Unit IV – Language Production:

Speaking, Writing and

Bilingualism
Speaking. Selecting the content of speech, Speech errors, gestures, the social
context of speech

Writing. Comparing speaking and writing, cognitive tasks involved in writing

Bilingualism. Advantages and Disadvantages, code switching, second language
proficiency as a function of age of acquisition)

SPEAKING
Speaking is one of the most intricate cognitive, linguistic, and motor skills. It
involves a combination of mental processes, physical actions, and complex
coordination. According to Dutch psycholinguist Willem, speaking is a multifaceted
task that begins with the intention to speak and ends with articulation (i.e., the
actual production of sounds). Every time a person comprehends language,
someone else must produce language. Speaking isn’t just about words flowing
effortlessly; it requires substantial planning and organization.

When we speak, we spend countless hours in various forms of verbal

communication, whether it’s conversing, teaching, arguing, or even talking to
ourselves. Speaking is both a complex and sophisticated process that requires
precise coordination between our thoughts and motor actions.

Stages of Speech Production

The production of speech follows a structured set of stages, and these stages
allow for an organized and fluent verbal output.

1. Selecting the Content of Speech:

The first stage involves gathering the gist or overall meaning of what we want
to communicate. Before we start speaking, we work out what we intend to say
at a broad level.

2. Devising Sentence Structure:

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 The second stage is the sentence construction, where we decide on the
structure of the sentence without focusing on the exact words yet. We focus
on how the sentence should be organized and the general flow of ideas.

3. Choosing Words and Their Forms:

In the third stage, we pick the specific words that convey the meaning we
want. Additionally, we consider the correct word forms. For example, we may
choose between "eat" and "eating" based on the context and the grammatical
structure of the sentence.

4. Articulation:

Finally, once we have selected the appropriate words and their forms, we
articulate them by converting these intentions into spoken words, focusing on
producing the correct phonemes (sounds).

Hesitant vs. Fluent Phase

While speaking, we may alternate between hesitant phases and fluent phases:

Hesitant Phase: This is when we speak more slowly and pause more
frequently, often because we are still planning what we are going to say. It’s
common when we are organizing complex thoughts or words in our head.

Fluent Phase: Once we have planned and organized our speech, the words
flow more easily and rapidly. This phase feels more natural and spontaneous.

The transition between these two phases highlights how much planning and
thought goes into speech production. The hesitant phase is more noticeable when
we are formulating longer sentences or communicating complicated ideas.

Linearization Problem
One of the challenges speakers face is the linearization problem — arranging
words in a coherent and ordered sequence. As we speak, we need to ensure that
words come out in the correct order to make sense and maintain clarity. This is not
always easy, especially when there are multiple possible word choices.

Active vs. Passive Voice

When we speak, we must also choose between using active or passive voice. The
choice between these voices can change the focus of the sentence:

Active Voice: “He read the book.” In active voice, the subject performs the
action.

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 Passive Voice: “The book was read by him.” Here, the object (book) becomes
the focus of the sentence, and the subject (him) takes a less prominent role.

Generally, people prefer the active voice because it is more straightforward and
easier to process, but the passive voice can be useful in specific contexts, like
when the subject is unknown or less important.

Speech Errors
Despite our best efforts, speech errors are quite common. The majority of speech
production is accurate, but occasional mistakes occur. These errors provide
interesting insights into how our cognitive and linguistic systems work.

Slips of the Tongue: These errors involve rearranging sounds or words, often
revealing how deeply we understand language. There are three common types
of speech errors:

1. Sound Errors: When sounds in adjacent words are swapped. Example:

"snow flurries" becomes "flow snurries."

2. Morpheme Errors: When morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of

language) are exchanged. Example: "self-destruct instruction" becomes
"self-instruct destruction."

3. Word Errors: When entire words are exchanged. Example: "writing a letter
to my mother" becomes "writing mother to my letter."

These types of errors occur due to the activation of words and sounds that are
related to one another. For instance, when we are about to say one word, sounds
or elements from another word we have already spoken (or are planning to speak)
may interfere.

