Understanding

Research Methods
An Overview of the Essentials

Ninth Edition

Mildred L. Patten
First published 1997 by Pyrczak Publishing.

Published 2017 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2014, 2012, 2009, 2007, 2005, 2004, 2002, 2000, 1997 by Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Although the author and publisher have made every effort to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of information contained in this book, we assume no responsibility for
errors, inaccuracies, omissions, or any inconsistency herein. Any slights of people, places,
or organizations are unintentional.

This edition was written in collaboration with Randall R. Bruce.

Cover design by Robert Kibler and Larry Nichols.

ISBN-13: 978-1-936-52317-7 (pbk)

ii
 CONTENTS
Introduction to the Ninth Edition vii
Part A Introduction to Research Methods 1
1. Introduction to Empirical Research 3
2. Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Studies 5
3. Experimental Versus Causal-Comparative Studies 7
4. Types of Nonexperimental Research 9
5. Variables in Nonexperimental Studies 11
6. Variables in Experimental Studies 13
7. Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions 15
8. Operational Definitions of Variables 17
9. Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research: I 19
10. Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research: II 21
11. Program Evaluation 23
12. Ethical Considerations in Research 25
13. The Role of Theory in Research 27
Part B Reviewing Literature 29
14. Reasons for Reviewing Literature 31
15. Locating Literature Electronically 33
16. Organizing a Literature Review 35
17. Preparing to Write a Critical Review 37
18. Creating a Synthesis 39
Part C In-Text Citations and Reference Lists 41
19. Introduction to Style Guides 43
20. In-Text Citations: ASA Style 45
21. Reference Lists: ASA Style 47
22. In-Text Citations: APA Style 49
23. Reference Lists: APA Style 51
Part D Sampling 53
24. Biased and Unbiased Sampling 55
25. Simple Random and Systematic Sampling 57
26. Stratified Random Sampling 59
Continued 

iii
 27. Other Methods of Sampling 61
28. Sampling and Demographics 63
29. Introduction to Sample Size 65
30. A Closer Look at Sample Size 67
Part E Measurement 69
31. Introduction to Validity 71
32. Judgmental Validity 73
33. Empirical Validity 75
34. Judgmental-Empirical Validity 79
35. Reliability and Its Relationship to Validity 83
36. Measures of Reliability 87
37. Internal Consistency and Reliability 89
38. Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests 91
39. Measures of Optimum Performance 93
40. Measures of Typical Performance 95
Part F Experimental Design 97
41. True Experimental Designs 99
42. Threats to Internal Validity 101
43. Threats to External Validity 103
44. Preexperimental Designs 105
45. Quasi-Experimental Designs 107
46. Confounding in Experiments 109
Part G Understanding Statistics 111
47. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 113
48. Introduction to the Null Hypothesis 115
49. Scales of Measurement 117
50. Descriptions of Nominal Data 119
51. Introduction to the Chi-Square Test 121
52. A Closer Look at the Chi-Square Test 123
53. Shapes of Distributions 125
54. The Mean, Median, and Mode 127
55. The Mean and Standard Deviation 129
56. The Median and Interquartile Range 131
57. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient 133

iv
 58. The t Test 135
59. One-Way Analysis of Variance 137
60. Two-Way Analysis of Variance 139
61. Practical Significance of Results 141
Part H Effect Size and Meta-Analysis 143
62. Introduction to Effect Size (d) 145
63. Interpretation of Effect Size (d) 147
64. Effect Size and Correlation (r) 149
65. Introduction to Meta-Analysis 151
66. Meta-Analysis and Effect Size 153
67. Meta-Analysis: Strengths and Weaknesses 155
Part I Qualitative Research 157
68. Sampling in Qualitative Research: I 159
69. Sampling in Qualitative Research: II 161
70. Measurement in Qualitative Research: I 163
71. Measurement in Qualitative Research: II 165
72. Quality Control in Qualitative Research 167
73. Grounded Theory for Data Analysis 169
74. Consensual Qualitative Research: Analysis 171
Part J Preparing Research Reports 173
75. The Structure of a Research Report 175
76. Writing Abstracts 177
77. Introduction and Literature Review 179
78. Describing Participants 181
79. Describing Measures 183
80. Reporting Research Results 185
81. Writing the Discussion 187
82. Preparing Theses and Dissertations 189
Appendices
A. Electronic Databases for Locating Literature 191
B. Electronic Sources of Statistical Information 193
C. Excerpts From Literature Reviews 197
D. A Closer Look at the Standard Deviation 201
Continued 

