136 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

SOLUTIONS TO SELECTED TEXT PROBLEMS

8.17 (a) and (d); (b) and (f); (c) and (e).

8.18 Elements that have the same number of valence electrons will have similarities in chemical behavior.
Looking at the periodic table, elements with the same number of valence electrons are in the same group.
Therefore, the pairs that would represent similar chemical properties of their atoms are:
(a) and (d) (b) and (e) (c) and (f).

2 2 5 2 6
8.19 (a) 1s 2s 2p (halogen) (c) [Ar]4s 3d (transition metal)
2 2 10 3
(b) [Ar]4s (alkaline earth metal) (d) [Ar]4s 3d 4p (Group 5A)

8.20 (a) Group 1A (b) Group 5A (c) Group 8A (d) Group 8B

Identify the elements.

8.21 There are no electrons in the 4s subshell because transition metals lose electrons from the ns valence subshell
before they are lost from the (n − 1)d subshell. For the neutral atom there are only six valence electrons. The
element can be identified as Cr (chromium) simply by counting six across starting with potassium (K, atomic
number 19).

What is the electron configuration of neutral chromium?

8.22 You should realize that the metal ion in question is a transition metal ion because it has five electrons in the
3d subshell. Remember that in a transition metal ion, the (n−1)d orbitals are more stable than the ns orbital.
Hence, when a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from
the ns orbital and then from the (n−1)d orbitals if necessary. Since the metal ion has a +3 charge, three
electrons have been removed. Since the 4s subshell is less stable than the 3d, two electrons would have been
lost from the 4s and one electron from the 3d. Therefore, the electron configuration of the neutral atom is
2 6
[Ar]4s 3d . This is the electron configuration of iron. Thus, the metal is iron.

8.27 Determine the number of electrons, and then “fill in” the electrons as you learned in Chapter 7 (Figure 7.20
and Table 7.3 of the text).
2 2 10 6
(a) 1s (g) [Ar]4s 3d 4p
2 2 10 6
(b) 1s (h) [Ar]4s 3d 4p
2 2 6
(c) 1s 2s 2p (i) [Kr]
2 2 6
(d) 1s 2s 2p (j) [Kr]
2 6 2 10
(e) [Ne]3s 3p (k) [Kr]5s 4d
(f) [Ne]

8.28 In the formation of a cation from the neutral atom of a representative element, one or more electrons are
removed from the highest occupied n shell. In the formation of a anion from the neutral atom of a
representative element, one or more electrons are added to the highest partially filled n shell. Representative
elements typically gain or lose electrons to achieve a stable noble gas electron configuration. When a cation
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 137

is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and then
from the (n−1)d orbitals if necessary.
(a) [Ne] (e) Same as (c)
6 2 4
(b) same as (a). Do you see why? (f) [Ar]3d . Why isn't it [Ar]4s 3d ?
9 2 7
(c) [Ar] (g) [Ar]3d . Why not [Ar]4s 3d ?
10 2 8
(d) Same as (c). Do you see why? (h) [Ar]3d . Why not [Ar]4s 3d ?

8.29 This exercise simply depends on determining the total number of electrons and using Figure 7.20 and
Table 7.3 of the text.
6 9
(a) [Ar] (f) [Ar]3d (k) [Ar]3d
5 10
(b) [Ar] (g) [Ar]3d (l) [Kr]4d
7 14 10
(c) [Ar] (h) [Ar]3d (m) [Xe]4f 5d
3 8 14 8
(d) [Ar]3d (i) [Ar]3d (n) [Xe]4f 5d
5 10 14 8
(e) [Ar]3d (j) [Ar]3d (o) [Xe]4f 5d

3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
8.30 (a) Cr (b) Sc (c) Rh (d) Ir

8.31 Two species are isoelectronic if they have the same number of electrons. Can two neutral atoms of different
elements be isoelectronic?
− 2+ 3+
(a) C and B are isoelectronic. (b) Mn and Fe are isoelectronic.
− 2+
(c) Ar and Cl are isoelectronic. (d) Zn and Ge are isoelectronic.

With which neutral atom are the positive ions in (b) isoelectronic?

