MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

First Year Engineering
23ASH1106-Fundamentals of Photonics
Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <SOC – 02, 03>
Dr. Amol Deore
Unit Name- IV

Transmission in fiber optic communication system

AY 2024-2025 SEM-II
 UNIT IV
Transmission in fiber optic communication system

Main Topic-1: Single mode and multi-mode step index and

graded index optical fibers

Main Topic-2: V-number and number of modes

Main Topic-3: Signal degradation in terms of attenuation and

dispersion
 When θ1 > θc, the refracted light will
return back into medium 1 and will
not go into medium 2. This
phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.

 When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium, it
bends away from the normal to the interface in the rarer medium.
Also from Snell's law.
 n sin θ = n sin θ
1 1 2 2
 As here n1 > n2 , θ1 < θ2
 As θ1 increases θ2 also increases
 At certain value, θ1 = θc, we have θ2 = 900 . The incident ray moves parallel to the interface
between two medium. Here θc is called critical angle.
 Acceptance Angle
 The acceptance angle is defined as the
Cladding maximum angle with the axis of the

Core optical fiber at the launching end

through which the light propagate in
optical fiber by total internal
reflection

 Consider an optical fiber with refractive index n1 for core and n2 for cladding.
 Let us assume that the refractive index of the medium from which light is

being launched is n0. The end from which the light is launched is called
launching end.
 sin θA = ((n1)2- (n2)2)1/2
 Numerical Aperture
 The function of the optical fiber is to accept and transmit as much light from the
source as possible.
 The light gathering ability of the optical fiber depends on core size and
numerical aperture.
 Numerical aperture
NA = sin θA
 Numerical aperture is a measure of amount of light which can be accepted
by optical fiber.
 It can be seen that NA depends only on the refractive indices of core and
cladding and not on the size of the core.
 Propagation of Light Through an Optical Fiber

1.The diameter of an optical fiber is very small hence cannot use bigger light sources
for launching light beam into it. Light emitting diode (LED) and LASER diodes are the
optical sources used in fiber optics

2. As the refractive index of the cladding is less than that of the core, majority of
the rays undergo total internal reflection and the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence in each case.
The refracted rays will suffer total internal reflections inside the core as shown in figure.
3. Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no loss of light
energy and light confines itself within the core during the propagation

4. The following two conditions must be satisfied for total internal reflection.

 The refractive index of the core material must be slightly greater than that of
the cladding. (Core (n1) > Cladding (n2))
 At the core–cladding interface, the angle of incidence must be greater
than the critical angle
 Optical fibers based on Material

Optical fibers are made up of materials like silica and plastic. The basic optical
fiber materials must have following properties

1. Efficient guide for the light wave

2. Low scattering losses
3. The absorption, attenuation and dispersion of optical energy must be low

Based on materials used they are classified into two types as

1. Glass fiber
2. Plastic fiber
 OPTICAL FIBERS BASED ON MODES

Mode describes nature of propagation of electromagnetic wave through optical

fiber
Based on the number of modes that propagate through the optical fiber can be
classified as-

1. Single mode optical fiber

2. Multimode optical fiber

 SINGLE MODE OPTICAL FIBER
In single mode fiber, only one type of ray of light can propagate through the fiber (Light
travel in only one path).
This type of fiber has a small core diameter ( 8 to 10 µm) and high cladding diameter
(70 to 125 µm) and the difference between the refractive index of core and cladding is very
small.
There is no dispersion i.e. no degradation of the signal during traveling through the fiber. The
light is passed through it through a laser diode
The basic properties of single mode optical fiber-

 Only one mode is possible

 Core diameter very small

 No dispersion effect

 Higher bandwidth(1000MHz)

 Used for long distance communication

 Fabrication is difficult and costly

 Multimode optical fiber
 If more than one mode is transmitted through the optical fiber then it is said
to be multimode fiber (Light can travel in multiple paths or modes)

 The largest core radii (typically 50 to 100 µm) of multimode fibers make it
easier to launch optical power into the fiber and facilitate the end-to-end
connection of similar powers
 Multimode optical fiber