Gestures and Speech

Gestures and speech are intricately connected, enhancing the depth and richness
of our communication. While speaking, we do not just rely on vocalization but also
use movements of the arms, hands, and other parts of the body to accompany and
enrich the spoken words. These gestures add an extra dimension to speech,
helping convey meaning, emotion, and emphasis that might otherwise be lost. For
example, a speaker might gesture with their hands when describing an object’s
size, shape, or movement, making their description more vivid and
understandable.

Gestures are culturally specific. A particular gesture can mean one thing in one
culture and something entirely different in another. For instance, the "OK" sign,
made by forming a circle with the thumb and forefinger, may be interpreted as

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 "perfect" in some countries like France, but in others like Japan, it means "money."
In Malta, this same gesture is considered a vulgar insult. Thus, while gestures are
powerful tools in communication, it’s important to understand the cultural context
in which they are used.
Types of Gestures
There are several types of gestures that we use while speaking, each serving a
different function:

1. Iconic Gestures: These gestures visually represent the concept being

discussed. For example, if someone is talking about a car crash, they might
simulate the impact of the crash by bringing their fists together.

2. Deictic Gestures: These involve pointing to objects or locations. For example,

a speaker might say "This" or "That" while pointing to an object to direct the
listener’s attention to it.

3. Beat Gestures: These are rhythmic movements that accompany speech,

helping maintain the flow and pace of communication. While they don’t convey
specific information, they aid in organizing the speaker's thoughts and keeping
their speech on track.

Embodied Cognition and Gestures

Our use of gestures is closely linked to embodied cognition, which suggests that
physical actions influence our thoughts. For example, when we have difficulty
retrieving a word, making a gesture can sometimes help us recall it. Studies have
shown that participants who were allowed to use hand gestures while performing
tasks like identifying words performed better than those whose hand movements
were restricted. This demonstrates that gestures can help activate cognitive
processes and aid in memory retrieval.
The Role of Gestures in Learning
Gestures can enhance learning and problem-solving. For instance, children who
watched an avatar in a video that used gestures to explain a math concept were
able to solve related problems more quickly than children who watched the same
video without gestures. This shows that gestures don’t just aid in communication—
they can also boost cognitive functions and help people learn more effectively.

The Social Context of Language Production

Language is a social tool—communication involves more than just sharing words; it
requires understanding and interpreting each other's intentions, background
knowledge, and shared experiences. As Clark (1985) puts it, conversation is like a

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 complicated dance, where both participants need to be in sync to ensure the
message is received correctly.
This "dance" involves turn-taking, where speakers must coordinate who talks
when, and sometimes, even pause to make sure the other person has understood.
Just like two people need to synchronize their movements when entering a
doorway, conversation partners must coordinate their speech, gestures, and
attention to keep the dialogue flowing smoothly.

Concepts in Conversation
1. Common Ground
Common ground refers to the shared background knowledge, experiences, or
schemas that conversationalists need to have to understand each other effectively.
It’s like having the same “mental map” that helps people navigate a conversation.
Without common ground, communication can become confusing.
Example:
Imagine two friends who have been to the same concert. One might say, "It was so
crazy when the lights went out!" The other, sharing that common experience, will
immediately understand the reference and know exactly what the first person
means. Without that shared experience, however, the statement might be
confusing.

The process of establishing common ground is ongoing throughout a

conversation. If a speaker senses confusion, they might clarify their point or give
more context. This is essential for effective communication because speakers
must ensure that their listeners have the same understanding of the topic.
2. The Given-New Strategy
The Given-New strategy involves structuring sentences so that some information
is already familiar (given) and some is new. This structure helps listeners follow the
conversation more easily because they can connect the new information to
something they already know.
Example:
If someone says, “I just got a new phone, and it has a great camera,” the "new
phone" is the given information (the listener already understands the concept of a
phone), and the "great camera" is the new information that the speaker is
introducing.
This strategy helps manage the flow of conversation, ensuring that listeners don’t
get lost in an overload of new details. It’s a cognitive shortcut that both speakers

Unit IV – Language Production: Speaking, Writing and Bilingualism 5

 and listeners use instinctively.
3. Conversational Format
Good conversation requires a balanced exchange. According to conversational
norms, speakers should take turns rather than speaking over one another, and
there shouldn’t be overly long pauses. This structure allows for smooth, mutual
communication.
Example:
Imagine a conversation where one person dominates the dialogue without pausing,
making it hard for the other person to contribute. This is a breakdown in
conversational format. Ideally, conversation should be a give-and-take, with both
participants contributing.
4. Directives
A directive is a sentence that requests someone to do something. Directives can
be polite or forceful, depending on the context and relationship between the
speaker and the listener.
Example:

A direct directive: "Pass me the salt."

