Course Outline

1. Introduction to power semiconductor devices

{Diodes, Power transistor, power MOSFET, Insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGTBT), Thyristors}
2. Thyristors
❖ Silicon controlled rectifier (SCRs)
{Construction, triggering, characteristics, commutation
techniques, ratings}
❖ Gate-Turn-Off thyristor (GTO)
❖ MOS-Controlled thyristor (MCT)
❖ Bidirectional triode thyristors (TRIACs)
❖ Uni-junction Transistor (UJT)
❖ Thyristor protection
3. Single phase and three phase uncontrolled [diode-
based] bridge rectifiers
4. Single phase and three phase controlled [thyristor-
based] bridge rectifiers
5. Power control circuits: Single phase and three phase
inverters, choppers, dual converters, cyclo-converters
 6. Solid state control of D.C and A.C motors {over-voltage
protection of D.C motors, Dynamic braking of three phase
induction motor}

Introduction Industrial applications pumps,

compressors, blowers, fans, machine tools,
Power electronics is the application of arc furnaces, induction furnaces, lighting
semiconductor devices in the control and control circuits, industrial lasers, induction
conversion of electrical power. heating, welding equipment etc.

Semiconductor devices essentially act as Aerospace applications Space shuttle

controlled switches to perform controlled power supply systems, satellite power
rectification, inversion and power regulation systems, aircraft power systems.
to the load. Telecommunications Battery chargers,
They can achieve finer control of power power supplies
than electrical methods thereby attaining Transportation Traction control of electric
maximum efficiency, reliability, minimum vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles,
cost, weight, and size. electric locomotives, street cars, trolley buses,
automobile electronics and engine controls
Applications
Utility systems High voltage DC
Commercial applications heating systems
transmission (HVDC), renewable energy
ventilating, air conditioners, central
sources (wind, solar), fuel cells, energy
refrigeration, lighting, computers and office
storage systems, induced draft fans and boiler
equipment, Uninterruptible Power Supplies
feed water pumps.
(UPS), elevators, emergency lamps etc.
Domestic applications cooking
Power semiconductor devices:
equipment, lighting, heating, air ▪ Power Diodes
conditioners, refrigerators & freezers,
personal computers, entertainment ▪ Power transistors (BJT's, MOSFETS,
equipment, SITs IGBT's)

▪ Thyristors

1. Power diodes
Both the standard and power diodes are 2-terminal unidirectional devices. However,
they have the following differences.
 Standard diodes Power diodes
• Consist of 2 layers (P and N) • 3 layers (P+ N- N+).
• lower voltage, current, and power • higher voltage, current, and power
ratings ratings
• operate at higher switching speeds • operate at high speeds
• small-signal applications • suitable for large signal applications,
such as inverters

Power diode structure

P+ layer: anode,

N+ layer: cathode

N- layer: drift region

Comparison of V-I Characteristics

Standard diode Power diodes

the current grows the current grows linearly
exponentially with increased with increased voltage
voltage during forward during forward conduction
conduction
 VI characteristics graph of power diodes and standard diodes

Reverse characteristics:

The leakage current flow is nearly independent of the reverse voltage up to the Peak
Reverse Repetitive Voltage (PRRV)/ Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV); beyond which avalanche
breakdown occurs and may damage the device.
Power diode Applications
▪ ac rectifiers

▪ Battery charging circuits

▪ Inverter circuits

▪ DC power supplies

▪ Switching power supplies

2. . Power transistors
a) Power BJTs
▪ They are current-controlled devices (𝐼𝐵 controls output 𝐼𝐶 )

▪ Operates as a switch i.e. in the saturation region (ON state) and cut-off (OFF state).

Comparison of power and signal BJTs

 Signal BJT Power BJT
▪ 3 terminals [emitter, base, collector] ▪ 3 terminals [emitter, base, collector]
▪ 3-layer structure ▪ Vertically oriented 4- layer structure [n+,
p, n-, n+]
▪ Lower current and power handling ▪ High current and power handling
capability in ON state capability during On state
▪ low forward blocking voltage ▪ large forward blocking voltage
Structure

▪ Emitter: heavily doped n+ layer

▪ base [moderately doped p layer]

▪ collector drift region lightly doped n- layer

▪ collector region: heavily doped n+ layer

The drift layer increases the voltage blocking capacity of the transistor due to the low
doping level. The wider the width, the greater the breakdown voltage, the higher the
resistance, resulting to increased power loss.
Power BJT V-I Characteristics
They are divided into four regions:

▪ Cut-off region

▪ Active region

▪ Quasi saturation region

▪ Hard-saturation region

The power BJT is used as a switch, thus operates between cut-off and saturation
regions [but not active region].
Cut off
▪ Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased

▪ BJT offers high resistance to current flow thus the base current 𝑰𝑩 = 𝟎, only leakage
currents flow through the collector (𝑰𝑪𝑬𝑶 ) and the transistor is driven into the cut-
off region [OFF state]

Quasi saturation region

▪ Region between active and hard saturation that’s only found in power transistors
(not signal transistors), due to lightly doped drift region.

▪ Attained when both junctions are forward biased.

▪ Offers low resistance

▪ Offers short turn-off time hence the power BJT can be used for high frequency
applications.

Hard saturation
▪ Power BJT can shift from quasi to hard saturation by increasing the base current.

▪ Attained when both junctions are forward biased

▪ Offers minimum resistance (hence minimum power dissipation).

▪ The device acts as closed switch, but with higher turn-off time, hence suitable for low
frequency applications
▪ Collector current is independent of base current
Advantages of BJTs
▪ high switching frequencies due to low turn-on and turn-off time

▪ Low turn-on power losses

▪ turn-on and turn-off characteristics can be controlled through the base

▪ lower saturation voltage over operating temperature range

Drawbacks of BJT
▪ Have complex drive circuit

▪ limited switching frequencies due to low input capacitance.

▪ Less thermally stable due to negative temperature coefficient

Applications
▪ Switch mode power supply (SMPS)

▪ Power amplifiers

▪ Relay and drivers

▪ AC motor speed controller

▪ DC/AC inverter

▪ In audio amplifiers in stereo systems

▪ Power control circuit

▪ As series pass transistor in regulated power supply

Power Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

Features
▪ 3 terminals [Gate, Source, Drain].
▪ Unipolar [conducts suing one type of charges, either electrons or holes; hence N-Channel
and P-Channel types]
▪ Voltage Controlled device
▪ turn-on and turn-off characteristics are controlled through the gate

It operates in two modes:

Depletion Mode {D-MOSFET}: In depletion Mode, a negative gate voltage is applied to
decrease the width of the channel [reduces the conduction of channel]

Enhancement Mode [E-MOSFET]: a positive gate voltage is applied to increase the

width of the channel [increases the conduction of the channel]; which makes it more
suitable in switching applications.

The N-Channel E-MOSFET is most widely used due to higher mobility of electrons than
holes, thus exhibit higher switching speeds.

Structure of power E-MOSFET

The gate is insulated from the channel by a layer of SiO2. It is also called as Insulated
Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET).

V-I drain characteristics of power MOSFETs

Enhancement power MOSFETs are turned ON by applying positive gate voltage and
turned OFF by negative/zero gate voltage.

Comparison of power BJTs vs power MOSFETs

power BJTs power MOSFETs
▪ Lower switching power lose ▪ High switching power loss
▪ Less thermally stable due to negative ▪ more thermally stable due to positive
temperature coefficient of resistance temperature coefficient of resistance. With
increase in temperature, the conduction
resistance increases hence 𝐼𝐷 reduces
resulting to reduction in temperature of
MOSFET.
▪ Higher voltage and current ratings ▪ Lower voltage and current ratings
▪ Lower switching frequencies ▪ Higher switching frequencies
▪ High power applications ▪ Lower power applications
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
Combines the features of power MOSFETs and power BJTs in the following ways:

▪ Structurally, consists of N-channel MOSFET and a PNP BJT.

▪ Has fast switching and high power capability [like power BJTs]

▪ Voltage is control capability [as for power MOSFETs]

▪ high input impedance [like power MOSFET]

▪ low on-state power loss [like power BJT].

