Endocrine system, glands and hormones

Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
• These hormones regulate various physiological processes in the body, including growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and mood.
• Unlike exocrine glands, which secrete substances through ducts, endocrine glands release hormones
directly into the bloodstream or lymphatic system to reach their target organs.
 Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland, often referred to as the "master gland," is a small, pea-sized gland located at the
base of the brain, within the sella turcica, a bony structure at the base of the skull.

• It is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk and plays a crucial role in regulating
various endocrine functions in the body by secreting hormones that influence the activity of other
endocrine glands.
Structure
The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts:
1.Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis):
1. The larger portion of the pituitary, consisting of glandular tissue.
2. Produces and secretes hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus.
2.Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis):
1. Comprised of neural tissue, it stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
2. Hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary and released into the bloodstream when needed.
Hormones Secreting from the Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary Hormones:
1. Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in the body.
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones (T3 and T4), regulating metabolism.
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol,
involved in stress response and metabolism regulation.
4. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Regulates the development of eggs in the ovaries and
sperm production in the testes.
5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.
6. Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in females after childbirth.
7. Endorphins: These act as painkillers and mood enhancers.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones:
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH, also called Vasopressin): Regulates water balance in the body
by promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys.
2. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during
breastfeeding. It also plays a role in bonding and social behaviors.
 Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped endocrine gland located deep within the brain, in the
epithalamus, near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres.
• It is situated in a groove where the two halves of the thalamus meet.
• The pineal gland is primarily responsible for the production and regulation of certain hormones, most
notably melatonin.
Structure
• The pineal gland is composed of pinealocytes, which are specialized cells that synthesize melatonin,
as well as other supportive glial cells.
• It is not under direct control by the hypothalamus but is influenced by external light conditions,
which affect its function.
Function:
Melatonin Secretion:
1. The pineal gland produces and secretes melatonin, a hormone that regulates the body's
circadian rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle.
• Melatonin production is influenced by light exposure, with its secretion increasing in the dark
and decreasing in response to light.
2. Melatonin helps synchronize the body’s internal clock, regulating sleep patterns and
contributing to the maintenance of the body's biological rhythms.
Regulation of Sleep-Wake Cycles:
• The pineal gland's secretion of melatonin plays a key role in controlling sleep, with higher
levels promoting sleepiness and lower levels allowing wakefulness.
• It helps signal to the body when it is time to sleep and when it is time to wake up, in accordance
with the natural light-dark cycle.
Influence on Reproductive Hormones:
• Melatonin is also involved in the regulation of reproductive hormones by affecting the secretion
of gonadotropins (like FSH and LH), which influence sexual development and reproductive
function.
• During certain seasons, melatonin can influence seasonal reproduction in some animals.
 Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the neck, just below the
Adam's apple.
• It consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus.
• The thyroid is responsible for producing hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and
development in the body.
Structure
• The thyroid gland is made up of follicles, which are spherical structures that store thyroid hormones.
• The thyroid cells (thyrocytes) within these follicles produce two main types of hormones:
Thyroxine (T4): The major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, containing four iodine atoms.
Triiodothyronine (T3): The more active form of thyroid hormone, containing three iodine atoms.
Function:
Regulation of Metabolism:
• Hormones influence the rate at which the body uses energy, controls body temperature, and helps in the
synthesis of proteins.
• These hormones increase the metabolic rate of cells, stimulate the breakdown of glucose, and promote the
use of fats and proteins for energy production.

Growth and Development:

• Thyroid hormones are crucial for normal growth and development, particularly in the development of the
nervous system and skeletal growth during infancy and childhood.
• They influence the growth of bones and tissues and are involved in brain development during early life.

Regulation of Heart and Digestive Functions:

• T3 and T4 help regulate the functioning of the heart, promoting increased heart rate and force of
contraction, especially during physical activity or stress.
• They also influence the digestive system by promoting the motility of the intestines.

Calcium Homeostasis:
• The thyroid gland also produces calcitonin, a hormone that helps regulate calcium levels in the blood.
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting calcium release from bones and increasing calcium
excretion through the kidneys.
 Pancreas
The pancreas is a dual-function organ located behind the stomach, extending horizontally across the
abdomen. It plays a key role in both endocrine and exocrine functions.
Structure:
The pancreas consists of both endocrine tissue (islets of Langerhans) and exocrine tissue (acinar cells).
•Endocrine Portion (Islets of Langerhans): The islets contain different types of cells that secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream.

