Geo Mapping Binder Part B (2025)
Geo Mapping Binder Part B (2025)
i. Methods and environments of formation (e.g., crystallization from magma, chemical precipitation, alteration under heat & pressure)
★ Rock Cycle
☆ The rock cycle describes the continuous transformation of rocks from one type to another:
Magma cools to form igneous rocks
Rocks are exposed at the surface through uplift and erosion
Weathering breaks down rocks into sediments
Sediments are transported and deposited
Sediments are buried, compacted, and cemented to form sedimentary rocks
Rocks undergo metamorphism when subjected to heat and pressure
Metamorphic rocks may melt to form new magma
☆ Factors influencing the rock cycle include:
Earth's internal heat
Plate tectonics
Weathering and erosion
Volcanic activity
Sedimentation processes
ii. Relationships between texture (e.g., intrusive/extrusive), composition (e.g., mafic/felsic), and
environments of formation
★ Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The texture and composition of these rocks
are closely related to their environment of formation.
☆ Texture and Environment
Intrusive (Plutonic) Rocks:
Coarse-grained texture (phaneritic) with crystals visible to the naked eye
Form when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface
Examples: granite, gabbro, diorite
Extrusive (Volcanic) Rocks:
Fine-grained texture (aphanitic) or glassy
Form when lava cools rapidly at or near the surface
Examples: basalt, rhyolite, obsidian
☆ Composition
Felsic Rocks:
High in silica content
Light-colored (e.g., white, pink, light gray)
Examples: granite (intrusive), rhyolite (extrusive)
Mafic Rocks:
Low in silica, high in iron and magnesium
Dark-colored (e.g., dark gray, black, green)
Examples: gabbro (intrusive), basalt (extrusive)
☆ Special Textures
Porphyritic: Large crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a fine-grained matrix
Pegmatitic: Extremely coarse-grained, often found in late-stage magmatic intrusions
★ Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form through the deposition and lithification of sediments. Their texture and composition are directly
related to their depositional environment.
☆ Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Texture:
Grain size ranges from clay to boulder
Sorting depends on the depositional environment
Environments and Associated Rocks:
Stream channels: Conglomerate, sandstone (cross-bedded, ripple marks)
Floodplains: Shale (mud cracks)
Beach: Well-sorted sandstone (cross-bedded)
Deep marine: Mudstone, chert (thin-bedded)
☆ Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Texture:
Often crystalline or microcrystalline
Environments and Associated Rocks:
Shallow marine: Limestone (coral reefs, shell fragments)
Restricted basins: Evaporites like gypsum, halite (mud cracks, thin beds)
Deep marine: Chalk, limestone (thin-bedded)
★ Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to high heat and pressure. Their texture and composition
reflect the original rock type and the conditions of metamorphism.
☆ Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Texture:
Aligned mineral grains forming planar structures
Foliation intensity increases with metamorphic grade
Examples and Environments:
Slate: Low-grade metamorphism of shale
Schist: Medium to high-grade metamorphism
Gneiss: High-grade metamorphism, often from granite or sedimentary rocks
☆ Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Texture:
Interlocking crystals without preferred orientation
Examples and Environments:
Marble: Metamorphism of limestone
Quartzite: Metamorphism of quartz-rich sandstone
Hornfels: Contact metamorphism near igneous intrusions
☆ Metamorphic Facies
The combination of pressure and temperature conditions during metamorphism determines the mineral assemblages and
textures observed in metamorphic rocks. These conditions are classified into metamorphic facies, such as greenschist,
amphibolite, and granulite facies.
Understanding the relationships between texture, composition, and environment of formation is crucial for interpreting the
geological history of an area during geological mapping exercises.
iii. Relationship between temperature, pressure, and depth to types of metamorphism and metamorphic facies
The relationship between temperature, pressure, and depth plays a crucial role in determining the types of metamorphism
and metamorphic facies. This information is essential for understanding rock formation and lithologies in the context of metamorphic
processes.
★ Types of Metamorphism
☆ Regional Metamorphism
Affects large areas of Earth's crust
Temperature range: 200°C - 750°C
Pressure range: 2-10 kbar (equivalent to 5-35 km depth)
Associated with mountain-building events and plate tectonics
☆ Contact Metamorphism
Occurs near igneous intrusions
Typically at shallow depths (less than 6 km)
High temperature, low pressure conditions
Extent depends on the size and temperature of the intrusion
☆ Dynamic Metamorphism
Occurs in active fault zones
Characterized by variable strain, pressure, and temperature
★ Metamorphic Facies
Metamorphic facies are groups of rocks formed under similar pressure and temperature conditions.