A more polite directive: "Could you please pass me the salt?"

Directives are crucial in social interactions because they help individuals navigate
their needs and requests. The way directives are framed can depend on social
norms, politeness, and the situation at hand.

WRITING
Writing is a complex cognitive task that demands a significant amount of time and
mental effort. It plays a vital role in many people's careers, especially in technical
writing and professional reports, with research indicating that individuals, on
average, spend about 30% of their workday engaged in writing activities. Despite
its importance, research into the cognitive processes involved in writing is
relatively new, beginning in the 1970s. There is still limited research on this area,
especially when compared to other areas like reading, which has inspired
hundreds of studies annually.

Comparing Speaking and Writing

Writing and speaking share several cognitive components, but they also differ in
key ways.

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 Ellis & Beattie (1986) outlined some significant differences between speaking
and writing:

Isolation vs. Interaction: Writing tends to be done in isolation, while speaking

is often interactive. When speaking, feedback is immediate, and conversations
can be modified on the spot, but writing, especially formal writing, lacks this
immediate social interaction.

Delayed Social Feedback: Unlike speaking, which offers instant feedback

(e.g., a conversation partner's reaction), written work may take time to receive
feedback.

Revision and Editing: Writing generally requires more extensive revision and
editing compared to speaking.

Syntactic Complexity: Written language often involves more complex

sentence structures compared to spoken language.

Permanence: Writing is permanent and can be referred to at any time, while

spoken language exists only in the moment.

In contrast to the spontaneity of speech, writing demands more deliberate

structuring, making it a more cognitively taxing task.

Research: Chafe’s Study on Speaking vs. Writing

A significant study by Chafe (1987) compared professors and graduate students’
language use in different contexts. Researchers looked at both formal and informal
speech samples (lectures, casual conversations), as well as written work
(professional writing and personal letters). This study found:

Variety in Vocabulary: Written language tends to display a broader and more

varied vocabulary than spoken language.

Hedges in Speech: Spoken language is often marked by the use of hedges like
“sort of,” “kind of,” and “maybe,” which are less common in written language.

Cognitive Tasks Involved in Writing/ Phases of Writing

Writing involves multiple cognitive tasks, as described by psychologists:

1. Prewriting (Planning Phase): This phase involves generating ideas, organizing

thoughts, and structuring the writing process. For instance, students might
begin by brainstorming ideas for an essay, creating an outline, or listing key
points they wish to include. Good writers spend substantial time planning
before writing, which helps them avoid confusion and ensures a coherent final
product.

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 2. Sentence Generation (Writing Phase): The second phase is when the actual
writing takes place. Writers translate their thoughts into sentences, which may
involve frequent pauses as they work through the language and structure of
each sentence. Fluent phases alternate with hesitant phases, especially if the
writer encounters difficulty in expressing their ideas clearly.

3. Revising (Editing Phase): The final phase of writing involves revising the initial
draft. Writers revisit their work to check for coherence, structure, and clarity.
They might rephrase awkward sentences, reorder paragraphs, or add further
explanations to ensure the message is clearly communicated.

During writing, the phases of planning, sentence generation, and revising often
overlap. The quality of writing is linked to the depth of planning. Expert writers
spend more time on planning and are likely to make substantial revisions to
improve structure, focus, and transitions.

Language Production in Writing

Writing involves more than just comprehension and production; it also demands
additional cognitive resources, including memory, problem-solving, decision-
making, and creativity. A study found that adults write an average of two hours a
day, with employed individuals writing more than those who are not employed.

Although writing is done in isolation, it still has a social component because writers
aim to communicate a message to an audience. The form and content of writing
are often tailored to the intended audience, which requires metacognitive
awareness of the reader’s perspective.

Writing as a Cognitive Challenge

Writing is a high-demand cognitive task, with the writer needing to manage
multiple processes simultaneously, such as maintaining coherence, grammar, and
content clarity. The writer’s attention is constantly pulled in different directions,
leading to cognitive overload. This is why writing assignments are often more
exhausting than speaking or other forms of communication.