8.32 Isoelectronic means that the species have the same number of electrons and the same electron configuration.
2+ − − 3− − 2+ 3+ − 2− −
Be and He (2 e ) F and N (10 e ) Fe and Co (24 e ) S and Ar (18 e )

8.37 (a) Cs is larger. It is below Na in Group 1A. (d) Br is larger. It is below F in Group 7A.
(b) Ba is larger. It is below Be in Group 2A. (e) Xe is larger. It is below Ne in Group 8A.
(c) Sb is larger. It is below N in Group 5A.

8.38 Recall that the general periodic trends in atomic size are:
(1) Moving from left to right across a row (period) of the periodic table, the atomic radius decreases due to
an increase in effective nuclear charge.
(2) Moving down a column (group) of the periodic table, the atomic radius increases since the orbital size
increases with increasing principal quantum number.
The atoms that we are considering are all in the same period of the periodic table. Hence, the atom furthest
to the left in the row will have the largest atomic radius, and the atom furthest to the right in the row will
have the smallest atomic radius. Arranged in order of decreasing atomic radius, we have,
Na > Mg > Al > P > Cl
138 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

8.39 Pb, as can be seen in Figure 8.4 of the text.

8.40 Fluorine is the smallest atom in Group 7A. Atomic radius increases moving down a group since the orbital
size increases with increasing principal quantum number, n.

2 1
8.41 The electron configuration of lithium is 1s 2s . The two 1s electrons shield the 2s electron effectively from
the nucleus. Consequently, the lithium atom is considerably larger than the hydrogen atom.

8.42 The atomic radius is largely determined by how strongly the outer-shell electrons are held by the nucleus.
The larger the effective nuclear charge, the more strongly the electrons are held and the smaller the atomic
radius. For the second period, the atomic radius of Li is largest because the 2s electron is well shielded by
the filled 1s shell. The effective nuclear charge that the outermost electrons feel increases across the period
as a result of incomplete shielding by electrons in the same shell. Consequently, the orbital containing the
electrons is compressed and the atomic radius decreases.

−
8.43 (a) Cl is smaller than Cl . An atom gets bigger when more electrons are added.
+
(b) Na is smaller than Na. An atom gets smaller when electrons are removed.
2− 2−
(c) O is smaller than S . Both elements belong to the same group, and ionic radius increases going
down a group.
3+ 2+
(d) Al is smaller than Mg . The two ions are isoelectronic (What does that mean? See Section 8.2 of
the text) and in such cases the radius gets smaller as the charge becomes more positive.
3+ +
(e) Au is smaller than Au for the same reason as part (b).

In each of the above cases from which atom would it be harder to remove an electron?

8.44 The ions listed are all isoelectronic. They each have ten electrons. The ion with the fewest protons will have
the largest ionic radius, and the ion with the most protons will have the smallest ionic radius. The effective
nuclear charge increases with increasing number of protons. The electrons are attracted more strongly by the
nucleus, decreasing the ionic radius. The order of increasing atomic radius is:
2+ + − 2− 3−
Mg < Na < F < O < N

+ 2+
8.45 The Cu ion is larger than Cu because it has one more electron.

8.46 Both selenium and tellurium are Group 6A elements. Since atomic radius increases going down a column in
2− 2−
the periodic table, it follows that Te must be larger than Se .

8.47 Bromine is liquid; all the others are solids.

8.48 We assume the approximate boiling point of argon is the mean of the boiling points of neon and krypton,
based on its position in the periodic table being between Ne and Kr in Group 8A.
−245.9° C + ( −152.9° C )
b.p. = = −199.4°C
2
The actual boiling point of argon is −185.7°C.
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 139

8.51 Apart from the small irregularities, the ionization energies of elements in a period increase with increasing
atomic number. We can explain this trend by referring to the increase in effective nuclear charge from left to
right. A larger effective nuclear charge means a more tightly held outer electron, and hence a higher first
ionization energy. Thus, in the third period, sodium has the lowest and neon has the highest first ionization
energy.

8.52 The Group 3A elements (such as Al) all have a single electron in the outermost p subshell, which is well
2
shielded from the nuclear charge by the inner electrons and the ns electrons. Therefore, less energy is
needed to remove a single p electron than to remove a paired s electron from the same principal energy level
(such as for Mg).