▪ Bipolar, giving it better conduction characteristics

Operation
turned ON by applying positive gate voltage and turned OFF by reducing to zero gate
voltage.

a) Circuit Symbol of IGBT b) Equivalent circuit

Power IGBT internal structure
Merits
▪ better conduction characteristics than MOSFETs [due to bipolar conduction]

▪ Much less conduction losses than MOSFETs hence more suitable for high voltage
applications

▪ High switching frequency

▪ Flat temperature coefficient

Demerits of IGBT
Static charge problem

• Costlier than BJT and MOSFET

3. Thyristors
It’s a family of P-N-P-N structured power semiconductor switching devices. Based on
physical construction, turn-on and turn-off capability, thyristors can be broadly
classified as:

1. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCRs)

2. Bidirectional triode thyristors (TRIACs)

3. Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs)

4. MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs)

5. Unijunction transistor (UJT)
 Silicon Controlled rectifier (SCR)
Thyristor switching device that controls power and performs rectification.

Features:
▪ It performs rectification and control of power

▪ Current controlled

▪ Latching device

▪ unidirectional

Structure
Structurally, it combines pn diode and a npn BJT to form a 4-layer pnpn device with 3-
terminals

▪ Gate (G): from the base of the BJT

▪ Anode (A): from the outer p-type material

▪ Cathode (K): from the outer n-type material

(a) SCR internal structure (b) SCR Symbol

SCR Triggering
SCR is unidirectional device and only operates under forward biased conditions
whereby the Anode and Gate are positive with respect to cathode, with anode at higher
positive potential.

It is triggered by applying sufficient gate triggering current.

 SCR modes of operation
1. Reverse blocking mode

2. Forward blocking mode (OFF state)

3. Forward conduction mode (ON state)

SCR characteristics obtained when gate is open

Forward Blocking Mode
▪ SCR is in OFF-state, whereby the forward biasing voltage is less than break over
voltage (𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝐵𝑂 ) ,with no gate signal/gate is open

▪ junctions 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased while 𝐽2 is reverse biased thus SCR offers
high impedance in this mode and thus operates as an open switch.
▪ Forward leakage current flows

Forward Conduction Mode [turn-ON mode]

▪ An SCR can be brought from forward blocking to forward conduction mode when
applied voltage is increased to the breakover voltage, at which junction 𝐽2 breaks
down [with gate open].
▪ The SCR conducts maximum current when its impedance suddenly drops, hence
minimum voltage drop
NB: A more convenient, reliable and efficient method of turning ON an SCR is by
applying sufficient postive gate current [as opposed to increasing supply voltage to
breakover voltage, with gate open]

When the gate current is applied, the thyristor turns on at a voltage less than 𝑉𝐵𝑂 .
The higher the gate current, the lower the forward break over voltage.
Once the forward current exceeds the latching current, the gate current can be
withdrawn and the SCR continues conducting current.
The SCR can return to forward blocking state (OFF-state) if the anode current falls
below the holding current.

Reverse blocking mode:

▪ SCR is reverse biased [with gate open]
▪ Junctions 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are reverse biased, while 𝐽2 is forward biased.
▪ Small reverse leakage current flows
▪ If reverse voltage is increased to reverse breakdown voltage, an avalanche
breakdown occurs at 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 and the reverse current increases rapidly.
▪ Results in increased junction temperature which eventually damages the SCR.

(a) Reverse blocking mode Forward blocking mode

Voltage ratings
Forward breakover voltage (𝑉𝐵𝑂 ): Minimum voltage at which the SCR starts conducting
heavily, with gate Open.

In practice, the SCR is operated with 𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝐵𝑂 , then turned ON by applying a small +𝑣𝑒
current at the gate.

Reverse breakdown voltage: Reverse voltage at which avalache breakdown occurs.

Peak reverse voltage (PRV): The maximum voltage of the negative ½-cycle of a.c. supply.
The peak reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown voltage so as to avoid
avalache breakdown.

Current ratings
Latching current the minimum anode current required to maintain forward conduction.

Once the anode current is above the latching current, the gate loses its control and
conduction continues even if its withdrawn.

Thus, latching current is the minimum threshold for turn ON

Holding current (𝑰𝑯 ): The least value of anode current below which the SCR turns OFF.
Latching current is always greater than holding current.

The holding current is the minimum threshold for turn-OFF.

Gate Current: Controlling current applied to the gate of SCR. It has minimum and
maximum limits.

Forward current (𝑰𝑭 ): The maximum anode current that the SCR conducts without
damage.
If the forward current is exceeded, the SCR gets damaged due to excessive heating at the
junctions.
Check this link for more information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0AgPUikpvpM
For instance, if an SCR has 𝑉𝐵𝑂 = 400𝑉, gate triggering current of 10𝑚𝐴 and holding
current 𝐼𝐻 = 40𝑚𝐴 implies that with no gate pulse applied and supply voltage is less than
breakover voltage (𝑉𝑠 < 400𝑉) the SCR in forward blocking mode; if supply voltage
equals breakover voltage, (𝑉𝑠 = 400𝑉) the SCR turns ON (Forward conduction mode)

If triggering current of 10𝑚𝐴 is applied while 𝑉𝑠 < 400𝑉 the SCR turns ON but if 𝐼𝐺 < 10𝑚𝐴
the SCR is OFF.

If 𝐼𝐺 is increased to a higher value than 10𝑚𝐴 the SCR turns ON at lower supply voltage.
Turning OFF of SCR [Commutation]
The SCR can be turned OFF by reducing the anode current to zero/ below the holding current
in a process called commutation.

Based on commutation voltage, commutation methods are classified into two major
types.

1. Forced commutation
2. Natural commutation

DC commutation voltage is applied to SCR.

In this case, the anode current does not reduce to zero naturally, thus it must be forced to
zero by an external circuit, hence named forced commutation.
Forced commutation can be achieved by various techniques.

Natural commutation occurs when the SCR is under AC supply. At every end of the positive
half cycle the anode current goes through the natural zero current and immediately a reverse
voltage is applied across the SCR.

Application

▪ line commutated inverters

▪ controlled rectifiers
▪ cyclo-converters
 ▪ AC voltage regulators

2. Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTO)

Conventional SCRs are semi-controlled [turned-on by controlled gate current, but turned off
by auxilliary commutation circuits]. The commutation circuits make SCRs bulky and result
to lower switching frequency. GTOs were developed to overcome the flaws in SCRs.

Salient features of GTOs:

▪ turned on by positive gate current [like SCRs] but turned off by a sufficient
negative gate current.
▪ Non-latching devices.

▪ high switching frequency and efficiency

Structure of GTO:

▪ 4-layer PNPN structure, with terminals [Anode (A), cathode (K) and gate (G)].
▪ PNPN layers are doped as p+ np+ n+ (Fig. a)
▪ The n+ layers for Cathode are highly doped for high efficiency
▪ P+ region is moderately doped to attain high emitter efficiency and good
turning off characteristics
▪ The n-region (between 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 ) is very thick and lightly doped for maximum
forward blocking voltage.
▪ For anode, doping of the n+ layer is done over p+ layer by shorting with
metallic contact (anode shorted GTO structure) which reduces the GTO’s
reverse blocking capacity and thus the reverse breakdown voltage

(a)Anode-shorted GTO internal structure (b) 2-transistor equivalent circuit

(c) GTO Circuit symbol
GTO Characteristics

The V-I characteristics of GTO in forward direction are similar to that of SCR, however,
in reverse direction, GTO has virtually no blocking capability, hence conduct in reverse
direction after very small reverse voltage.
Advantages
▪ Higher switching speeds than regular SCR

▪ Reverse voltage blocking efficiency

▪ Can withstand higher voltages and currents than BJT and MOSFET.

▪ reduced acoustic and electromagnetic noise due to the elimination of

commutation chokes
Disadvantage
▪ High negative gate current required for turn off [20% to 30% of anode current].

▪ Higher gate losses than SCRs

Applications of GTOs
▪ traction applications

▪ variable frequency drives (VFDs) for speed control of AC motors.

▪ high-performance drive systems e.g., in robotics, rolling machines, machine tools,

inverter drives, choppers

▪ circuit breakers, induction heating etc.

