cannot be seen or felt, the idiom “out of sight
out of mind” has never been more applicable, and it is easy
to disregard the potential danger associated with occupational
RADIATION PROTECTION x-ray exposure (Fig. 1.3). As a result, many veterinarians and
technologists have developed a cavalier attitude regarding the
A goal in diagnostic radiology is to obtain maximum diagnostic hazards associated with ionizing radiation and put themselves
information with minimal radiation exposure of the patient, at risk, from both medical and financial perspectives. General
radiology personnel, and general public. This is achievable if principles of radiation protection that can form the basis of a
 4 SECTION I • Physics and Principles of Interpretation

Exposure  Exposure
Table • 1.2
Radiation Weighting Factor (Quality Factor) for
VetBooks.ir

Various Radiation Types

High efficiency absorber Low efficiency absorber
TYPE OF RADIATION WEIGHTING FACTOR
Higher absorbed dose Lower absorbed dose
X-rays 1
Gamma rays 1
Beta particle (electron) 1

Neutrons More absorption, fewer Less absorption, more

transmitted photons transmitted photons
<10 keV 5
10–100 keV 10 Fig. 1.4 Two materials are exposed to the same number of x-ray photons,
represented by the arrows. Thus the exposure dose, in roentgens, or in
100 keV–2 MeV 20 coulombs per kilogram, is the same for both materials. However, the efficiency
Alpha particles 20 of x-ray absorption for the two materials is different. The material on the
left is more efficient in absorbing x-rays than the material on the right.
Therefore the absorbed dose will be higher in the material on the left even
though the exposure dose is the same. One real-life example of this
phenomenon is a limb, where bone would be the high-efficiency absorber
and fat or muscle the low-efficiency absorber.

Table • 1.3
Radiation Units
QUANTITY CGS* UNIT VALUE SI† UNIT VALUE

Exposure dose roentgen One electrostatic unit of electricity in roentgen ‡

2.58 × 10−4 C/kg
1 cubic centimeter of dry air at 0° C
and standard atmospheric pressure
Absorbed dose rad 100 ergs/g of tissue gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 joule/kg
(1 Gy = 100 rads)
Equivalent biologic dose rem Dose in rads times weighting factor§ sievert (Sv) Dose in Gy times weighting factor
(1 rem = 10 mSv)

*CGS, centimeter-gram-second system of units.

†
International System of Units.
‡
Although the use of roentgen is allowable under the SI system, it is not itself an SI unit, and continued use is strongly discouraged by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology.
§
Weighting factor is a radiation type-specific quantity that compares the ionization density of various types of radiation; see Table 1.2.

safe workplace are discussed later. Any specific recommendations Exposure

regarding radiation safety or protection made in this chapter Radiation exposure is based on the amount of ionization in
are subject to overrule by local, state, and/or federal regulations. air that the radiation produces and is quantified by the amount
of electrical charge resulting from the ionization of air produced
Radiation Units by the radiation flux. Radiation exposure is expressed in the
Two related concepts must be understood before radiation units SI system as coulombs* per kilogram of air (C/kg) (see Table
are considered. First, radiation exposure and radiation absorption 1.3). This SI unit of exposure is cumbersome; thus the previous
are not the same. Some tissues absorb radiation more effectively term of exposure, the roentgen, is still used. One roentgen
than others, meaning that exposure to the same amount of equals a charge of 2.58 C/kg in air.
radiation can result in different absorbed doses in these tissues.
Second, the biologic effect of the same absorbed dose can also Absorbed Dose
be different, being a function of both radiation type and energy. The efficiency of x-ray absorption in different materials can
A numeric weighting factor or quality factor has been derived to vary widely. As an example, lead is a much more efficient
estimate the difference in biologic effectiveness of various types absorber than water. Therefore the radiation dose in tissues
of radiation (Table 1.2). with different absorption efficiencies will be different when
Radiation exposure, radiation absorption, and dose equivalent exposed to the same amount of radiation (Fig. 1.4). The SI
each have their own unit of measure that was defined originally unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). One gray is the amount
in the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system of measures. In
1977, the International System of Units (SI units) was developed
in keeping with the trend toward universal adoption of
the metric system3 (Table 1.3). In general, the system of SI
units has not been universally adopted in the United States,4,5 *A coulomb is the unit of electric charge in the International System
and CGS radiation units are still used, which can be a source of Units. It is the charge transferred by a constant current of 1 ampere
of confusion. in 1 second.
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WATER—WIND ENGINES—AIR—STEAM—MANUAL POWER—ANIMAL POWER—
PIPES—TANKS—CRABS, WINCHES AND CRANES—GEARING—ROPE DRIVING—
BELTING—SHAFTING—BEAMS—GRAVITY OF FALLING BODIES—ACCELERATED
MOTION—CENTRIFUGAL FORCE—PENDULUM—THERMOMETERS—MINING
MACHINERY—HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING—ELEVATORS, CONVEYERS AND
PICKING TABLES—CHAIN BELTING—CENTRIFUGAL FANS—SPEEDS OF
MACHINERY AND TOOLS—TABLES.
‘It contains information not often found in similar works.’—English
Mechanic.
‘The book is evidently framed with a thorough appreciation of the
most modern needs of the engineer.’—Marine Engineer.
‘There is little that any mechanical engineer is likely to require to
be informed on—as to formulæ and data—that is not afforded in
greater or lesser degree by the pages of this pocket-book.’—
Electrician.
‘Literally packed with concrete data on all matters connected with
practice of mechanical engineering, and every engineer will be much
the better practical craftsman in having the work constantly at
hand.’—Building Industries.
‘We welcome it as a valuable vade mecum to the engineer be he
mechanical or civil.’—Indian and Eastern Engineer.