8.53 To form the +2 ion of calcium, it is only necessary to remove two valence electrons. For potassium,
however, the second electron must come from the atom's noble gas core, which accounts for the much higher
second ionization energy. Would you expect a similar effect if you tried to form the +3 ion of calcium?

2 2 6
8.54 A noble gas electron configuration, such as 1s 2s 2p , is a very stable configuration, making it extremely
difficult to remove an electron. The high ionization energy of 2080 kJ/mol would be associated with the
element having this noble gas electron configuration.

The lone electron in the 3s orbital will be much easier to remove. Therefore, the ionization energy of
2 2 6 1
496 kJ/mol is paired with the electron configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s .

8.55 The ionization energy is the difference between the n = ∞ state (final) and the n = 1 state (initial).

. × 10 −18 J )( 2)2
∆E = E∞ − E1 = ( −218
FG 1 IJ 2
. × 10 −18 J )( 2)2
FG 1IJ 2

H ∞K − ( −218
H 1K
. × 10 −18 J )( 2)2
= 0 + ( 218
FG 1IJ 2 = 8.72 × 10−18 J
H 1K
F 1 kJ IJ F 6.022 × 10 I = 5.25 × 10
J )G
23

H 1000 J K GH 1 mol JK
−18 3
In units of kJ/mol: (8.72 × 10 kJ / mol

Should this be larger than the first ionization energy of helium (see Table 8.2 of the text)?

8.56 The atomic number of mercury is 80. We write:

∆E = (2.18 × 10
−18 2 FG 1 − 1 IJ = 1.40 × 10
−14
J)(80 )
H1 ∞ K
2 2
J/ion

∆E =
FG140 −14 J IJ FG 6.022 × 10 23
ions I F 1 kJ I
JK GH 1000 J JK 6
= 8.43 × 10 kJ/mol
H . × 10 ion K H 1 mol
8.59 (a) K < Na < Li (b) I < Br < F < Cl
140 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

8.60 One of the general periodic trends for electron affinity is that the tendency to accept electrons increases (that
is, electron affinity values become more positive) as we move from left to right across a period. However,
this trend does not include the noble gases. We know that noble gases are extremely stable, and they do not
want to gain or lose electrons.
Based on the above periodic trend, Cl would be expected to have the highest electron affinity. Addition of an
−
electron to Cl forms Cl , which has a stable noble gas electron configuration.

8.61 Based on electron affinity values, we would not expect the alkali metals to form anions. A few years ago
most chemists would have answered this question with a loud "No"! In the early seventies a chemist named
J.L. Dye at Michigan State University discovered that under very special circumstances alkali metals could
be coaxed into accepting an electron to form negative ions! These ions are called alkalide ions.

1
8.62 Alkali metals have a valence electron configuration of ns so they can accept another electron in the ns
2
orbital. On the other hand, alkaline earth metals have a valence electron configuration of ns . Alkaline earth
metals have little tendency to accept another electron, as it would have to go into a higher energy p orbital.

8.65 Basically, we look for the process that will result in forming a cation of the metal that will be isoelectronic
1
with the noble gas preceding the metal in the periodic table. Since all alkali metals have the ns outer
+
electron configuration, we predict that they will form unipositive ions: M . Similarly, the alkaline earth
2 2+
metals, which have the ns outer electron configuration, will form M ions.

8.66 Since ionization energies decrease going down a column in the periodic table, francium should have the
lowest first ionization energy of all the alkali metals. As a result, Fr should be the most reactive of all the
Group 1A elements toward water and oxygen. The reaction with oxygen would probably be similar to that of
K, Rb, or Cs.
What would you expect the formula of the oxide to be? The chloride?

2 2 6
8.67 The electron configuration of helium is 1s and that of the other noble gases is ns np . The completely filled
subshell represents great stability. Consequently, these elements are chemically unreactive.

8.68 The Group 1B elements are much less reactive than the Group 1A elements. The 1B elements are more
stable because they have much higher ionization energies resulting from incomplete shielding of the nuclear
1
charge by the inner d electrons. The ns electron of a Group 1A element is shielded from the nucleus more
effectively by the completely filled noble gas core. Consequently, the outer s electrons of 1B elements are
more strongly attracted by the nucleus.