3. MOS-controlled thyristor [MCT]

They were developed to overcome drawbacks in GTO’s turn-off (high negative turn-off
gate current).

Salient features
▪ turned ON and OFF using MOSFETs.
▪ latching device
▪ high switching frequencies

MCT structure: MCT is basically a thyristor with two MOSFETs, [N-channel and P-
channel] built into the gate. One MOSFET is for turn ON and the other for turn OFF.

N-MCT P-MCT

An MCT equivalent diagram consists of:

▪ NPN and PNP transistors forming NPNP structure

▪ N-channel and P-channel MOSFETs
 (a) Equivalent circuit of P-channel MCT (b) MCT symbol
MCT operation:
Turn-on:
A p-channel MCT can be turned on by a negative gate pulse (𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. anode)
Conversely, an n-channel MCT can be turned on by applying a positive gate pulse
(𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. cathode).
Turn-off: a p-channel MCT is can be turned off by applying a positive gate pulse
(𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. anode).

Conversely, an n-channel MCT can be turned off by applying a negative gate pulse
(𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. cathode).

The MCT can be turned off if its current is less than the peak controllable current,
otherwise, for high currents, commutation circuits are used like for SCRs.

Advantages of MCTs
▪ low forward conduction voltage-drop
▪ High switching speeds
▪ low-switching losses
 ▪ a low reverse voltage blocking capability
▪ high gate input impedance
▪ short delay time due to charge storage

Applications of MCTs
▪ in circuit breaker circuits.
▪ high power converters due to high switching speeds
▪ induction heating UPS systems
▪ in DC to DC converters

4. Triode for Alternating Current (TRIAC)

The major drawback of SCRs is unidirectional control of power. Therefore, it can only
control DC or +1/2 cycles of a.c. power. For effective ac power control, it is desirable to
control both cycles.

A TRIAC is bidirectional device that controls power for the entire cycle of a.c. supply.
However, it does not perform rectification since its bidirectional.

Features of a TRIAC:

▪ Bidirectional device

▪ triggered by gate pulse of either polarity

▪ Controls power for the entire cycle
Structure
It has three terminals:

▪ Main terminal 1 [MT1]

▪ Main terminal 2 [MT2]

▪ gate G.

A Triac is equivalent to two SCRs connected in inverse parallel [Anode of one connected to
cathode of the other with gates commoned] as shown in (a).
 a) Equivalent circuit of a b) internal structure of c) Circuit symbol
TRIAC a TRIAC
TRIAC Operation

TRIAC circuit operation TRIAC output waveform

It can be triggered with either a positive or a negative gate signal depending on the
polarity of the main terminals. The greater the gate current, the smaller the supply
voltage.

Like an SCR, once the TRIAC is triggered into conduction, the gate losses control. It can
be turned OFF by reducing the circuit current to below holding current.

TRIAC Characteristics
Since a TRIAC essentially consists of two SCRs of opposite orientation, its V-I
characteristics in the 1st and 3rd quadrants are identical to SCR, except for the direction
of applied voltage and current.
In normal operation, gate voltage is +ve in 1st quadrant and −ve in 3rd quadrant

Drawbacks: Have considerably lower current handling capabilities.

5. Diode for Alternating Current [DIAC]

a) DIAC internal structure b) DIAC circuit symbol

Structure of a DIAC
It can be constructed in either NPN or PNP. It is similar to a transistor but with the
following differences;
▪ Has two terminals (no base terminal)
▪ Has symmetrical properties, achieved by the three layers being nearly
identical in size and doping concentrations
▪ Bidirectional device

Operation:
DIACs are triggered by either polarity of applied voltage.
When supply 𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝐵𝑂 the DIAC is in forward blocking mode/OFF state [only low leakage
current 𝐼𝐵𝑂 flows]. At 𝑉𝐵𝑂 avalanche breakdown occurs, resulting into negative resistance
whereby current increases with decreasing values of applied voltage upto to ‘breakback’
voltage 𝑽𝒘 .

V-I characteristics of a DIAC

Applications: DIACs are used primarily for triggering of TRIACs in adjustable phase
control of a.c. mains power. They are more reliable and faster.

Other applications are:

i) Light dimming
ii) Heat control
iii) Universal motor speed control
Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Its ‘unijunction’ [one pn junction], three teminal device.

a) UJT internal structure b) UJT circuit symbol

Construction: It consists of an n-type silicon bar, with two terminals, Base 1 and 2 and the
3rd terminal, Emitter (E) from the pn junction [Emitter is closer to 𝐵2 than 𝐵1]

The p-region is heavily doped, n-region is lightly doped, hence there is very high
resistance between 𝐵2 and 𝐵1 when E is open.

Since Emitter is closer to 𝐵2 than 𝐵1, the resistance between 𝐸 and 𝐵1, is greater than
between 𝐵2 and E.

NB: Since two base terminals are from one region, the device is also called double-based
diode.

Operation: 𝐵2 is positive w.r.t. 𝐵1.

UJT is turned ON by positive emitter voltage.

𝑉𝐵𝐵 is applied between 𝐵2 and 𝐵1 with Emitter (E) open. The resistance between 𝐸 and
𝐵1, is greater than between E and 𝐵2.

Greater voltage drop (𝑉1 ) appears across 𝐸 − 𝐵1 , and it reverse biases the pn junction
and Emitter current is cut OFF.[however, a small leakage current flows from 𝐵2 𝑡𝑜 𝐸]
If an increasing +𝑉𝐸 is applied to E, such that 𝑉𝐸 > 𝑉1, it forward biases the pn junction.
Holes move from p-region to n-region, towards 𝐵1 and this decreases the resistance
between 𝐸 and 𝐵1 thus 𝑉1 decreases and 𝐼𝐸 increases. Eventually, the device reaches
saturation [UJT gets to ON state].
If −𝑉𝐸 is applied to E, it reverse biases the pn junction and 𝐼𝐸 is cut-OFF, hence the UJT
gets to OFF state.

Equivalent circuit of UJT

The resistance of the silicon bar is 𝑅𝐵𝐵 .

𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
𝑅𝐵1 : variable resistance between 𝐸 and 𝐵1 [depends on the bias voltage across the pn
junction]

𝑅𝐵2 : resistance between 𝐸 and 𝐵2

Voltage across 𝑅𝐵1 i.e. 𝑉𝐵1;

𝑅𝐵1
𝑉𝐵1 = 𝑉
𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2 𝐵𝐵
 𝑉𝐵1 𝑅𝐵1
= =𝜂
𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑉
The ratio 𝜂 = 𝑉 𝐵1 is called intrinsic stand-off ratio 𝜂 [usally lies between 0.51 < 𝜂 < 0.82]
𝐵𝐵

∴ 𝑉𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵
Let 𝑉𝐷 be the forward voltage drop across the pn junction of the silicon diode ≈ 0.7𝑉 and 𝑉𝐸 is
Emitter voltage.

If 𝑉𝐸 < 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 ;pn junction is reverse biased, 𝐼𝐸 = 0 (𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓) ∴the UJT is OFF

If 𝑉𝐸 > 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 ; pn junction is forward biased, 𝐼𝐸 is saturated; ∴the UJT is ON

When the diode D starts conducting, holes are injected from p-type material to the n-
type bar, towards 𝐵1.

▪ resistance 𝑅𝐵1 between Emiter 𝐸 and 𝐵1 decreases

▪ hence 𝑉𝐵1 decreases
▪ 𝐼𝐸 increases regeneratively [until limited by 𝑉𝐸 ]
Example: The Figure below shows a UJT circuit whose parameters are 𝜂 = 0.65; 𝑅𝐵𝐵 =
7𝑘𝛺; 𝑉𝑠 = 12𝑉. Determine:

i) 𝑅𝐵1 and 𝑅𝐵2

ii) 𝑉𝐵1𝐵2
iii) Peak point voltage if 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑉
 i) 𝑅𝐵1 and 𝑅𝐵2
𝑅𝐵1
𝜂=
𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 0.65 × 7𝑘𝛺 = 4.55𝑘𝛺
𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅𝐵𝐵 − 𝑅𝐵1 = 7𝑘𝛺 − 4.55𝑘𝛺 = 2.45𝑘𝛺
ii) 𝑉𝐵1𝐵2
𝑉𝑆 12
𝑉𝐵1𝐵2 = 𝑅𝐵𝐵 = × 7000𝛺 = 11.2𝑉
𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (100 + 400 + 7000)𝛺
iii) The voltage 𝑉𝑝 required to turn ON the UJT is;
𝑉𝑃 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵1𝐵2 + 𝑉𝐷 = 0.65 × 11.2 + 0.7 = 7.98𝑉

Characterisitics of UJT
 Output curve between 𝑉𝐸 and 𝐼𝐸 at given 𝑉𝐵𝐵

Initially when 𝑉𝐸 < 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 [cut off region], leakage current flows from 𝐵2 to Emitter
E.