With 112 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 250 pp., 5s.

AUTO-CARS.
By D. FARMAN, M.I.E.E.,
 MECHANICAL ENGINEER.

Sole Authorised Translation from the French, with Appendices of the

‘Auto-Car’ Bill, Latest Developments, etc.
By LUCIEN SERRAILLIER.

CONTENTS.
GENERAL AND HISTORICAL—THEORY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MOTORS—
DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF STEAM TRACTION—
COMPRESSED AIR AUTO-CARS—PETROLEUM AUTO-CARS—ELECTRIC AUTO-
CARS—REPORT ON THE AUTO-CARS WHICH ENTERED FOR THE RACE
ORGANISED BY THE ‘TIMES HERALD’ OF CHICAGO—LUBRICATION—TYRES—
BEARINGS—SPRINGS—AXLES—CARBURATORS—IGNITION—STARTING—
VIBRATION.
‘A handy little treatise, both practical and theoretical.’—Times.
‘A book of interest to those who require general information on
the subject.’—Engineer.
‘This excellent book is simply full of every kind of information on
motor-cars.’—Electrical Review.
‘Amongst works on motor-cars, that by Mr. Farman is in many
respects the best.’—English Mechanic.

WHITTAKER’S
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SERIES
Adapted from the French of Henry de Graffigny
by A. G. Elliott, B.Sc.
Being an Elementary andPopular Series of Books on the Theory and
Practice of Electricity.
In crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. each.
 Vol. I.—INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICITY
Vol. II.—GAS AND PETROLEUM MOTORS
Vol. III.—DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY
Vol. IV.—ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY

[Others preparing.

In small crown 8vo, illustrated, cloth, 5s. each volume.

ELEMENTARY ELECTRO-TECHNICAL SERIES
By Edwin J. Houston, Ph.D., and A. E. Kennelly, Sc.D.

Alternating Electric Currents

Electric Heating
Electromagnetism
Electricity in Electro-Therapeutics
Electric Arc Lighting
Electric Incandescent Lighting
Electric Motor
Electric Street Railways
Electric Telephony
Electric Telegraphy

LONDON: WHITTAKER AND CO.

London: WHITTAKER & CO., 2 White Hart Street, Paternoster Sq.

Whittaker’s Electro-Mechanical Series.

Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. a volume.
 VOLUME I.
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICITY.
CONTENTS.
NATURE OF ELECTRICITY—ELECTRIC UNITS—MAGNETISM AND INDUCTION—
PRACTICAL MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES—CHEMICAL
GENERATORS OF ELECTRICITY—ACCUMULATORS—DYNAMO ELECTRIC
MACHINERY—ELECTRIC LIGHT—ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER—
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-PLATING—BELLS AND TELEPHONES—
TELEGRAPHS, ETC.
‘The neatness of mind with which all this technical matter is
expounded makes the work unusually attractive, and the series has
every prospect of success.’—Scotsman.
‘The arrangement of the work is excellent, the illustrations good,
the explanations clear.’—Reynolds’ Newspaper.
‘The work is commendably free from mathematical language, and
on that account should be welcome.’—Daily Telegraph.
‘As these works explain in clear and non-mathematical language
many of the various applications of electricity, they undoubtedly
meet the requirements of many readers who wish to grasp the
principles underlying the applications of electricity now becoming so
general.’—Engineers’ Gazette.
‘The author and compiler has given a useful and popular account
of the present state of the knowledge in regard to electricity and of
its application to the service of man.’—Marine Engineer.