Working Memory in Writing

Writing is heavily dependent on working memory. Working memory involves
storing and manipulating information temporarily while engaging in complex
cognitive tasks. Various components of working memory play different roles in
writing:

Phonological Loop: This component handles sound-related tasks. Research

shows that writing can overload the phonological loop, making it harder to

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 recall sounds.

Visuospatial Sketchpad: This component processes visual and spatial

information. When writing about concrete nouns, writers tend to visualize
objects, which demands more from their working memory.

The interplay between these components during writing can sometimes lead to
cognitive overload, making it difficult to manage multiple ideas or concepts
simultaneously.

BILINGUALISM
Bilingualism is a term used to describe the ability of a person to use two different
languages fluently. This phenomenon is more common than one might think, as
more than half of the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual (Schwartz &
Kroll, 2006). This is due to several factors, such as cultural exchange, immigration,
colonization, and globalization.
A bilingual speaker is someone who can effectively communicate in two distinct
languages. The term multilingual refers to those who can speak more than two
languages fluently. In this context, bilingualism is often used as a general term to
include multilingualism as well.

Cognitive Tasks Involved in Bilingualism

Bilingualism involves the coordination of several cognitive skills such as:

Speech comprehension: Understanding spoken words and sentences in both

languages.

Reading: Reading and interpreting text in two different languages.

Speaking: Expressing thoughts verbally in two languages.

Writing: Producing written communication in both languages.

All these tasks require the integration of cognitive skills, social knowledge, and
physical gestures. The ability to navigate these complex tasks in not one, but two
(or more) languages, is a marvel of human cognition.

Prevalence of Bilingualism
In many parts of the world, being bilingual is the norm. For instance, people in
bilingual regions such as Quebec (Canada), Belgium, and Switzerland use more
than one language for different purposes, such as home language versus official

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 language of business or education. Similarly, immigrants often need to master the
language of their new country.
In many instances, individuals may also learn a second language because their
home language is different from the language used for school and business. For
example, Zulu speakers in South Africa must learn English, while Italians learn
Standard Italian for official purposes but speak a regional dialect at home.

Types of Bilingualism
Bilinguals may acquire their two languages in different ways:

Simultaneous bilingualism: This occurs when a person learns two languages

from an early age, often during childhood.

Sequential bilingualism: Here, a person first learns their native language and
later acquires a second language, usually at a later age.

A bilingual speaker typically refers to someone fluent in two languages. However,

in the field of psycholinguistics, the term is sometimes used more broadly to
include those who speak more than two languages (multilinguals).

First and Second Languages (L1 and L2)

L1 (First Language): The first language or mother tongue of an individual.

L2 (Second Language): The non-native language learned by the individual.

For example, in a bilingual speaker where English is the first language (L1) and
Spanish is the second language (L2), English is acquired naturally in childhood,
and Spanish is learned later, possibly through education or immersion.

Wallace Lambert's Contributions to Bilingualism

Wallace Lambert was a key figure in bilingualism research and was recognized by
the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1990 for his contributions to
understanding the psychological applications of bilingualism. One of his major
contributions was differentiating between additive and subtractive bilingualism.

1. Additive Bilingualism: In this scenario, the individual becomes proficient in the

second language (L2) without losing proficiency in their first language (L1). For
example, a person who grows up speaking French but also learns English
without losing their native French language would be an example of additive
bilingualism.

2. Subtractive Bilingualism: In this case, the acquisition of a second language

(L2) results in the loss or diminishing proficiency of the first language (L1). This

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 can happen in cases where individuals are immersed in a new language and
culture, leading to the erosion of their native language over time.

The Social and Political Implications of Bilingualism

Bilingualism carries significant social, political, and psychological implications.
The attitude a person has toward a second language and its speakers plays a key
role in determining their success in mastering the language. For example, if an
individual has a positive attitude toward the people who speak a second language,
they are more likely to acquire the language successfully. Conversely, negative
attitudes towards a language or its speakers can hinder the learning process.
Some regions of the world are officially bilingual, and this is often seen in the
political and educational systems. In countries like Belgium and Switzerland,
official documents and government services are provided in multiple languages,
allowing citizens to communicate in their preferred language. However, in some
countries, educational systems may not support or value a child's first language,
which can cause challenges for bilingual children, especially in schools that fail to
appreciate the cultural and linguistic value of a second language.