When 𝑉𝐸 > 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 , 𝐼𝐸 increases up to a point P where 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝑃 corresponds to 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑃

Beyond P, with increase in 𝐼𝐸 , 𝑉𝐸 decreases [Negative resistance portion] up to valley

point V where 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 and 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉

Beyond the valley point, the device is driven into saturation.

UJT characteristics with varying 𝑉𝐵𝐵

𝑉𝑃 and 𝑉𝑣 decreases with decreasing 𝑉𝐵𝐵

𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: 𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑉
Example 1: Consider the following UJT characteristic values:
𝜂 = 0.4; 𝑉𝑉 = 1.2𝑉; 𝐼𝑉 = 15𝑚𝐴; 𝐼𝑃 = 26𝜇𝐴; 𝑉𝑃 = 17.5𝑉
Determine the range of 𝑅1 for proper UJT turn-ON and turn -OFF.

𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑃 30𝑉 − 17.5𝑉

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 480.769𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑃 26𝜇𝐴
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉 30𝑉 − 1.2𝑉
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 1.920𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑉 15𝑚𝐴

Example: The UJT circuit in Fig. below has the following parameters:
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 5𝑘𝛺; 𝜂 = 0.6
Determine:

i) 𝑅𝐵1 and 𝑅𝐵2 at 𝐼𝐸 = 0

ii) The voltage 𝑉𝑝 necessary to turn ON the UJT

iii) The frequency of oscillations

i) 𝑅𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 0.6 × 5𝑘𝛺 = 𝟑𝒌𝜴

𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅𝐵𝐵 − 𝑅𝐵1 = 5𝑘𝛺 − 3𝑘𝛺 = 𝟐𝒌𝜴
ii) 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠( 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅2 )
( 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅2 )𝑉𝑆 (3 + 0.1)𝑘𝛺
= 𝑉𝐷 + = 0.7𝑉 + × 12𝑉
(𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐵 ) (5 + 0.1)𝑘𝛺
𝑉𝑃 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟒𝑽
1 1
iii) 𝑡 = 𝑅1 𝐶 ln 1−𝜂 = 50 × 103 𝛺 × 0.1 × 10−6 × ln 1−0.6 = 4.58 × 10−3 𝑠

1
𝑓= = 𝟐𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕𝑯𝒛
4.58 × 10−3 𝑠
THYRISTOR PROTECTION
Protection of a device is necessary for reliable and efficient operation. The SCR should
be operated within specified ratings to get desired output.

The risks that affect thyristor operation are:

▪ Overvoltage

▪ Overcurrent

▪ High 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡

▪ High 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡

▪ Overheating
1. Over-voltage protection
A thyristor may be subjected to internal or external overvoltage transients.

Internal over voltage occurs during switching operation. After commutation, the
reverse recovery current (due to stored charges) decays abruptly, with high 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡,
𝑑𝑖
causing high reverse voltage [according to 𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡]; which may exceed the rated break-
over voltage causing damage to the device.

External over voltages are caused by various factors in the supply line feeding the
thyristor system e.g., lighting strokes, surge conditions etc. These may lead to increased
leakage current, permanent breakdown of junctions, unwanted triggering, etc.
Protective measures:
1. use of RC circuits

2. Voltage clamping device (e.g., metal oxide varistor): which is a nonlinear resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing voltages.

During normal operation, the clamping device offers high resistance. When voltage surge
occurs, it offers a low resistance, creating a virtual short circuit across the SCR, hence
clamping the voltage across the SCR to a safe value.
2. Over current protection
Causes: Circuit faults e.g., continuous overloads, prolonged surge currents etc.

Over-currents increase 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss causing the junction temperatures to rise above the
rated value, hence permanently damaging the device.
Protective measures:
✓ Circuit breakers: protect against continuous overloads and prolonged surge
currents.

✓ Fast acting fuses: protect against surge currents of very short duration
✓ Electronic crowbar
3. Heat protection
To protect SCRs from the local hot spots and junction temperature rise, they are mounted
over heat sinks using different mounting techniques {lead mounting, stud, bolt-down,
press fit, press-pack mounting etc.}
4. Gate circuit protection
Gate circuit should also be protected from over-voltages and over-currents.

Overvoltage and noise signals across the gate circuit causes the false triggering of SCR
while overcurrent raises the junction temperature.
Protective measures:
▪ Overvoltage gate protection is by Zener diode across the gate circuit.

▪ Over current protection is by a resistor

▪ noise protection is by a parallel RC circuit.

▪ A diode protects against high reverse voltage.

5. High 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 protection

During triggering, when the rise of anode current (di/dt) is greater than mobility of
charge carriers through the junction, it leads to localized heat generation (hotspots).
Similarly, after commutation, the reverse recovery current decays abruptly, with high
𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡, leading to local hot spots which may damage the thyristor.

Protective measure: use of series inductor which prevents high rate of change of
current through it.

6. High 𝒅𝑽/𝒅𝒕 protection

When the thyristor is in forward blocking state, the reverse biased junction forms a
capacitor [𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡]. Leakage currents through the junction increase with increase in
𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑡 (rate of change of applied voltage across thyristor) leading to unexpected
triggering (i.e., without gate pulse).

Protective measure: Use of snubber circuit

Fig. snubber circuit

When the switch S is closed, the snubber circuit initially acts as a short circuit, thus
making the voltage drop across the thyristor to be zero. Then the voltage across C rises
at a slow rate as it charges, hence the 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑡 of the SCR will be maintained within
specified range.

A high value series resistor (R) limits the capacitor’s discharging current through the
thyristor when its gate-triggered, which may destroy the thyristor.
AC-to-DC Converters
Rectification is the process of ▪ a center-tapped transformer circuit
conversion of alternating (a.c.) input uses two thyristors
power to direct (dc) output power.
▪ full bridge rectifier circuit uses 4
Rectifiers are of two types: thyristors

1. uncontrolled rectifiers use Single Phase rectification: rectifies

diodes for power conversion single phase AC input power

2. controlled rectifiers use ▪ Half-Wave rectification with

thyristors for power conversion Resistive and Resistive-inductive
loads
Forms of rectifiers:
▪ Full-Wave rectification with
i) Half-wave rectifier: uses a single Resistive and Resistive-inductive
device [diode/Thyristor] for loads
rectification and produce half cycles
of input AC and hence Three-phase rectification: rectifies three
unidirectional current. It provides phase AC input power supply
low DC output. ▪ Half-Wave rectification with
ii) Full- wave rectifiers: produce Resistive and Resistive-inductive
bidirectional current by conducting loads
in both ±1/2 cycles of ac input. ▪ Full-Wave rectification with
They provide high level DC output Resistive and Resistive-inductive
Can be in two configurations; loads
 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
1. Uncontrolled Rectification with Resistive Loads
A diode converts bi-directional ac input current into unidirectional output current by
conducting half cycles of a.c. input cycle and eliminating the other 1/2 cycles.

Fig. 1 single-phase half-wave rectifier configuration with +1/2 cycles output

The circuit of Fig. 1 produces +1/2 cycles of ac input when the diode is forward biased
and eliminates −1/2 cycles when the diode is reverse biased. By reversing the direction
of the diode, it passes −1/2 cycles and eliminates +1/2 cycles.

For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase.