v
 E. A Closer Look at Effect Size 203
F. Outline of Question Route for a Focus Group Study 205
G. Sample Abstracts of Research Reports 207
H. Sample Description of Qualitative Data Analysis 209
I. A Closer Look at Abbreviated Page Numbers in ASA Style 211
Tables
1. Table of Random Numbers 213
2. Table of Recommended Sample Sizes 215
Index 217

vi
 INTRODUCTION TO THE NINTH EDITION
Understanding Research Methods provides an pendent on welfare, which types of educational
overview of basic research methods. programs to fund, and how to adjust work en-
vironments to improve employees’ output and
The distinctive features of this book are as satisfaction. If students hope to become deci-
follows: sion makers in their fields, they must master
 The division of the material into short sections research methods in order to be effective at
instead of long chapters, which will help stu- sorting through the conflicting claims often
dents to take small steps through this excit- found in the research literature.
ing—but highly technical—field of study. The  Many students will be expected to conduct
long chapters in other research methods books simple but important research on the job. For
prompt students to take big gulps, which often instance, clinical psychologists are expected to
are not easily digested. track improvements made by their clients,
 When one topic builds directly on the previous teachers are expected to experiment with new
topic, the second topic begins with a reminder methods in the classroom, and social workers
of what students should have mastered already. are expected to collect data on their clients.
This helps students to keep their eyes on the  All students will be making lifestyle decisions
big picture and to make a smooth transition on the basis of research reported in the media.
from one topic to the next. Should an individual take vitamin supple-
 Technical jargon is defined in plain English ments? How should individuals dress for suc-
and numerous examples make abstract re- cess on the job? Which make of automobile is
search concepts concrete. In field tests, stu- superior if the buyer’s primary concern is safe-
dents agreed that this book is comprehensible. ty? Answers based on research are often of-
fered in newspapers, magazines, and television
 The material on statistics is presented at the newscasts. As a result of studying research me-
conceptual level. It shows students how to in- thods, students will become knowledgeable,
terpret statistical reports but does not include critical consumers of research.
computational details.
 Students may need to read and report on pub-
 The exercises at the end of the topics encour- lished research in other classes. They will be
age students to pause and make sure they have more skilled at doing this if they have a solid
mastered one topic before moving on to an- understanding of basic methods of research.
other. This is important because much of the
material in this book is cumulative. Thorough New to the Ninth Edition
mastery of an earlier topic is frequently a pre- In this edition, the material on citing sources and
requisite for ease in mastering a later topic. preparing reference lists has been expanded. This
The first part of each exercise tests compre- material now covers important elements of socio-
hension of factual material. The second part logical as well as psychological style. Finally, new
asks students to interpret and apply the mate- examples from published research have been added
rial they have mastered. This will help students to keep this best-seller up-to-date.
to internalize the concepts and will stimulate
classroom discussions. Finally, the third part Acknowledgments
provides questions that help students consider Dr. Anne Hafner and Dr. Robert Morman, both
major issues in planning a research project. of California State University, Los Angeles, pro-
Why should students have an overview of vided many helpful comments on the first draft of
research methods? this book. New material for subsequent editions was
reviewed by Dr. Robert Rosenthal of Harvard Uni-
 Leaders in all fields are increasingly relying on versity and the University of California, Riverside;
the results of research to make important deci- Dr. Deborah M. Oh of California State University,
sions, such as how to help those who are de- Los Angeles; and Dr. Richard Rasor of American

vii
River College. Material for the current edition was
reviewed by Drs. George W. Burruss, Nicholas A.
Corsaro, and Matthew Giblin of Southern Illinois
University, Carbondale. All these individuals made
important contributions to the development of this
book. Errors and omissions, of course, remain the
author’s responsibility.

Mildred L. Patten

viii
 PART A

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

This part of the book defines what is meant by the term empirical research and provides
an overview of the characteristics of the major approaches to this type of research. Broad
issues that underlie all types of research—such as the nature of research hypotheses, how
researchers define the variables they plan to study, ethical considerations in research, and the
role of theory in research—are also covered.