Advantages of Bilingualism
Although some early theorists argued that bilingualism could be harmful
(Jespersen, 1992), recent research suggests that bilingualism provides several
cognitive advantages over monolingualism.

1. Enhanced Proficiency in L1 (Native Language): Contrary to the belief that

learning a second language would interfere with a person’s proficiency in their
native language, research suggests that bilinguals actually develop greater
expertise in their first language (L1).

2. Increased Cognitive Flexibility: Bilingual children often show superior

cognitive flexibility, which refers to the ability to switch between tasks or
thoughts efficiently. This flexibility is especially useful in creative thinking and
problem-solving tasks.

3. Greater Sensitivity to Pragmatics: Bilingual individuals tend to be more

sensitive to the social and contextual aspects of language use (pragmatics).
For example, they understand when and how to adjust their language based on
their social environment.

4. Non-Verbal Intelligence: Bilinguals also perform better on non-verbal

intelligence tests, especially those that involve reorganizing visual patterns or
abstract problem-solving.

Unit IV – Language Production: Speaking, Writing and Bilingualism 11

 Disadvantages of Bilingualism
Despite the many advantages, bilingualism can also have some minor drawbacks:

1. Speech Sound Alterations: Bilingual individuals might alter their pronunciation

in both languages due to the influence of the second language on their speech
patterns.

2. Slower Decision-Making: Bilinguals may take slightly longer to process

information when making decisions related to language, although this delay
does not significantly affect communication.

3. Language Processing Speed: Bilingual individuals may experience slower

language processing speed compared to monolinguals. However, this does
not mean that bilinguals are slower at communication; it just means their brains
need to work harder to manage both languages.

Code-Switching
Code-switching refers to the practice of switching between languages during
conversation. This often occurs when a bilingual person finds it easier to express a
particular thought or concept in one language over another. For example, a
bilingual person might switch from English to Spanish when discussing an emotion
or cultural concept that feels more appropriate or expressive in Spanish.
Interestingly, bilingual individuals may code-switch when talking about sensitive or
embarrassing topics. This behavior has social as well as linguistic motivations and
reflects how individuals balance the emotional and contextual weight of language.

Second Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition

The age at which someone learns a second language has a significant impact on
their proficiency. This concept is crucial when examining how well a person can
master a new language, especially in areas such as pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar. Research has shown that the earlier a person acquires a second
language, the more likely they are to achieve proficiency in various aspects of that
language.
Background Research
Studies indicate that people who acquire a second language during early
childhood are more likely to master the phonology (speech sounds) of that
language. This is because the brain's ability to process and reproduce sounds is
more flexible and adaptable in early childhood. As we age, this ability becomes
more limited, making it harder to achieve native-like pronunciation in a second
language. This has been observed in studies of immigrants who learned English as

Unit IV – Language Production: Speaking, Writing and Bilingualism 12

 a second language. Those who learned English as children often speak it with less
of an accent compared to those who started learning it later in life.
A similar advantage is seen in American Sign Language (ASL) acquisition.
Individuals who learn ASL in childhood tend to be more fluent and accurate in their
use of the language’s gestures and grammar. This points to the broader
phenomenon of early language acquisition fostering proficiency across different
languages, whether spoken or signed.
Age at Arrival Effect
The Age at Arrival Effect refers to the idea that individuals who arrive in a new
country and start learning the local language at an earlier age tend to be more
proficient in that language. This is especially true for immigrants who moved to a
new country in their early childhood years. For example, immigrants to the United
States who arrive before the age of 10 tend to learn English with greater fluency
and fewer foreign accents than those who arrive as teenagers or adults. Early
exposure to a new language helps individuals adapt to its sound system and
structure, facilitating smoother and quicker language acquisition.
Johnson & Newport’s Research
A significant study conducted by Johnson & Newport (1989) compared Chinese
and Korean immigrants who learned English at different ages. The study found that
individuals who arrived at a young age had a greater mastery of English grammar
compared to those who arrived as teenagers or adults. This research supports the
notion that age of acquisition is a crucial factor in second language proficiency,
particularly for grammar.

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