2. Controlled Rectification with Resistive Loads

While an ordinary diode-based rectifier conducts in the entire positive 1/2 cycle, an
SCR rectifier can conduct full or part of the 1/2 cycles by proper adjustment of the gate
current, hence controlled rectification.

The angle at which the output waveform is controlled is called triggering angle (𝜶)
 Fig. 2 (i) Half wave SCR rectifier circuit (ii) Input-output Wave forms
▪ During the +𝒗𝒆 1⁄2 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆: the SCR turns ON at firing angle 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼, conducting
till the end of the +𝑣𝑒 1⁄2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 up to 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋.

▪ The angle through which the SCR conducts continually is conduction angle (𝛽);

𝛽 = 180° − 𝛼
▪ During the −𝒗𝒆 1⁄2 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 : the SCR is reverse biased. The voltage across the
Load 𝑉𝑜 is zero.

The average DC voltage and current for R-loads

Let 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 instanteneous supply voltage. The average DC output voltage is given
by area under the curve during conduction period.

Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)

1 180° 1 180°
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 𝛼
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= [−cos 𝜔𝑡]180°
0 = [−cos 𝜔𝑡]180°
𝛼
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = − (cos 180° − cos 𝛼)
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑚
= (cos 𝛼 − cos 180°)
𝜋
 𝑽𝒂𝒗 𝑉𝑚 [Since cos 180° = −1]
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = =
𝑹𝑳 𝜋𝑹𝑳
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = (𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶)
𝟐𝝅
𝑽𝒂𝒗
𝑰𝒂𝒗 =
𝑹𝑳
If 𝛼 = 0° the whole portion of the half
wave appears across the load 𝑅𝐿 and the
average current is;
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 0) =
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝜋𝑅𝐿
If 𝛼 = 90°;
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 90°) =
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 2𝜋𝑅𝐿
Thus, the greater the firing angle, the smaller
the average current 𝐼𝑎𝑣 .

RMS voltage and current

The 𝒓𝒎𝒔 value is the square root of the average values of the squares of instantaneous
voltages or currents.

Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)

1 180 2 2 1 𝜋 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 2 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 2
∴ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 ∴ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡

= ∫ 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 2 2𝜋 𝛼 2
𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋
= [𝜔𝑡 − ] = [𝜔𝑡 − ]
4𝜋 2 0 4𝜋 2 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 2 2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋

= [ ] = [ ]
4𝜋 2 0 4𝜋 2 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2
= [2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡]𝜋0
8𝜋
 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝑉𝑚 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (2𝜋) = [2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡]𝜋𝛼
8𝜋 8𝜋
𝑽𝒎 𝑉𝑚 2
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = (2(𝜋 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼)
𝟐 8𝜋
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 Since sin 2𝜋 = 0
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑹𝑳

𝑷 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

2(𝜋 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼
𝑫𝑪 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑉𝑚 2 ( )
= 8𝜋
𝒂. 𝒄. 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝟐(𝝅 − 𝜶) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎 √
𝟖𝝅

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑹

Example 1: A 1⁄2 wave SCR rectifier sin 𝜃 = 0.5

circuit is fed by a gate current 𝐼𝑔 = 1𝑚𝐴. The
𝛼 = 𝜃 = 30°
breakover voltage is 100𝑉. If the a.c. input
voltage of 200𝑉 peak is applied and the load ii) Conduction angle;
resistance 𝑅𝐿 = 100𝛺, and holding current 𝛽 = 180° − 𝛼 = 180° − 30° = 150°
𝐼𝐻 = 0, Calculate:
iii) Average current;
i) The firing angle
𝑉𝑚
ii) Conduction angle 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
2𝜋𝑅𝐿
iii) Average current 200
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 30°)
2𝜋(100)
Solution
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟎𝑨
𝑣𝐵𝑂 = 100𝑉; 𝑉𝑚 = 200𝑉
Example 2: An SCR ½-wave rectifier has a
i) Firing angle (𝛼);
forward breakdown voltage of 150V when a
The SCR fires at break-over gate current of 1mA flows in the gate circuit.
voltage; If a sinusoidal voltage of 400V peak is
applied, determine:
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃
i) Firing angle
100 = 200 sin 𝜃
 ii) Average output voltage

iii) Average current for 𝑅𝐿 = 200𝛺

iv) Power output

Solution
𝑣 = 150𝑉; 𝑉𝑚 = 400𝑉; 𝑅𝐿 = 200𝛺
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃
150 = 400 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 0.375 𝑣 = 240 𝑠𝑖𝑛 314𝑡

i) Firing angle (𝛼); 𝑣 = 180𝑉; 𝑉𝑚 = 240𝑉

𝛼 = 𝜃 = 22° 180 = 240 𝑠𝑖𝑛 314𝑡

180
ii) Average output voltage 𝑠𝑖𝑛 314𝑡 = = 0.75
240
𝑉𝑚 400
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 𝛼) = (1 + cos 22) 314𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 0.75 = 48.59° = 0.848𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 122.69𝑉 0.848𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑡= = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔
iii) Average current 314
Example 4: Calculate the value of peak load
𝑉𝑎𝑣 122.69𝑉
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑅𝐿
=
200𝛺
= 0.6134𝐴 current (𝐼𝑚 ) in a 1⁄2 -wave SCR rectifier, if
the average load current (𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 1𝐴) at a
iv) Output power firing angle of 30°.
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣 × 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 122.69 × 0.6134𝐴 Solution
𝑃𝑜 = 75.258𝑊 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
Example 3: An a.c. voltage
𝑣= 2𝜋𝑅𝐿
1
240 𝑠𝑖𝑛 314𝑡 is applied to an SCR ⁄2 − 𝑉𝑚
Since 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅𝐿
wave rectifier. If the SCR has a forward
breakover voltage of 180V, find the time 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
during which the SCR is in OFF state. 2𝜋
Solution 2𝜋𝐼𝑎𝑣 2𝜋 × 1
𝐼𝑚 = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟏𝑨
1 + cos 𝛼 1 + cos 30
The SCR remains OFF till the voltage across
it reaches 180V Example 5: The power of a 100W, 110V
tungsten lamp is to be varied by controlling
the firing angle of an SCR half-wave rectifier
circuit, supplied with 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 110𝑉. If the
firing angle is 𝛼 = 60°, determine the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ii) Peak inverse voltage
voltage and current in the lamp.

Solution 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 230 × = 23𝑉
The ac voltage is given by; 10

𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑉𝑚 (𝑠𝑒𝑐) = √2 × 23𝑉 = 23√2

𝛼 = 60°; 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 110𝑉 𝑉𝑚 23√2

𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝑽
𝜋 𝜋
2(𝜋 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 √ 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝟐𝟑√𝟐𝑽
8𝜋
Example 2: A half-wave diode rectifier
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2 = 110 × √2 = 155.56𝑉 is supplied with 𝑣 = 50 sin 𝜔𝑡 and load
𝛼 = 60° = 𝜋/3 resistance 𝑅𝐿 = 800𝛺, determine:

i) Average current
2(𝜋 − 𝜋/3) + sin 2(60°)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 155.56√ ii) rms current
8𝜋
iii) DC output voltage
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑽
iv) Ac power input and DC power
Rms current:
output
𝑉2 1102
𝑅𝐿 = = = 121𝛺 v) Efficiency of rectification
𝑃 100𝑊
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 69.765 Solution
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
𝑅𝐿 121 𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝑉𝑚 50
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟗𝑨
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔𝟔𝑨 𝑅𝐿 𝜋𝑅𝐿 800𝜋
𝑉𝑚
Diode Rectifier examples 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Example 1: The circuit in Fig. is supplied 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚 50 𝟏
with ac voltage of 230V through a 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = = 𝑨
𝑅𝐿 2𝑅𝐿 2(800) 𝟑𝟐
transformer of turn ratio 10: 1. Determine:
50 50
i) The output DC voltage 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = × = 0.3166𝑊
𝜋 800𝜋
 1
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =× 25
32
= 0.78125𝑊
𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 0.3166𝑊
ɳ= =
𝑎. 𝑐. 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 0.78125𝑊
= 𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟑%
SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION WITH
RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE [RL] LOADS