8.69 Across a period, oxides change from basic to amphoteric to acidic. Going down a group, the oxides become
more basic.

8.70 (a) Lithium oxide is a basic oxide. It reacts with water to form the metal hydroxide:

Li2O(s) + H2O(l) 
→ 2LiOH(aq)

(b) Calcium oxide is a basic oxide. It reacts with water to form the metal hydroxide:

CaO(s) + H2O(l) 
→ Ca(OH)2(aq)

(c) Carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide. It reacts with water to form carbonic acid:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) 
→ H2CO3(aq)
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 141

8.71 LiH (lithium hydride): ionic compound; BeH2 (beryllium hydride): covalent compound; B2H6 (diborane, you
aren't expected to know that name): molecular compound; CH4 (methane, do you know that one?): molecular
compound; NH3 (ammonia, you should know that one): molecular compound; H2O (water, if you didn't
know that one, you should be ashamed): molecular compound; HF (hydrogen fluoride): molecular
compound. LiH and BeH2 are solids, B2H6, CH4, NH3, and HF are gases, and H2O is a liquid.

8.72 As we move down a column, the metallic character of the elements increases. Since magnesium and barium
are both Group 2A elements, we expect barium to be more metallic than magnesium and BaO to be more
basic than MgO.

8.73 (a) Metallic character decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a column
(Group).
(b) Atomic size decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a column
(Group).
(c) Ionization energy increases (with some exceptions) moving left to right across a period and decreases
moving down a column.
(d) Acidity of oxides increases moving left to right across a period and decreases moving down a column.

8.74 (a) bromine (b) nitrogen (c) rubidium (d) magnesium

8.75 Both ionization energy and electron affinity are affected by atomic size. The smaller the atom, the greater the
attraction between the electrons and the nucleus. If it is difficult to remove an electron from an atom (that is,
high ionization energy), then it follows that it would also be favorable to add an electron to the atom (large
electron affinity).

8.76 This is an isoelectronic series with ten electrons in each species. The nuclear charge interacting with these
2+
ten electrons ranges from +8 for oxygen to +12 for magnesium. Therefore the +12 charge in Mg will draw
+ −
in the ten electrons more tightly than the +11 charge in Na , than the +9 charge in F , than the +8 charge in
2−
O . Recall that the largest species will be the easiest to ionize.
2+ + − 2−
(a) increasing ionic radius: Mg < Na < F < O
2− − + 2+
(b) increasing ionization energy: O < F < Na < Mg

8.77 Ionic compounds are combinations of a metal and a nonmetal. Molecular compounds are usually
nonmetal−nonmetal combinations.
(a) Na2O (ionic); MgO (ionic); Al2O3 (ionic); SiO2 (molecular);
P4O6 and P4O10 (both molecular); SO2 or SO3 (molecular);
Cl2O and several others (all molecular).

(b) NaCl (ionic); MgCl2 (ionic); AlCl3 (ionic); SiCl4 (molecular);

PCl3 and PCl5 (both molecular); SCl2 (molecular).

8.78 According to the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1966-67 edition), potassium metal has a melting point
of 63.6°C, bromine is a reddish brown liquid with a melting point of −7.2°C, and potassium bromide (KBr) is
a colorless solid with a melting point of 730°C. M is potassium (K) and X is bromine (Br).
142 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

8.79 (a) matches bromine (Br2), (b) matches hydrogen (H2), (c) matches calcium (Ca),
(d) matches gold (Au), (e) matches argon (Ar)

+ 2− 3− 3+ +
8.80 O and N Ar and S Ne and N Zn and As Cs and Xe

8.81 Only (b) is listed in order of decreasing radius. Answer (a) is listed in increasing size because the radius
increases down a group. Answer (c) is listed in increasing size because the number of electrons is increasing.

8.82 (a) and (d)

8.83 The equation is: CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

The milky white color is due to calcium carbonate. Calcium hydroxide is a base and carbon dioxide is an
acidic oxide. The products are a salt and water.

8.84 Fluorine is a yellow-green gas that attacks glass; chlorine is a pale yellow gas; bromine is a fuming red
liquid; and iodine is a dark, metallic-looking solid.