OTHER VOLUMES OF SERIES—

Vol. II.—GAS AND PETROLEUM ENGINES.

Vol. III.—DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY.
Vol. IV.—ELECTRO ELECTRICITY.

Others in preparation.
 WHITTAKER’S LIBRARY
OF

Arts, Sciences, Manufactures and Industries.

Illustrated. In Square Crown 8vo. Cloth.
‘Messrs. Whittaker’s valuable series of practical manuals.’
Electrical Review.
By W. Perren Maycock, M.I.E.E.
FIRST BOOK OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with 107 Illustrations. 2s. 6d.
‘Students who purchase a copy, and carefully study it, will obtain
an excellent groundwork of the science.’—Electrical Review.
By the same Author.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER DISTRIBUTION—An
Elementary Manual of. For Students preparing for the
Preliminary and Ordinary Grade Examination of the City and
Guilds of London Institute, and general readers. Third Edition,
Revised and Enlarged, in two volumes. Vol. I., 430 pp., with 231
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s.
‘The work will no doubt become a standard text-book for schools
and classes on this subject; as such, it has few equals.’—Electrical
Review.
THE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT. An Introductory and
Non-Mathematical Book for Young Engineers and Students. By
W. Perren Maycock, M.I.E.E. With 46 Illustrations. Small crown
8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d.
FITTING, THE PRINCIPLES OF. For Engineer Students. By J.
Horner, M.I.M.E. Illustrated with about 250 Engravings, and
containing an Appendix of Useful Shop Notes and Memoranda.
5s.
‘Calculated to aid and encourage the most useful set of
handicraftsmen we have amongst us.’—Daily Chronicle.
THE PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. Written specially for
Apprentices, and for Students in Technical Schools. By J.
Horner, M.I.M.E. Illustrated with 101 Engravings, and containing
a Glossary of the Common Terms employed in Pattern Making
and Moulding. 3s. 6d.
‘The book is well illustrated, and for its size will be found one of
the best of its kind.’—Industries.
PRACTICAL IRONFOUNDING. By J. Horner, M.I.M.E., ‘a Foreman
Pattern Maker.’ Illustrated with over 100 Engravings. Second
Edition. 4s.
‘Every pupil and apprentice would find it, we think, an assistance
to obtaining a thorough knowledge of his work. The book, however,
is not intended merely for the student, but contains much useful
information for practical men.’—Industries.
METAL TURNING. By J. Horner, M.I.M.E. With 81 Illustrations. 4s.
Contents:—The Lathe—Tools and Tool Angles—Chucks—Chucking—
General Remarks on Turning—Hand Turning—Slide Rest Turning—
Boring—Screw Cutting, etc.
‘An exceedingly useful publication to have at hand.’—Machinery.
By G. E. Bonney.
ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS. With 144 Illustrations. Second
Edition. 2s. 6d.
‘This is an excellent book for boys.’—Electrical Review.
INDUCTION COILS. A Practical Manual for Amateur Coil-makers.
With a New Chapter on Coils for Radiography. With 101
Illustrations. 3s.
‘In Mr. Bonney’s useful book every part of the coil is described
minutely in detail, and the methods and materials required in
insulating and winding the wire are fully considered.’—Electrical
Review.
By G. E. Bonney.
THE ELECTRO-PLATER’S HANDBOOK. A Practical Manual for
Amateurs and Young Students in Electro-Metallurgy. With Full
Index and 61 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised and
Enlarged, with an Appendix on ELECTROTYPING. 3s.
‘An Amateur could not wish for a better exposition of the elements
of the subject.’
Electrical Review.
By H. Orford..
LENS WORK FOR AMATEURS. With numerous Illustrations. Small
crown 8vo. 3s.
‘The book is a trustworthy guide to the manufacturer of lenses,
suitable alike for the amateur and the young workman.’—Nature.
MODERN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. By the same Author. 2s. 6d.
By the late J. Traill Taylor, Editor of the British Journal of Photography.
THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC
LENSES. With 68 Illustrations. 3s. 6d.
‘Personally we look upon this book as a most valuable labour-
saving invention, for no questions are so frequent, or take so long to
answer, as those about lenses.’
Practical Photographer.
By Joseph Poole, A.I.E.E. (Wh. Sc. 1875), Chief Electrician to the New Telephone
Company, Manchester.
THE PRACTICAL TELEPHONE HANDBOOK. With 228
Illustrations. Second Edition. Revised and considerably
Enlarged. 5s.
‘This essentially practical book is published at an opportune
moment. It contains readable accounts of all the best-known and
most widely used instruments, together with a considerable amount
of information not hitherto published in book form.’—Electrician.
By Sydney F. Walker, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E.