1
NOTES

2
 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

The empirical approach to knowledge is based consider how to obtain a sample that is not biased
on observations.1 Everyone uses the empirical ap- against any types of individuals or subgroups. For
proach in his or her daily life. For instance, if a instance, asking students to volunteer to take a
teacher observes students becoming restless during mathematics lesson might result in a sample of stu-
a certain lesson, he or she might say they “know” dents who are more interested in mathematics than
the lesson is boring. As useful as everyday observa- are the students in the population as a whole. Such a
tions often are, they can be misleading and are often sample would be biased against those who are less
misinterpreted. For instance, the teacher may have interested. Methods of drawing unbiased samples
misinterpreted the reason for the students’ restless- are discussed in Part D of this book.
ness. The time and day, such as a warm Friday af- When researchers plan how to observe, they se-
ternoon, might be the source of the students’ rest- lect among available measures,2 such as objective
lessness and not the dullness of the lesson. Even if tests, interviews, and direct observation of behavior,
the lesson is indeed boring to this teacher’s stu- with an eye to selecting the most valid measure(s).
dents, the teacher might conclude that the lesson is If none is judged to be reasonably valid for their
boring to students in general, when it might, in fact, purposes, they develop new measures. In addition,
be interesting to other students at other ability lev- researchers need to decide when they will use the
els, with different backgrounds, and so on. measures to obtain the most valid results. These
When researchers use the empirical approach, issues are explored in detail in Part E of this book.
they strive to avoid misleading results and poor in- The observations researchers make may result in
terpretations. The key to doing so is careful plan- data in the form of numbers, which are analyzed
ning of why they want to make observations, whom statistically. Widely used statistical techniques are
they want to observe, and how and when to ob- described in Part G of this book. Note that some
serve. scientific observations are not reduced to numbers
The question of why to observe establishes the but are expressed in words. For instance, interview
need for the study. Perhaps a better method for data may be described in a narrative that points out
helping students acquire a certain mathematics skill themes and trends. Such research is referred to as
is needed. After considering their own experiences qualitative research. The differences between quali-
and reviewing related literature on the topic, re- tative and quantitative research are described in
searchers prepare a formal statement of their re- Topics 9 and 10. In addition, qualitative research
search purpose, such as “whether the use of hands- methods are discussed in some detail in Part I of
on manipulatives to teach Topic X will result in this book.
greater student achievement than a workbook ap- One of the most fundamental distinctions in sci-
proach.” A researcher might also have a hypothe- entific research is whether research is experimental
sis, which is a statement indicating what results are or nonexperimental. In experimental research,
expected. For instance, a researcher might hypothe- treatments are given for the research purpose, such
size that students who use manipulatives will have as treating some students with hands-on manipula-
higher scores than those who are exposed to a tives and others with a workbook approach in order
workbook approach. The question of why is ex- to determine which treatment causes greater math
plored throughout Parts A and F of this book. achievement.3 Of course, researchers are not always
When researchers plan whom to observe, they interested in cause-and-effect questions. For in-
first decide whether to observe an entire population stance, they might want to know whether teachers
(such as all fifth-grade students in a school district) believe they need more training in the use of ma-
or just a sample of the population. If a sample is to nipulatives for teaching mathematics. For this par-
be observed, which is often the case, researchers ticular research purpose, a researcher should ask
teachers about their needs without giving treat-
1
ments, such as training them how to use manipula-
Examples of other approaches are (1) deduction, such
as when one deduces a proof in mathematics on the basis
2
of certain assumptions and definitions, and (2) reliance Measures are sometimes called instruments.
3
on authority, such as relying on a dictator’s pronounce- The design of experiments is discussed in Part F of this
ments as a source of knowledge. book.

3
tives. Thus, nonexperimental research is needed for perimental and nonexperimental research is ex-
this research purpose. The distinction between ex- plored in the next two topics of this book.

EXERCISE ON TOPIC 1
1. On what is the empirical approach to knowledge based?

2. Is the empirical approach used in everyday living?

3. What does the question of why establish?

4. How is the term hypothesis defined in this topic?

5. According to the topic, are samples often observed?

6. What do researchers do when they plan how to observe?

7. What is an alternative term for measures?

8. The results from which type of research (“quantitative” or “qualitative”) are not reduced to numbers?

9. Are treatments given for the research purpose in “experimental research” or in “nonexperimental
research”?

10. If a researcher asked students for their opinions on switching from the semester system to the quarter
system, would the researcher be conducting “experimental research” or “nonexperimental research”?