8.85 (a) (i) Both react with water to produce hydrogen;

(ii) Their oxides are basic;
(iii) Their halides are ionic.
(b) (i) Both are strong oxidizing agents;
(ii) Both react with hydrogen to form HX (where X is Cl or Br);
− −
(iii) Both form halide ions (Cl or Br ) when combined with electropositive metals (Na, K, Ca, Ba).

8.86 Fluorine

2 4
8.87 Sulfur has a ground state electron configuration of [Ne]3s 3p . Therefore, it has a tendency to accept one
− 2−
electron to become S . Although adding another electron makes S , which is isoelectronic with Ar, the
increase in electron repulsion makes the process unfavorable.

− −
8.88 H and He are isoelectronic species with two electrons. Since H has only one proton compared to two
− −
protons for He, the nucleus of H will attract the two electrons less strongly compared to He. Therefore, H
is larger.

8.89 Na2O (basic oxide) Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH

BaO (basic oxide) BaO + H2O → Ba(OH)2
CO2 (acidic oxide) CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
N2O5 (acidic oxide) N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3
P4O10 (acidic oxide) P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4
SO3 (acidic oxide) SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 143

8.90 Oxide Name Property

Li2O lithium oxide basic
BeO beryllium oxide amphoteric
B2O3 boron oxide acidic
CO2 carbon dioxide acidic
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide acidic
Note that only the highest oxidation states are considered.

8.91 Element State Form

Mg solid three dimensional
Cl gas diatomic molecules
Si solid three dimensional
Kr gas monatomic
O gas diatomic molecules
I solid diatomic molecules
Hg liquid liquid (metallic)
Br liquid diatomic molecules

+ −
8.92 In its chemistry, hydrogen can behave like an alkali metal (H ) and like a halogen (H ).

8.93 Replacing Z in the equation given in Problem 8.55 with (Z − σ) gives:

En = (2.18 × 10
−18
J)(Z − σ)
2 FG 1 IJ
Hn K
2

For helium, the atomic number (Z) is 2, and in the ground state, its two electrons are in the first energy level,
so n = 1. Substitute Z, n, and the first ionization energy into the above equation to solve for σ.

E1 = 3.94 × 10
−18
J = (2.18 × 10
−18
J)(2 − σ)
2 FG 1 IJ
H1 K
2

2 . 4 × 10 −18 J
39
(2 − σ) =
. × 10 −18 J
218

2−σ = 18
. 1
σ = 2 − 1.35 = 0.65

8.94 Rearrange the given equation to solve for ionization energy.

1 2
IE = hν − mu
2
or,
hc
IE = − KE
λ
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is given in the problem. Substitute h, c, and λ into the above
equation to solve for the ionization energy.

(6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m / s) −19

IE = − (5.34 × 10 J)
162 × 10 −9 m
−19
IE = 6.94 × 10 J
144 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

We might also want to express the ionization energy in kJ/mol.

6.94 × 10 −19 J 6.022 × 1023 photons 1 kJ

× × = 418 kJ/mol
1 photon 1 mol 1000 J

To ensure that the ejected electron is the valence electron, UV light of the longest wavelength (lowest
energy) should be used that can still eject electrons.

8.95 X must belong to Group 4A; it is probably Sn or Pb because it is not a very reactive metal (it is certainly not
reactive like an alkali metal).
Y is a nonmetal since it does not conduct electricity. Since it is a light yellow solid, it is probably
phosphorus (Group 5A).
Z is an alkali metal since it reacts with air to form a basic oxide or peroxide.

8.96 Plotting the melting point versus the atomic number and extrapolating the curve to francium, the estimated
melting point is 23°C.