1. UNCONTROLLED Rectification

▪ During +𝑣𝑒 1⁄2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 from 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋 , the diode conducts, hence inductor (L)
stores energy [charges] and inductive current 𝐼𝐿 gradually increases up to
maximum.
▪ When the supply changes polarity, the diode is reverse biased, inductor gets
disconnected, but inductive current continues flowing [due to self-inductance
voltage that’s in opposite polarity to supply voltage], until the inductor
completely discharges [𝐼𝑜 = 0] at 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛽.
▪ 𝑉𝐿 reverses polarity from 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛽 where it drops to zero.
▪ From 𝛽 to 2𝜋, the diode is OFF (discontinuity)
 2. CONTROLLED rectification

Fig. Single-phase ½-wave controlled rectifier circuit with RL load

𝑉𝑠 : Source voltage

𝑉𝐿 : Load voltage

𝐼𝐿 : Load current

𝑉𝑇 : Thyristor voltage

During +𝑣𝑒 1⁄2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒, the SCR starts to conducts at 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼

▪ From 𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝛽 , 𝑉𝑜 increases to maximum then reduces to zero at 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, then

reverses polarity from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 𝛽 at the onset of −𝑣𝑒 1⁄2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

When the supply changes polarity, the diode is reverse biased, inductor gets
disconnected, but inductive current continues flowing [due to self-inductance
voltage that’s in opposite polarity to supply voltage], until the inductor completely
discharges current at 𝛽
▪ From 𝛽 to 2𝜋, the SCR turns OFF [natural commutation]
▪ The angle 𝛽 (where 𝐼𝑜 = 0 )is called extinction angle; and 𝜸 = 𝛽 − 𝛼
conduction angle

▪ At 𝜔𝑡 = (2𝜋 + 𝛼), the cycle continues

The average DC voltage and current
Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)
1 𝛽 1 𝛽
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 0 𝑚 2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑽𝒎
= [−cos 𝜔𝑡]𝛽0 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷)
2𝜋 𝟐𝝅
𝑽𝒎 Since the average load current is a DC value,
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛃)
𝟐𝝅 it is determined by dividing 𝑉𝑎𝑣 /𝑅𝐿 rather
than impedance Z.
 𝑽𝒂𝒗 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷)
𝑹𝑳 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑳

RMS voltage and current for the Load

Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)

1 𝛽 1 𝛽
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ ∫ (𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡))2 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ ∫ (𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡))2 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 0 𝑚 2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

1 𝛽 2 2 1 𝛽 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = ∫ 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = ∫ 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 𝑚 2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 2 𝛽 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝛽 2
= ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 𝛽 𝑉𝑚 2 𝛽
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡 ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡
4𝜋 0 4𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝛽 𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝛽

= [𝜔𝑡 − ] = [𝜔𝑡 − ]
4𝜋 2 0 4𝜋 2 𝛼

2 𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝛽 − 0 𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝛽 − sin 2𝛼

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ((𝛽 − 0) − ( )) = ((𝛽 − 𝛼) − ( ))
4𝜋 2 4𝜋 2

2𝛽 + sin 2𝛽 2(𝛽 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼 − sin 2𝛽

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = 𝑉𝑚 2 ( ) = 𝑉𝑚 2 ( )
8𝜋 8𝜋

𝟐𝜷 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷 𝟐(𝜷 − 𝜶) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎 √ 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎 √
𝟖𝝅 𝟖𝝅
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = =
𝒁 √𝑹𝟐 + (𝝎𝑳)𝟐 𝒁 √𝑹𝟐 + (𝝎𝑳)𝟐
Power delivered to the resistive load

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
The load current (𝒊𝒐 )
𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑖𝑆 = 𝑖𝑜 =
√𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝐿/ 𝑅)
𝜑: Angle by which 𝑖𝑜 lags 𝑉𝑜

3. SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE

RECTIFICATION WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
1. Uncontrolled Rectification
During the +𝟏/𝟐 of input cycle, [a is + w.r.t. b] diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased
while D3 and D4 are reverse biased.

During the −𝟏/𝟐 of input cycle, [a is - w.r.t. b] diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased
while D1 and D2 are reverse biased.

The peak inverse voltage in each case is 𝑉𝑚 .

For a resistive load, voltages and currents are in phase.

2. Controlled Rectification

Fig. Single phase full-wave bridge rectifier with resistive load

Input-Output voltage
During the +𝟏/𝟐 half cycle, SCRs (𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ) are forward biased thus triggered at 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼.

At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, when supply voltage drops to zero and changes polarity, (𝑇1 , 𝑇2 ) commutate
naturally. Current becomes discontinuous up to (𝜋 + 𝛼), where SCRs 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 (forward
biased) are triggered during the −𝟏/𝟐 half cycle and conduct up to 2𝜋; and the cycle
continues.
Applications:
 ▪ battery charging
▪ speed control of DC motors
▪ front end of UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
▪ SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply)

The average DC voltage and current

Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)
1 180° 1 180°
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝛼
𝑉𝑚
= [−cos 𝜃]180°
0
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝟐𝑽𝒎 = [−cos 𝜔𝑡]180°
𝛼
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝜋
𝝅
𝑉𝑚
= − (cos 180° − cos 𝛼)
𝜋
𝑽𝒂𝒗 𝟐𝑽𝒎 𝑉𝑚
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = = 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = (cos 𝛼 − cos 180°)
𝑹𝑳 𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝜋
[Since cos 180° = −1]
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝟏)
𝝅
𝑽𝒂𝒗
𝑰𝒂𝒗 =
𝑹𝑳

RMS voltage and current

Uncontrolled rectification (diodes) Controlled rectification (SCR)

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑚 2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑚 2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝛼

2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 2 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 2
∴ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 ∴ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 2 𝜋 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡

= ∫ 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 2 𝜋 𝛼 2

𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋

= [𝜔𝑡 − ] = [𝜔𝑡 − ]
2𝜋 2 0 2𝜋 2 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 2 2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋

= [ ] = [ ]
2𝜋 2 0 2𝜋 2 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 2 𝑉𝑚 2
= [2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡]𝜋0 = [2𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡]𝜋𝛼
4𝜋 4𝜋

2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝑉𝑚 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (2𝜋) = = (2(𝜋 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼)
4𝜋 2 4𝜋
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟐(𝝅 − 𝜶) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎 √
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟒𝝅
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑹𝑳
 𝑷 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑹𝑳

Example 1: An SCR full wave rectifier supplies a load of 100𝛺. If the peak ac voltage between
the centre tap and one end of secondary is 200𝑉,and firing angle 𝛼 = 60° find;

i) d.c. output voltage

ii) dc load current
𝑉𝑚 = 200𝑉 𝛼 = 60°; 𝑅𝐿 = 100𝛺
i) Dc output voltage;
𝑉𝑚 200
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = (cos 𝛼 + 1) = (cos 60° + 1) = 95.49𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
ii) Load current
𝑉𝑎𝑣 95.49𝑉
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = = 0.9549𝐴
𝑅𝐿 100𝛺
Example 2: A full wave controlled bridge rectifier has an ac input of 120𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 at
60Hz,𝑅 = 20𝛺, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 40°. Determine;

i) The average load current

ii) The power absorbed by the load.
iii) Input power factor
Solution

𝑉𝑚 120√2
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = (cos 𝛼 + 1) = (cos 40° + 1) = 95.4𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
i) Load current
𝑉𝑎𝑣 95.4𝑉
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝑨
𝑅𝐿 20𝛺
ii) The power absorbed by the load.