Some of the basic properties of multimode optical fibres are listed below
 More than one mode is available
 Core diameter is grater than Single mode optical fiber
 Lower bandwidth
 Used for short distance communication
 Based on refractive index profile
Based on the refractive index profile
optical fibers can be divided into

1. Step index fiber 2. Graded index fiber

 1. Step index fiber
 Core has the constant refractive index
 At the core cladding interface there is sudden decrease in the refractive index
from 𝟏 to 𝟐. It remains constant throughout the cladding part of optical fiber.
 The refractive index profile (n) profile with reference to the radial distance ‘r’ from
the fiber axis is given as
When, r=0 n(r) =
r<a n(r) =
r≥a n(r) =
where a is core radius of optical fiber.
 2. Graded index fiber

 The refractive index of core 𝟏 decreases gradually from the center of

core as a function of the radius from the center of the optical fiber.

 At the core cladding interface, the refractive index shows decrease from
𝟏 to 𝟐 and it remains constant w.r.t. radial distance r. This type of
optical fiber is known as graded index optical fiber.
Depending upon the refractive index profile and the number of modes
propagated through the optical fiber
Further, depending on R.I. profile and number
of modes, fibers can be classified as-

1. Step index single mode fibers 3. Graded index multimode fibers

2. Step index multimode fibers

 Step Index Single mode optical fibers

The core diameter of this type of fiber is very small i.e. of the order of wavelength
of light to be propagated through the fiber. The refractive index profile has step
change in the refractive index from core to cladding as shown in Figure
The main characteristics of step index single mode optical fibers are as
follows:
1. Very small core diameter
2. Low numerical aperture
3. Low attenuation
4. Very high bandwidth

In order to get single mode, with all other modes cut off, the diameter of the
core must satisfy the relation
. 

Where, λ is wavelength of light propagating through optical fiber

NA is numerical aperture of the optical fiber
 Step index multimode optical fiber

Step index multimode fiber with refractive index profile

 Practically, light launched from any point source will have several paths with different
angles of incidence at boundary layer. It is called as step index multimode propagation
as shown in Figure.
 Any other light wave which is meeting the core cladding interface at and above the
critical value of θc will also be totally reflected and hence will propagate along the
core.
 Here, the velocity of both (blue and red) rays are constant since they travel in
medium of same refractive index. blue ray shown in Figure has to travel
shorter path in comparison with Red ray.

 Due to this, different light rays travelling through the fiber with different
incident angle travels will take different amount of time to reach the other end.

 Thus, the various light waves travelling along the core will have different
propagation paths of different path lengths. Hence, they will meet at the other
end of the fiber at different time instants. This causes dispersion of signal
called as transit time dispersion.

 As a result of this distortion the variations of successive pulses may overlap

into each other and causes distortion of the information being carried.
 Graded index multimode optical fiber

𝒏𝟏

Graded index multimode fiber with refractive index profile

 Refractive index of core is not constant and has maximum value at the center
while decreasing away from it. Due to this the direction of light continuously
changes and follows the path as shown in figure rather than straight line path.
 Here, both blue and red-light rays have to travel different path length. But here since red
ray travels through the lower R.I. hence moves faster in comparison with blue ray which
travels its path through higher R.I. Thus, all waves will reach a given point along the
fiber at virtually same time.

 As a result, the transit time dispersion is reduced. This type of light

propagation is referred as graded index multimode propagation through
optical fiber.
Main Topic-2: V number, Number of modes in a fiber
 V-Number

 It is related to the normalized frequency (ν), which is used to characterize

the mode propagation in a fiber optic waveguide.

 The V-number helps determine the number of guided modes in an optical fiber
and is essential in understanding the fiber's behavior.

 The low V-number (V < 2.405) suggests a single-mode operation, while a

higher V-number (V > 2.405) indicates multimode operation.

 The transition between single-mode and multimode operation often occurs

around a V-number of 2.405.
 Many fiber parameters can be expressed in terms of V, such as: the number
of modes at a given wavelength, mode cut off conditions, and propagation
constants. it is dependent upon the Core diameter, the NA and the
wavelength.

𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Where, a- Radius of core

-Wavelength of light being transmitted
 Relation between V-number and number of modes
The number of modes are given by,

(1)
Where, A- core area =
- wavelength
 =

Now, we have, = sin

For small value of , sin = So, we can write, - =
Put this in equation (1) we get,
 −

−
By putting the value of V-number formula, We get,
𝒗𝟐
𝟐

This is the formula for step index fiber

Now, for graded index fiber we must add index profile ) here,
: rate of change of
 𝒗𝟐 refractive index from
)
 𝟐 𝟐 the core center to the
cladding
Let us have a look at the curve shown below that represents
the variation in the profile of the refractive index with various values of 
So, by knowing V number we can able to calculate number of modes in step
index and graded index fiber

Now, for step index fiber, = as shown in below figure hence

(as we have earlier seen)

For graded index fiber =2 hence,

1. A step index fiber is made with n1= 1.52, core diameter d = 29 x 10-6 m and a
fractional difference index of 0.0007. The wavelength of light is 1.3 x 10-6 m. Find v
number and the number of modes the fiber can support.
Solution
Here
n1 = 1.52
d = 29 x 10-6 m
λ =1.3 x 10-6 m

 V number
2π a
V= NA = π d n1 (2 Δ)1/2/λ
λ
= 3.14 x 29 x 10-6 x 1.52 x (2 x 0.0007)1/2/(1.3 x 10-6)
= 3.98 = 4

 Number of Modes
Nm = 1/2 V2 = 1/2 x 42 = 8 modes
Number of Modes
TEM mode- In this mode, the electric and magnetic fields are transverse to the direction of
wave propagation with no longitudinal components. Useful in power transmission line

TE mode- In this mode, the electric field is transverse to the direction of the propagation
(longitudinal component is absent Ez=0) and magnetic fields have both the transverse and
longitudinal components presents. Useful in waveguide transmission
TM mode- In this mode, the magnetic field is transverse to the direction of the
propagation (longitudinal component is absent Hz=0) and electric fields have both
the transverse and longitudinal components presents. Useful in waveguide
transmission
 Modes in optical fiber

 Core acts as guide for light from which light should have to transmit
 Order of mode is equals to how many times the field crossing the reference line (shown by
dotted line)
 Field is partially entered into the cladding which is undesirable.
 Field harmonically varies into the core in each mode as shown in Figure
 For lower modes field is tightly concentrated in the center and lightly enters in
the cladding
 For higher modes fields are penetrated in the cladding region
 Leaky modes are observed mostly TE5 and above. Leaky modes are partially
confined to the fiber and power will be radiated out of the fiber due to
tunneling effect.
Q.1 Define Acceptance angle with formula [2M] L1

Q.2 Summarize the condition required for Total Internal reflection [4M] L2

Q.3 Draw the neat labeled diagram for propagation of light through optical fiber [2M] L1

Q.4 State the types of optical fiber on the basis of modes [2M] L1

Q.5 State the characteristics of single mode fiber [2M] L1

Q.6 Draw the neat labeled diagram for single mode fiber [2M] L1

Q.7 Differentiate between single mode and multimode fiber [2M] L2

Q.8 Explain the types of fiber based on the refractive index profile [4M] L1

Q.9 Draw the diagram of refractive index profile for step and graded index fiber [2M] L1

Q.10 Illustrate distortion of the signal in step index multimode fiber [4M] L2

Q.11 Draw the neat labeled diagram for propagation of light through step index multimode fiber [2M] L1
Q.12 Define V-Number and state its significance [2M] L1
Q.13 Derive the formula for relation between V-number and number of modes [4M] L2
Q.14 Differentiate between single mode and multimode fiber [2M] L2
Q.14 A step index fiber is made with n1= 1.58, core diameter d = 20 x 10^-6 m and a fractional difference
index of 0.0009. The wavelength of light is 2 x 10^-6 m. Find V-number and the number of modes the fiber can
support.(ANS-V-number-2,numberofmodes-2) [4M] L2