200
Plot of m.p. vs. atomic number
160
Melting point ( C)
o

120

80

40

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Atomic number

8.97 The reaction representing the electron affinity of chlorine is:

− −
Cl(g) + e 
→ Cl (g) ∆H° = −349 kJ/mol (the electron affinity = +349 kJ/mol)

It follows that the energy needed for the reverse process is +349 kJ/mol.
− −
Cl (g) + hν 
→ Cl(g) + e ∆H° = +349 kJ/mol

The energy above is the energy of 1 mole of photons. We need to convert to the energy of one photon in
order to calculate the wavelength of the photon.
349 kJ 1 mol photons 1000 J −19
× × = 5.80 × 10 J/photon
1 mol photons 6.022 × 1023 photons 1 kJ
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 145

Now, we can calculate the wavelength of a photon with this energy.

hc ( 6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s )(3.00 × 108 m / s ) −7

λ = = −19
= 3.43 × 10 m = 343 nm
E 5.80 × 10 J

The radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

8.98 (a) Mg in Mg(OH)2 (d) Na in NaHCO3 (g) Ca in CaO

(b) Na, liquid (e) K in KNO3 (h) Ca
(c) Mg in MgSO4⋅7H2O (f) Mg (i) Na in NaCl; Ca in CaCl2

8.99 Zeff increases from left to right across the table, so electrons are held more tightly. (This explains the
electron affinity values of C and O.) Nitrogen has a zero value of electron affinity because of the stability of
the half-filled 2p subshell (that is, N has little tendency to accept another electron).

8.100 Physical characteristics: Solid; metallic appearance like iodine; melting point greater than 114°C.
Reaction with sulfuric acid:
2NaAt + 2H2SO4 → At2 + SO2 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O

8.101 The plot is:

5.50

5.00 I11
log (ionization energy)

4.50

4.00

3.50

3.00

I1
2.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of ionization energy

1 1
(a) I1 corresponds to the electron in 3s I7 corresponds to the electron in 2p
6 2
I2 corresponds to the first electron in 2p I8 corresponds to the first electron in 2s
5 1
I3 corresponds to the first electron in 2p I9 corresponds to the electron in 2s
4 2
I4 corresponds to the first electron in 2p I10 corresponds to the first electron in 1s
3 1
I5 corresponds to the first electron in 2p I11 corresponds to the electron in 1s
2
I6 corresponds to the first electron in 2p

(b) It requires more energy to remove an electron from a closed shell. The breaks indicate electrons in
different shells and subshells.
146 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE

+ −
8.102 Na(g) → Na (g) + e I1 = 495.9 kJ/mol

Energy needed to ionize one Na atom:

495.9 × 103 J 1 mol −19

× 23
= 8.235 × 10 J/atom
1 mol 6.022 × 10 atoms

The corresponding wavelength is:

hc ( 6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s )(3.00 × 108 m / s ) −7

λ = = −19
= 2.42 × 10 m = 242 nm
I1 8.235 × 10 J

8.103 There is a large jump from the second to the third ionization energy, indicating a change in the principal
quantum number n. In other words, the third electron removed is an inner, noble gas core electron, which is
difficult to remove. Therefore, the element is in Group 2A.

8.104 (a) F2 (b) Na (c) B (d) N2 (e) Al

8.105 (a) They would have used a set up similar to Figure 7.5 of the text, except that the discharge tube was filled
with argon gas. The emission spectrum of the gas did not match the spectra of any known elements.

(b) Argon gas is inert (chemically unreactive), and thus would not combine with other elements to form
compounds.

(c) Once argon was discovered, Ramsay was convinced that there were other unreactive gases belonging to
the same periodic group. He went in search of these gases and amazingly discovered neon, krypton,
and xenon in a three month time period.

(d) On Earth, the only source of helium is through radioactive decay processes—α particles emitted during
nuclear decay are eventually converted to helium atoms. Because it is a light gas, its concentration in
the atmosphere is very low.

(e) Radon, like other noble gases, is unreactive. In addition, radon is a decay product of uranium-238.
Once formed, it decays by a particle emission with a half-life of 3.82 days. Its percent abundance at
any given time will be very small, and thus it only forms a compound with the most electronegative
element, fluorine.
 CHAPTER 8: THE PERIODIC TABLE 147

8.106

16

14

12

10 Effective nuclear charge

11
Atomic Radius (m) × 10
8

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Atomic Number

11
Note that the atomic radius values (in meters) have been multiplied by 1 × 10 , so that the effective nuclear charge
and radius data would fit better on the same graph. In general, as the effective nuclear charge increases, the outer-
shell electrons are held more strongly, and hence the atomic radius decreases.