•Exocrine Portion (Acinar Cells): The acinar cells produce digestive enzymes that are released into
the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
Endocrine Functions:
1.Alpha Cells:
Secrete glucagon, a hormone that raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down
glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
2.Beta Cells:
Secrete insulin, a hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose
into cells for energy production or storage as glycogen.
3.Delta Cells:
Secrete somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon, as well as
other hormones from the digestive tract.
4.PP Cells (F Cells):
Secrete pancreatic polypeptide, which is involved in regulating pancreatic secretion activities and
influencing appetite.
Exocrine Functions:
The exocrine pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are essential for digestion:
1.Digestive Enzymes:
1. Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates into simpler sugars.
2. Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. Proteases (e.g., trypsin and chymotrypsin): Break down proteins into amino acids.
2.Bicarbonate:
The pancreas secretes bicarbonate ions to neutralize stomach acid as chyme enters the small
intestine, providing an optimal pH for enzyme activity.
 Adrenal Gland
• The adrenal glands are triangular-shaped endocrine glands located on top of each kidney.
• They play a vital role in the body's response to stress, regulating metabolism, immune function,
blood pressure, and electrolyte balance through the secretion of various hormones.
• Each adrenal gland consists of two distinct parts: the adrenal cortex (outer part) and the adrenal
medulla (inner part).
Structure:
1.Adrenal Cortex (Outer Region):
1. The adrenal cortex is responsible for producing steroid hormones, including cortisol,
aldosterone, and sex hormones.
2.Adrenal Medulla (Inner Region):
1. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and
norepinephrine, which are involved in the body's immediate stress response.
 Hormones Secreted by the Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex:

Glucocorticoids (e.g., Cortisol):

• Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid and plays a central role in the body's response to stress.
• It helps regulate metabolism by increasing blood glucose levels, suppressing the immune system,
and promoting the breakdown of fat and proteins.
• Cortisol also helps in maintaining blood pressure and balancing salt and water in the body.

Mineralocorticoids (e.g., Aldosterone):

• Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance, primarily by increasing sodium reabsorption in the
kidneys, which leads to water retention and increased blood pressure.
• It also promotes potassium excretion, which helps maintain proper potassium levels in the blood.

Sex Hormones (Androgens, Estrogens):

• The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, including androgens and estrogens.
• These contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics and influence sexual
function, though the primary source of sex hormones is the gonads (testes and ovaries).
Adrenal Medulla:
Catecholamines (Adrenaline and Noradrenaline):
Adrenaline (Epinephrine):
• Known as the "fight or flight" hormone, adrenaline is released during stress and prepares the body for
quick action.
• It increases heart rate, dilates airways, increases blood flow to muscles, and raises blood glucose
levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown.
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine):
• Similar to adrenaline, norepinephrine helps maintain blood pressure, constricts blood vessels, and
works alongside adrenaline to regulate the body’s response to stress.
 Thymus Gland
• The thymus is a small, lymphoid organ located behind the sternum, in the upper chest, and in front
of the heart.
• It plays a crucial role in the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T cells), which are a
type of white blood cell essential for the adaptive immune system.
Structure:
• The thymus is composed of two lobes, and it is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• The thymus is larger in infants and young children and gradually decreases in size after puberty
Cortex:
• The outer part of the thymus, which is densely packed with immature T cells (thymocytes) that are
undergoing maturation.
• The cortex is where the early stages of T-cell development occur
Medulla:
• The inner part of the thymus, where more mature T cells are located.
• The medulla is involved in the final stages of T-cell development, including negative selection, where T
cells that react strongly to self-antigens are eliminated to prevent autoimmune reactions.
 Testis
• The testes are the male gonads responsible for producing sperm and the male sex hormone,
testosterone.
• They are oval-shaped organs located in the scrotum, a pouch of skin that hangs outside the body.
• This location helps maintain an optimal temperature for sperm production, which is slightly lower than
the body's core temperature.
Structure:
Seminiferous Tubules:
• Coiled tubes within the testes where sperm production (spermatogenesis) occurs.
• These tubules are lined with Sertoli cells, which provide support and nourishment to developing sperm
cells, and germ cells, which give rise to sperm.

Leydig Cells:
• Located between the seminiferous tubules, Leydig cells are responsible for producing testosterone in
response to luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland.

Rete Testis:
• A network of channels that transports sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis.

Epididymis:
• A tightly coiled tube attached to the back of each testis, where sperm mature and are stored until
ejaculation.

Tunica Albuginea:
• A fibrous capsule that surrounds each testis, providing structural support.
 Ovary
• The ovaries are the female gonads responsible for producing eggs (ova) and secreting the female sex
hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone.

• Located on either side of the uterus, they are almond-shaped organs that are crucial for female
reproduction, hormonal regulation, and menstrual cycle control.
Structure:
Ovarian Cortex:
• The outer region of the ovary, which contains follicles in various stages of development.
• The cortex is responsible for the production and maturation of eggs (ova).
Ovarian Medulla:
• The inner part of the ovary, containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
• The medulla does not directly participate in egg production but supports the cortex's function.
Ovarian Follicles
• Ovaries contain numerous follicles, which are small fluid-filled sacs, each containing an immature egg.
• Each month, one follicle matures and releases an egg during ovulation. Follicles are classified into:

Primordial Follicles:
• The earliest stage of follicles, containing immature eggs. Females are born with a finite number of these.

Primary Follicles:
• Follicles that have begun developing but are not yet mature.

Secondary Follicles:
• Follicles that are further developing and preparing to release an egg.

Graafian Follicle (Mature Follicle):

• The fully developed follicle that contains the mature egg, ready for ovulation.

Corpus Luteum:
• After ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone
and some estrogen to maintain the uterine lining for potential pregnancy.
• If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and is replaced by corpus albicans