Questions for Discussion

11. Briefly describe a time when you were misled by an everyday observation (i.e., when you reached a con-
clusion on the basis of an everyday observation that you later decided was an incorrect conclusion).

12. You have probably encountered conflicting research reported in the mass media. For example, one study
might indicate that X increases blood pressure while another study indicates that X does not. Speculate
on the reasons why various researchers might obtain different results when studying the same problem.

For Students Planning Research

13. Name a general problem area in which you might conduct research. At this point, your problem area may
still be broad, such as “social phobia,” or it may be narrow, such as “effectiveness of behavior modifica-
tion in the treatment of social phobia among children.” Note that you may want to name several problem
areas for research and make a final selection at a later time.

14. Have you already made observations in your problem area(s)? If so, briefly describe them. (Keep in mind
that observations may be direct, such as observing aggressive behavior on a playground, or indirect, such
as asking adolescents for self-reports on their alcohol consumption.)

4
References

21 21. Reference Lists: ASA Style

Adams, Eric. S. 2014. “Review of the Origins of Social

Sports Theories.” Journal of Hypothetical Social Studies in
Sports, 34(2):119–21.

Suresh, Geetha and Richard Tewksbury. 2013. “Locations of

Motor Vehicle Theft and Recovery.” American Journal of
Criminal Justice, 38(2):200–215. doi
10.1007/s12103-012-91617.

U.S. Travel Association. 2013. “Senate Judiciary Approves

Immigration Bill with Important Travel Facilitation
Provisions.” Washington DC: U.S. Travel Association.
Retrieved June 11, 2013

Viceroy, Steven J. and José Salinas. 2013. The Little Book

of Big Words. 2nd ed. Any City, NC: False Hopes Press.

West, Fred A, Steve Tobble, and Catherine C. Chin. 2012.

“Life as Observed from Below.” Pp. 12– 20 in Motivations of
Successful Professors, edited by J. Doe, M.M. Bush, and
V.N. Carter. New York: Pretend Publishers.

The first two sources in Example 1 above are for

journal articles. The first one (Adams) illustrates a

reference for a journal article with only one author.

The seven elements in the reference to Adams’

journal article are:

1. Author’s name inverted.

1 To create a hanging indent in most versions of Word,

click anyplace in the reference you want to change. Then

click on Format at the top of the screen. A drop-down

window will appear. Click on Paragraph, click on the

down arrowhead to the right of Special, and then click on

Hanging. 2. Year of publication. 3. Title of journal

article in “quotation marks.” 4. Title of journal in
italics. 5.Volume number, which is 34. (Typically, Volume 1
refers to the first year of publication; Volume 2 refers to
the second year of publication; and so on.) 6. Issue number
in parentheses immediately followed by a colon. (Typically,
there are four to 12 issues per year.) In this case, the
issue number is 2, which indicates it is the second issue
of the year. 7. Page numbers, 119–21, which are elided
(contain an abbreviation). The “21” stands for 121. 2 The
second reference in Example 1 (Suresh and Tewksbury)
illustrates a reference for a journal article with two
authors. Only the name of the first author (Suresh) is
inverted. Also the word and is used between the authors’
names. 3 In addition, the second reference in Example 1
illustrates a reference for a journal article published on
and retrieved from the web. It has a DOI number. This
number stands for “Digital Object Identifier.” It is a
unique case number assigned to that journal article. 4 Go
to www.doi.org, type in a valid DOI, and the source of the
article will be identified. Typing the DOI for Suresh and
Tewksbury in the search box at www.doi.org takes a reader
to a website maintained by the publisher of the journal
with directions for purchasing the article or for accessing
it if your institution maintains a subscription for
electronic access to the publisher’s journals. The third
reference (U.S. Travel Association) illustrates a reference
to a document written by an organization and published on
the web. It includes the date of retrieval from the web.
The next reference (Viceroy and Salinas) in Example 1 is
for the second edition of a book, and the last reference,
which has three authors, is for a book. See the ASA Style
Guide for additional information on other types of
reference materials. 2 For information on elided numbers,
see Appendix I. 3 APA uses the symbol & instead of the word
and. 4 The uppercase letters DOI are used when discussing
digital object identifiers. However, in an ASA reference
list, the lowercase is used.

1. What organization is the sponsor of the ASA Style Guide?

2. Describe a paragraph with a hanging indent.

3. In a reference for a source that has two authors, what

word or symbol should be placed between the two

author’s names?