ELECTRICITY IN OUR HOMES AND WORKSHOPS. A Practical
Treatise on Auxiliary Electrical Apparatus. Third Edition. Revised
and Enlarged. With 143 Illustrations. 6s.
‘It would be difficult to find a more painstaking writer when he is
describing the conditions of practical success in a field which he has
himself thoroughly explored.’
Electrician.
By D. Denning.
THE ART AND CRAFT OF CABINET MAKING. A Practical
Handbook to the Construction of Cabinet Furniture, the Use of
Tools, Formation of Joints, Hints on Designing and Setting Out
Work, Veneering, etc. With 219 Illustrations. 5s.
‘A carefully-considered and well-written book.’—Work.
By F. C. Allsopp, Author of ‘The Telephones and their Construction.’
PRACTICAL ELECTRIC-LIGHT FITTING. A Treatise on the Wiring
and Fitting-up of Buildings deriving current from Central Station
Mains, and the Laying down of Private Installations, including
the latest edition of the Phœnix Fire Office Rules. With 224
Illustrations. Second Edition, revised, 5s.
‘A book we have every confidence in recommending.’—Daily
Chronicle.
By J. Hopkinson, D.Sc., F.R.S.
DYNAMO MACHINERY, ORIGINAL PAPERS ON. With 98
Illustrations. 5s.
‘Must prove of great value to the student and young engineer.’—
Electrical Review.
By S. R. Bottone.
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKING FOR AMATEURS. A
Practical Handbook. With 78 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, Revised
and Enlarged. 3s.
 ‘To those about to study electricity and its application this book
will form a very useful companion.’—Mechanical World.
By S. R. Bottone.
ELECTRO-MOTORS: How Made and How Used. A Handbook for
Amateurs and Practical Men. With 70 Illustrations. Third Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. 3s.
‘We are certain that the knowledge gained in constructing
machines such as described in this book will be of great value to the
worker.’—Electrical Engineer.
By S. R. Bottone.
ELECTRIC BELLS, AND ALL ABOUT THEM. A Practical Book for
Practical Men. With more than 100 Illustrations. Fifth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. 3s.
‘Any one desirous of undertaking the practical work of electric bell-
fitting will find everything, or nearly everything, he wants to know.’—
Electrician.
By S. R. Bottone.
THE DYNAMO: How Made and How Used. Tenth Edition, with
additional matter and Illustrations. 2s. 6d.
HOW TO MANAGE A DYNAMO. By the same Author. Second
Edition, Revised. Illustrated. Pott 8vo, cloth. Pocket size. 1s.
‘This little book will be very useful.’—Electrical Engineer.
By Sir David Salomons, Bart., M.A., Vice-President of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers, etc.
ELECTRIC-LIGHT INSTALLATIONS, AND THE MANAGEMENT
OF ACCUMULATORS. A Practical Handbook. Sixth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 6s.
‘To say that this book is the best of its kind would be a poor
compliment, as it is practically the only work on accumulators that
has been written.’—Electrical Review.
By J. Gray, B.Sc.
ELECTRICAL INFLUENCE MACHINES: containing a Full Account
of their Historical Development, their Modern Forms, and their
Practical Construction. 4s. 6d.
‘This excellent book.’—Electrical Review.
By Edwin J. Houston, A.M., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Physical Geography
in the Central High School of Philadelphia, Professor of Physics in the Franklin
Institute of Pennsylvania, etc.
ADVANCED PRIMERS OF ELECTRICITY.
Vol. I.—ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 3s. 6d.
Vol. II.—ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF INTELLIGENCE. 5s.
Vol. III.—ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 5s.

THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

COMPARED WITH THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM. By W. H.
Wagstaff, M.A., Professor of Geometry at Gresham College.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d.
ENGINEER DRAUGHTSMEN’S WORK. Hints for Beginners. By a
Practical Draughtsman. With 80 Illustrations. Small cr. 8vo, cloth.
1s. 6d.
‘Will be found of practical value to the beginner in the drawing
office.’—Engineer.
PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. An Introductory
Manual in Practical Physics for Students and Engineers. By E. H.
Crapper, Lecturer in Electrical Engineering at the Sheffield
Technical School. With 56 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

London: WHITTAKER & CO., 2 White Hart Street, Paternoster Sq.

Transcriber’s Notes:
Blank pages have been removed.
Silently corrected typographical errors.
Spelling and hyphenation variations made consistent.
Front advertisements moved to the back.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GAS AND
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