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑃=
𝑅

2(𝜋 − 𝛼) + sin 2𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 √
4𝜋

2
𝛼 = 40° = 𝜋
9
2
√2 (𝜋 − 9 𝜋) + sin 2(40)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 120√2 = 116𝑉
4𝜋
1162
𝑃= = 𝟔𝟕𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝑾
20
iii) Input power factor
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
NB: rms load current equals source current
 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 116𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 5.8𝐴
𝑅𝐿 20𝛺
672.85𝑊
𝑝𝑓 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟕
120𝑉 × 5.8
Exercise

Given that an ac input of 120𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is fed at 60Hz, 𝑅 = 20𝛺, Determine;

i) The average load voltage and current

ii) The rms voltage and current
iii) The input and output power
 Three-Phase Rectification
3-phase rectification is the process of remains reverse biased by the other
converting a balanced 3-phase ac power conducting phase. The triggering angle
supply into a fixed DC supply using is thus measured from the cross-over
diodes or SCRs. point 𝜔𝑡 = 30° (𝜋/6) with respect to the
corresponding phase voltage.
1. Controlled
As compared to single phase rectifiers,
Rectification 3-phase rectifiers have much less ripple
The circuit combines three single phase content on output voltages, and supply
half wave SCRs (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 ) in one larger loads.
single circuit feeding a common load. The reference phase voltage is 𝑉𝐴𝑁 =
The circuit is in the midpoint 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
configuration since all the phase
voltages have a common neutral 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
point/midpoint. The Load is connected 2𝜋
𝑉𝐶𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
to the neutral point. 3
The supply phase windings are A-N B- 4𝜋
𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
N and C-N 3

Loading conditions shall be considered For any triggering angle 𝛼;

for purely resistive and highly SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = (30° +
inductive loads. 𝛼 ) 𝑡𝑜 (150° + 𝛼 )
SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = (150° +
𝛼 ) 𝑡𝑜 (270° + 𝛼 )
SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = (270° +
𝛼 ) 𝑡𝑜 (390° + 𝛼 )
When SCR 𝑇1 is triggered at 𝜔t = 30° +
𝛼, it conducts current (𝐼𝑑 ) through 𝑇1 −
R − N − A and the phase voltage 𝑉𝐴𝑁
appears across the load.

When SCR 𝑇2 is triggered at 𝜔t = 150° +

𝛼, the load current flows through SCR
Fig. 1 𝑇2 − 𝑅 − 𝑁 − 𝐵 so that the phase voltage
𝑉𝐵𝑁 appears across the load.
Operation
When the SCR 𝑇3 is triggered at 𝜔t =
Only one SCR conducts at any given 270° + 𝛼, [SCR 𝑇2 turns off], current
instant, the one connected to the highest flows through 𝑇3 − 𝑅 − 𝑁 − 𝐶 and phase
instantaneous phase voltage. Each SCR voltage 𝑉𝐶𝑁 appears across the load.
conducts for 1/3 of the cycle (𝟏𝟐𝟎°)
before the next is triggered. No SCR can When SCR 𝑇1 is triggered again at the
be triggered below 𝜔𝑡 = 30° since it beginning of the next input cycle SCR 𝑇3
turns off.
 Fig. 2
If 𝜶 = 𝟎° SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
270° 𝑡𝑜 390° [Fig. 3]
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = 30° 𝑡𝑜 150°

SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =

150° 𝑡𝑜 270°

Fig. 3
If 𝜶 = 𝟏𝟓° SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
285° 𝑡𝑜 405° [Fig. 4]
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = 45° 𝑡𝑜 165°

SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =

165° 𝑡𝑜 285°
 Fig. 4
If 𝜶 = 𝟑𝟎° SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
300° 𝑡𝑜 420° [Fig. 5]
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = 60° 𝑡𝑜 180°

SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =

180° 𝑡𝑜 300°

Fig. 5
If 𝜶 = 𝟔𝟎° SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
330° 𝑡𝑜 450° [Fig. 6]
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = 90° 𝑡𝑜 210°

SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =

210° 𝑡𝑜 330°

Fig. 6
Fig. Discontinuous load current for purely CASE 2: Highly inductive load
resistive load for 𝛼 > 30°
If 𝜶 = 𝟔𝟎°
Therefore, for purely resistive loads, for
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t = 90° 𝑡𝑜 210°
𝜶 ≤ 𝟑𝟎°, the output voltages and
currents are continuous. However, for SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
𝜶 > 𝟑𝟎° the load current is 210° 𝑡𝑜 330°
discontinuous due to the large delay
SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
angle when the SCR turns off.
330° 𝑡𝑜 450° [Fig. 7]
 Fig. 7
If 𝜶 = 𝟗𝟎° SCR 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
240° 𝑡𝑜 360°
SCR 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
120° 𝑡𝑜 240° SCR 𝑇3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔t =
360° 𝑡𝑜 480° [Fig. 8]

Fig. 8
3𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = [cos(30 + 𝛼) − cos(150 + 𝛼)]
2𝜋
Fig. Continuous voltage for highly
inductive load at 𝜶 = 𝟗𝟎° Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛B
Therefore, for highly inductive loads,
3𝑉𝑚
the output voltage and currents are 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = [(cos 30 cos 𝛼 − sin 30 sin 𝛼)
continuous for any triggering angle. 2𝜋
− (cos 150 cos 𝛼
Average load voltage and load current − sin 150 sin 𝛼 )]

For purely resistive load when α < 30° Since cos 150 = − cos 30 = −√3/2 and
and for highly inductive loads for any 𝜶, sin 150 = 0.5
load voltage will be continuous;
3𝑉𝑚 √3 1
150+𝛼 = [( cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼)
3 2𝜋 2 2
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 30+𝛼 𝑚 √3 1
− (− cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼)]
3𝑉𝑚 150+𝛼 2 2
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 30+𝛼 3𝑉𝑚 √3
3𝑉𝑚 [2 ( cos 𝛼)]
= [− cos 𝜔𝑡]150+𝛼
30+𝛼
2𝜋 2
2𝜋
 𝟑√𝟑𝑽𝒎 3 180
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋 30+𝛼 𝑚
In terms of maximum line voltage 3𝑉𝑚
= [−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡]180
(𝑉𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) ) 2𝜋 30+𝛼

3𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = √3𝑉𝑚 = [cos(30 + 𝛼) − cos 180]
2𝜋
𝟑𝑽𝑳(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
∴ 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 180 = 1
𝟐𝝅
𝟑𝑽𝒎
In terms of line voltage (𝑽𝑳 ) 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟑𝟎 + 𝜶) + 𝟏]
𝟐𝝅
𝑉𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = √2𝑉𝐿
√𝟑𝑽𝑳(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
= [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟑𝟎 + 𝜶) + 𝟏]
𝟑√𝟐𝑽𝑳 𝟐𝝅
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝟐𝝅
For R load with α > 30°

2. Uncontrolled rectification
The circuit diagram and current flow for uncontrolled rectifier is similar to that of
controlled rectifier. The SCR is replaced by the diode. Each diode conducts during 1/3
of the cycle. When one diode conducts, the other two remain reverse biased.

The primary winding could be in a star or delta connection while secondary winding is
in star connection.

The DC voltage fluctuates between 𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 1/2𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The rectified voltage never falls
to 0V as with single phase rectification.

3-phase Full-wave Rectification

Controlled Rectifier with R & RL load
The circuit consists of 3-positive group SCRs (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟑 , 𝑻𝟓 ) and 3-negative group SCRs
(𝑻𝟒 , 𝑻𝟔 , 𝑻𝟐 ). The Load is considered in two cases, for purely resistive (R) or highly inductive
load.
 Fig. Full wave Bridge rectifier

The reference phase voltage is 𝑉𝑅𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.

One SCR from the positive group conducts alternately with another SCR from the
negative group,
[𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟏 ] [𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 ] [𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 ], [𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 ], [𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟓 ], [𝑻𝟓 𝑻𝟔 ]
𝑉𝑅𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 {𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟒 }
𝑉𝑌𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 120) {𝑻𝟑 , 𝑻𝟔 }
𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 240) {𝑻𝟓 , 𝑻𝟐 }
▪ Each SCR is triggered after 𝟔𝟎° [alternately from positive and negative
group].
▪ Each SCR conducts for 𝟏𝟐𝟎°.
▪ The voltage across the load is the line voltage [difference between two phase
voltages].
▪ The duration of source current for each cycle is 240°
For 𝜶 = 𝟎 at the first cross over point 𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 90° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(90 − 240)
𝜔𝑡 = 30 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎
𝑇1 is triggered, thus 𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟔 conducting at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°; [𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 ]conducting
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 30° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(30 − 120) 𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 120° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(120 − 240)
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎 = √𝟑𝑽𝒎
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟔𝟎°; [𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟏 ] conducting at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎°; 𝑻𝟑 is triggered, (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑶𝑭𝑭)
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 [𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 ]conducting
𝑉𝑅𝑦 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 60° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(60 − 120) 𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝑌𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
= √𝟑𝑽𝒎 𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(150° − 120°)
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟗𝟎°; 𝑇2 is triggered, [𝑇6 − OFF] − 𝑉𝑚 sin(150 − 240)
hence [𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 ]conducting 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
 𝑇1 𝑇3 𝑇5
𝑇6 𝑇2 𝑇4
√𝟑𝑽𝒎 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎

For 𝜶 = 𝟑𝟎° at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°; 𝑻𝟐 is triggered,

thus[𝑇1 𝑇2 ]conducting
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟔𝟎°; [𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟏 ] conducting
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 120° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(120 − 240)
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 60° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(60 − 120)
√𝟑
= √𝟑𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽
𝟐 𝒎
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟗𝟎°; 𝟔 𝑻𝟏 ]conducting
[𝑻
For 𝜶 = 𝟑𝟎°, √𝟑𝑽𝒎 < 1.5𝑽𝒎 <
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 90° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(90 − 120) √𝟑𝑽𝒎 ⁄𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎

At 𝜶 = 𝟔𝟎° 𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 90° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(90 − 120)

at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟗𝟎°; [𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟏 ] conducting = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°; [𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟔 ]conducting
 𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 120° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(120 − 120)
√𝟑𝑽𝒎
=
𝟐
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎°; 𝑻𝟐 is triggered
[𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 ]conducting
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 150° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(150 − 240)
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽𝒎
at 𝛚𝐭 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°; 𝑻𝟐 is triggered
[𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 ]conducting
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 180° − 𝑉𝑚 sin(180 − 240)
√𝟑𝑽𝒎
=
𝟐
For 𝛼 ≤ 60 [for R-load] and for any 𝛼 [for L- load]

6 90+𝛼
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 30+𝛼 𝑅𝑌

𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑚𝑙 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 30)

6 90+𝛼
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 30) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 30+𝛼 𝑚𝑙

3𝑉𝑚𝑙 3√2𝑉𝑙
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛼
𝜋 𝜋
Check this link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYmd3KKfCQQ
DC choppers (DC to DC power converters)
A dc chopper is a device that converts Structure
constant DC voltage to variable DC
voltage. Advantages

▪ Power saving

▪ High Efficiency

▪ Fast response

▪ Lower maintenance

▪ Small size

▪ Smooth Control Basic step-down chopper circuit

▪ Lower cost than other converters It consists of power semiconductor

[Like motor-generator sets or gas switching device [SCR, power diode,
tubes] power BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, MCT
etc.], power supply, RLC elements, load
Applications and a freewheeling diode that provides
▪ Trolley cars a path for load current when the switch
is OFF. The inductor filters out ripples
▪ Battery operated vehicles in the load current.
▪ Tranction motor control Principle of operation
▪ Control of multiple DC motors, Average voltage is controlled by
induction motors, marine hoists, varying the duty cycle [ON and OFF
forklift trucks and mine haulers period] of the switch.

Step-down choppers
Output voltage and current waveforms
When the switch is ON, output voltage
appears across the load. When the
switch is OFF, load current flows
through the freewheeling diode 𝐷𝐹 thus
shorting the load voltage to 0V. A
chopped DC voltage is produced.
When the switch is ON, the inductor
Step-up choppers stores energy. When the switch is OFF,
the inductive current flows through the
diode and load, due to release of energy
stored in the inductor.

Step-up/Down Choppers
 Edc. The inductor stores charge during
the ON period.
A chopper can also be used in both step-
up and step-down modes. When the chopper is OFF, the inductor
releases energy through the load as
When the chopper [power switch] is
inductor current decreases, and hence
ON, current flows through Edc-CH-IL-
polarity of the induced emf reverses.
 Inverters [DC to ac power
converters]
An inverter circuit converts dc power to ac Voltage source inverters (VSI): DC
power at a desired output voltage and source has negligible impedance, giving
frequency (fixed or variable frequency). constant input voltage. It is suitable for
Conversion can be controlled by turn single or multi-motor drives since the
ON/OFF of power switches [power voltage remains constant despite
BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs, MCTs, SITs, variation in loads.
GTOs,] for low/ medium power Draw back: They are susceptible to short
applications or SCRs for high power circuits. Due to low internal impedance,
outputs. any short circuit across its terminals
Ideally, an inverter produces sinusoidal causes substantial rise in current.
ac output. However, the output of Current source inverters (CSI):
practical inverters is non- sinusoidal and Supplied with a controlled current from
contains harmonics. For instance, square a high impedance DC source.
waves may be desired for low and
medium power applications while sine Due to large internal impedance, the
waves [with minimal distortion] are terminal voltage of current source
desired for high power applications. inverters varies substantially with load
variations (voltage is dependent on load
Frequency can be varied by controlling impedance). They are therefore not
the rate of switching ON/OFF. suitable for multi-motor drives since
DC input source may be a battery, fuel change in load on any motor affects other
cell, solar cells etc., but rectifiers are used motors.
for most industrial applications. They have inherent protection against
The configuration of ac-to-dc and dc-to-ac short circuits since inverter current is
converter; whereby static frequency ac independent of load impedance.
input is eventually converted to variable Industrial applications of inverters:
frequency ac output by an inverter is
called dc link converter. ▪ Variable speed ac motor drives

Inverters are clasified as: ▪ Induction heating

▪ Aircraft power supplies

 ▪ Uninterrupted power supplies ▪ Square wave inverters
(UPS)
▪ Quasi square wave inverters
▪ High voltage dc transmission
lines
▪ Pulse width modulated inverters
Thyristor inverter classification
▪ Battery vehicle drives
Inverters can be classified according to:
▪ Regulated voltage frequency
power supplies etc. i) Commutation method:

CLASSIFICATION OF a) Line commutated inverters

INVERTERS b) Forced commutated inverters
Criteria: ii) Connection:
1. Nature of input source: a) Series inverters
▪ Voltage source inverters (VSI) b) Parallel inverters
▪ Current source inverters (CSI) c) Bridge inverters
Wave shape of the output voltage:

SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE VOLTAGE SOURCE

INVERTERS

Switches S1 and S2 are gate commutated devices [BJTs, MOSFETs, GTO, IGBT, MCT].

Operation with resistive Load

𝑆1 conducts from 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡/2 and turns OFF, while 𝑆2 conducts for the next half cycle
from 𝑇/2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇. By closing 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 alternately, for 1/2 periods, thus a square wave
ac voltage is obtained at the output.

For resistive load, voltage is in phase with current. The frequency can be varied by
controlling the time periods of the gate drive signals. The gate circuit should be
designed such that 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are turned ON alternately.

Operation with RL Load

Mode 1: 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 : 𝑆1 is turned ON at 𝑡1 . Voltage is positive at +𝐸𝑑𝑐 /2. Load current is

also positive and rises gradually as the inductor stores energy and reaches peak at 𝑡2 ,
where 𝑆1 is turned OFF.

Mode 2: 𝑡2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡3 The positive load current maintains direction [due to inductive

load] and reduces to zero at 𝑡3 . However, the self-induced voltage is negative. The
stored energy in the inductive load is fed back to the lower half of the source, thus the
load voltage is −𝐸𝑑𝑐 /2.

Mode 3: 𝑡3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡4 : 𝑆2 is turned ON at 𝑡3 . The load voltage and current is negative,

thus the inductive load stores energy up to a peak at 𝑡4 , where 𝑆2 is turned OFF.

Mode 4: 𝑡0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡1 : Voltage changes to positive polarity [+𝐸𝑑𝑐 /2], while load current is
negative thus the inductive load releases energy to the upper half of the source.
SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTERS

Operation with resistive load

To develop positive voltage, 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are turned ON simultaneously, while for
negative voltage, 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 are turned ON. 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 , 𝐷4 are feedback diodes.

Mode 2:0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2:

Mode 1: 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are turned ON at 0 and turned OFF at 𝑇/2. The load voltage is +𝐸𝑑𝑐 .

Mode 2: 𝑇/2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇: 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 are turned ON [𝑆1 and 𝑆2 turned OFF]. The load voltage
is −𝐸𝑑𝑐 .

The feedback diodes aren’t utilized since the is no energy storage for resistive loads.