4. Below is the beginning of a reference for a journal

article. In terms of ASA style, what is wrong with it? Doe,
John C. and Smith, Maria. 2012. “A modified survey of
the….”
5. Below is a reference for a journal article. In terms of
ASA style, what is wrong with it? Best, Andrea A. 2012.
“The Origins of Modern Hypnotic Techniques.” Journal of the
Unusual. (3) 285–302.

6. Below is a reference for a journal article. In terms of

ASA style, what is wrong with it? Kelp, Fra A. 2013 “The
Origins of Modern Hypnotic Techniques.” Journal of the
Association for the Study of the Unusual.” (1)54.

7. Below is a reference for a book. In terms of ASA style,

what is wrong with it? Jackson, Steven J. and Maria Solis.
2012. “The Little Grammar Book.” 3rd ed. Centerville, GA:
Pleasant Press.

8. What does “DOI” stand for?

Question for Discussion

9. The examples in this topic illustrate certain types of

journal articles and books. What other types of

sources (other than journal articles and books) might you

need to reference in your academic work?

For Students Planning Research

10. Will you be using the ASA Style Guide? How familiar are
you with it?
23 23. Reference Lists: APA Style

Adams, E. S. (2014). Review of the origins of social sports

theories. Journal of Hypothetical Social Studies in Sports,
34, 119–121.

Suresh, G., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). Locations of motor

vehicle theft and recovery. American Journal of Criminal
Justice, 38, 200–215. doi 10.1007/s12103-012-9161-7.

U.S. Travel Association. 2013. Senate Judiciary Approves

Immigration Bill with Important Travel Facilitation
Provisions. Washington DC: U.S. Travel Association.
Retrieved from
http://www.ustravel.org/news/pressreleases/sena
te-judiciary-approves-immigration-billimportant
-travel-facilitation-provisi).

Viceroy, S. J., & Salinas, J. 2013. The little book of big

words. (2nd ed.). Any City, NC: False Hopes Press.

West, F. A., Tobble, S., & Chin, C. C. (2012). Life as

observed from below. In J. Doe, M.M. Bush, and V.N. Carter
(Eds.), New York: Pretend Publishers.

for journal articles. The first one (Adams) illustrates

a reference for a journal article with only one au

thor. The seven elements contained in the reference

to Adams’ journal article are:

1. Author’s name inverted. Only initials are used for first

and middle names.

2. Year of publication enclosed in parentheses.

1 To create a hanging indent in most versions of Word,

click anyplace in the reference you want to change. Then

click on Format at the top of the screen. A drop-down

window will appear. Click on Paragraph, click on the

down arrowhead to the right of Special, and then click on

Hanging. 3. Title of journal article (no quotation marks).

4. Title of journal in italics. 5. Volume number, which is
34, in italics. 2 6. Issue numbers are almost always
omitted in APA style. 3 7. Page numbers, 119–121. 4 The
second reference in Example 1 (Suresh & Tewksbury)
illustrates a reference for a journal article with two
authors. Both authors’ names are inverted. Note that
instead of the word and, an ampersand (&) is used between
the authors’ names. In addition, the second reference in
Example 1 illustrates a reference for a journal article
published in hard copy and available on the Internet. It
has a DOI number. This number stands for “Digital Object
Identifier.” It is a unique case number assigned to that
journal article. 5 Go to www.doi.org, type in a valid DOI,
and the source of the article will be identified. Typing
the DOI for Suresh and Tewksbury in the search box at
www.doi.org takes a reader to a website maintained by the
publisher of the journal with directions for purchasing the
article or for accessing it if your institution maintains a
subscription for electronic access to the publisher’s
journals. The third reference (U.S. Travel Association)
illustrates a reference to a document written by an
organization and published on the web. It includes the date
of retrieval from the Internet. The next reference (Viceroy
and Salinas) in Example 1 is for the second edition of a
book, and the last reference is for a book. See APA’s
Publication Manual for additional information on formatting
many other types of reference materials such as theses and
dissertations as well as newspaper and magazine articles. 2
Typically, Volume 1 refers to the first year of
publication, Volume 2 refers to the second year of
publication, and so on. 3 In the rare case in which page
numbers are not consecutively numbered throughout a volume,
the issue number should be included. See the Publication
Manual for details. 4 Unlike ASA style, APA style does not
use elided (abbreviated) numbers. 5 The uppercase letters
DOI are used when discussing digital object identifiers.
However, in an APA reference list, the lowercase is used.