☆ The main facies, from low to high grade, include:
Zeolite Facies
Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies
Greenschist Facies
Blueschist Facies
Amphibolite Facies
Granulite Facies
Eclogite Facies
☆ Pressure-Temperature-Depth Relationships in Metamorphic Facies
Low-pressure facies: Hornfels, Sanidinite
Medium-pressure facies: Greenschist, Amphibolite, Granulite
High-pressure facies: Blueschist, Eclogite
☆ Key Concepts
Metamorphism begins at temperatures between 100-200°C and can continue up to 700-1100°C
Upper boundary of metamorphism is the rock's solidus temperature (650-1080°C depending on composition and pressure)
Prograde metamorphism involves increasing temperature and pressure conditions
Retrograde metamorphism occurs during decreasing temperature and pressure
☆ Metamorphic Facies Diagram
A pressure-temperature diagram with metamorphic facies shows:
Vertical axis: Pressure (and corresponding depth)
Horizontal axis: Temperature
Colored regions: Different metamorphic facies
This diagram is crucial for understanding the conditions under which different metamorphic rocks form and can be used to
interpret the tectonic history of an area.
Understanding these relationships is essential for geological mapping and interpreting the metamorphic history of rock
formations in various tectonic settings.
iv. Connections between physical and chemical properties on smaller scales of rock formation and how they inform properties on
macroscopic/regional scales
★ Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They are one of the three main rock
types, alongside sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
☆ Formation
Intrusive (plutonic): Magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, forming coarse-grained rocks like granite
Extrusive (volcanic): Lava cools rapidly at the surface, creating fine-grained or glassy rocks like basalt
The cooling rate affects crystal size, with slower cooling producing larger crystals
☆ Classification
Texture: Coarse-grained (phaneritic) or fine-grained (aphanitic)
Mineral composition: Felsic (light-colored, silica-rich) or mafic (dark-colored, iron/magnesium-rich)
Formation environment: Intrusive or extrusive
Common igneous rock types include granite, basalt, and obsidian
☆ Geological Significance of Igneous Rocks
Provide information about the Earth's composition and tectonic processes
Allow for radiometric dating and geological time calibration
Can host valuable mineral deposits
☆ Igneous Processes
Key processes in igneous rock formation include:
Partial melting of existing rocks in the mantle or crust
Magmatic differentiation, affecting magma composition
Assimilation of country rock during magma ascent
Understanding these processes and the resulting rock types is crucial for interpreting Earth's geological history and
current tectonic activity.
★ Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of sediments, which can be mineral or organic
particles, at Earth's surface. They are one of the three main rock types, alongside igneous and metamorphic rocks.
☆ Formation Process
Weathering of pre-existing rocks
Transportation of weathered materials
Deposition of sediments
Compaction of deposited materials
Cementation of sediments
This process of turning sediments into rock is called lithification
☆ Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic (detrital): Formed from fragments of other rocks
Examples: sandstone, shale, conglomerate
Biogenic: Formed from the remains of organisms
Examples: limestone, coal
Chemical: Formed by precipitation from solution
Examples: rock salt, some limestones
☆ Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
Recording Earth's history and past environments
Hosting important economic resources (oil, gas, coal, water)
Providing information on climate change and evolution
Understanding environmental geology and human impacts
☆ Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary rocks often contain structures that provide information about their depositional environment. These
include bedding, cross-bedding, and ripple marks.
☆ Economic Significance
Sedimentary rocks contain most of the world's:
Oil and natural gas reserves
Coal deposits
Phosphates
Salt deposits
Groundwater resources
Understanding sedimentary rocks is crucial for geological mapping, resource exploration, and interpreting Earth's past
environments and processes.
★ Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, causing physical and
chemical changes without melting. This process, called metamorphism, occurs deep within the Earth's crust.
☆ Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism:
Caused by heat from nearby magma intrusions
Affects a relatively small area
Example: Quartzite formed from sandstone near magma intrusions
Regional Metamorphism:
Affects large areas of Earth's crust
Associated with mountain-building events and plate tectonics
Example: Schist formed from mudstone during plate collisions
Dynamic Metamorphism:
Occurs in active fault zones
Characterized by high strain and variable pressure
☆ Classification
Foliated:
Minerals aligned in parallel layers
Examples: Slate, schist, gneiss
Non-foliated:
No preferred mineral orientation
Examples: Marble, quartzite, hornfels
☆ Formation Conditions
Temperature range: 200°C to 700°C-1,100°C
Pressure: Variable, often high due to depth or tectonic forces
Depth: Typically deep within Earth's crust
☆ Importance of Metamorphic Rocks
Recording Earth's geological history
Providing information about tectonic processes
Hosting valuable mineral deposits
Understanding crustal deformation and mountain-building events
Understanding metamorphic rocks is crucial for geological mapping, resource exploration, and interpreting Earth's past
environments and processes.