1. What is the full title of the style guide discussed in

this topic?

2. Describe a paragraph with a hanging indent.

3. In a reference for a source that has two authors, what

word or symbol should be placed between the two

author’s names?

4. Below is the beginning of a reference for a journal

article. In terms of APA style, what is wrong with it? Doe,
John C. F., & Smith, M. M. 2012. “A national survey of
the….”

5. Below is a reference for a journal article. In terms of

APA style, what is wrong with it? Best, A. A. (2013). “The
origins of modern hypnotic techniques.” Journal of the
Unusual. 42, 285–302.

6. Below is a reference for a journal article. In terms of

APA style, what is wrong with it?

r Kelp, F. A. (2013). The origins of modern hypnotic

techniques. Journal of the Association for the Study of the
Unusual, 54–66.

7. Below is a reference for a book. In terms of APA style,

what is wrong with it?

` Jackson, S. J. & M. Solis. 2014. “The Little Grammar

Book.” 3rd ed. Centerville, GA: Pleasant Press.

8. What does “DOI” stand for?

Question for Discussion

9. The examples in this topic illustrate certain types of

journal articles and books. What other types of

sources (other than journal articles and books) might you

need to reference in your academic work?

For Students Planning Research

10. Will you be using the APA Publication Manual? How

familiar are you with it?
75 75. The Structure of a Research Report

by an Abstract, which is a summary of the re

search. The purpose of an abstract is to give readers

an overview, which helps them determine whether

the research is of interest to them. Writing abstracts

is covered in more detail in the next topic in this

book. The abstract is followed by an Introduction. In

short reports such as journal articles and term pro

jects, the introduction contains a Literature Re

view. (See Part B of this book on reviewing litera

1 Some authors of research reports use the term instru

mentation instead of measures to refer to measurement

tools. ture.) 2 Preparing introductions and literature

reviews for research reports is covered in Topic 77 in this
book. Notice that there is no main heading for this part of
the report. In other words, it begins immediately below the
abstract. Following the introduction/literature review is
the Method section, which usually has its own major heading
of Method (bold and centered). Immediately under this
heading is the subheading Participants (in italics and
flush left). Under this subheading, researchers state the
number of participants, how they were selected, and
demographics such as age and gender. Writing the
description of the participants is described in more detail
in Topic 78. The next subsection under Method is Measures
(with its own flush-left subheading), in which the
measurement tools used in the research are described.
Quantitative researchers usually use highly structured
measures that can be objectively scored. Qualitative
researchers use less-structured measures, often
semi-structured interviews. Describing measures in
quantitative and qualitative research reports is covered in
Topic 79. An optional subsection under the main heading of
Method is Procedure. This subsection should follow Measures
and be used to describe any physical steps taken by the
researcher to conduct the research. For instance, if
treatments were given in an experiment, the treatments
could be described in detail in this subsection. An
additional subsection under the main heading of Method is
Data Analysis, in which the method used to analyze the data
is described. This subsection is optional in quantitative
research when standard statistical techniques are used, but
it is usually needed for describing the type of qualitative
research used (e.g., describing how grounded theory or
consensual qualitative research was implemented to analyze
the data; see Topics 73 and 74). The next major heading is
Results (bold and centered). Considerations in presenting
the results of research are described in Topic 80. 2 In a
traditional thesis or dissertation, Chapter 1 is an
introduction to the research problem (with a limited number
of citations to literature), while Chapter 2 is a
literature review.

centered). 3 In this section, researchers present their

1. Should a title describe the results of the research?

2. The title is usually followed by what?

3. A typical title contains about how many words?

4. Is Participants a “major heading” or a “subheading”?

5. The measurement tools are described in which subsection?

6. Is Procedure an optional subheading?

7. Researchers present their interpretations of the

outcomes of their research under which major subheading?

Question for Discussion

8. Consider this title for a research report: “Improving

Mathematics Achievement.” In your opinion, is the title
adequate? Explain.

For Students Planning Research

9. Examine a research article related to the topic of your

research. Does it follow the exact structure described in
this topic? Explain. (Note: This topic describes common
practices frequently followed by researchers; variations in
structure are often permitted by journal editors as well as
professors supervising research conducted as term
projects.)

3
3 In journal articles, some researchers use headings such

as “Discussion and Conclusions” and “Summary, Dis

cussion, and Implications.”