Dr.
Madhu Rai
Motivation: Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal-directed
behavior. It is often understood as a force that explains why people or animals initiate,
continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time.
Human motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various needs. These needs can
encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex,
emotional needs surrounding an individual's psychological well-being.
The concept of motivation focuses on explaining what “moves” behaviour.
The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’, referring to movement of
activity. Most of our everyday explanation of behaviour is given in terms of motives.
Why do you come to the college? There may be any number of reasons for this behaviour,
such as you want to learn or to make friends, you need a diploma or degree to get a good job,
you want to make your parents happy, and so on. Some combination of these reasons and/or
others would explain why you choose to go in for higher education. Motives help in making
predictions about behaviour.
A person will work hard in school, in sports, in business, in music, and in many other
situations, if s/he has a very strong need for achievement. Hence, motives are the general
states that enable us to make predictions about behaviour in many different situations. In
other words, motivation is one of the determinants of behaviour. Instincts, drives, needs,
goals, and incentives come under the broad cluster of motivation
Psychologists now use the concept of need to describe the motivational properties of
behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some necessity. The condition of need leads to drive.
A drive is a state of tension or arousal produced by a need. It energizes random activity.
When one of the random activities leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and the organism
stops being active. The organism returns to a balanced state.
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There are two types of motives
Biological and
Psychosocial.
Biological motives/primary motives are also known as physiological motives as they are
guided mostly by the physiological mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial motives/secondary
motives, on the other hand, are primarily learned from the individual’s interactions with the
various environmental factors. However, both types of motives are interdependent on each
other. In some kind of situations the biological factors may trigger a motive whereas in some
other situations, the psychosocial factors may trigger the motive.
Theories of motivation
Instinct theory of motivation
Early in the twentieth century, influenced by Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, it became
fashionable to classify all sorts of behaviors as instincts. If people criticized themselves, it
was because of their “self - abasement instinct.” If they boasted, it reflected their “self -
assertion instinct.” A list of 5759 instincts were compiled
Rather than explaining human behaviors, the early instinct theorists were simply naming
them. It was like “explaining” a bright child’s low grades by labeling the child an
“underachiever.” To name a behavior is not to explain it. To qualify as an instinct, a complex
behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned (Tinbergen, 1951).
Such behaviors are common in other species Human behavior, too, exhibits certain unlearned
fixed patterns, including infants’ innate reflexes for rooting and sucking.
Although instinct theory failed to explain most human motives, the underlying assumption
that genes predispose species - typical behavior remains as strong as ever.
Drive-reduction theory
When the original instinct theory of motivation collapsed, it was replaced by drive-reduction
theory—the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to
reduce the need by, say, eating or drinking.
With few exceptions, when a physiological need increases, so does a psychological drive—an
aroused, motivated state. The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis—the
maintenance of a steady internal state.
An example of homeostasis (literally “staying the same”) is the body’s temperature -
regulation system, which works like a room thermostat.
Both systems operate through feedback loops: Sensors feed room temperature to a control
device. If the room temperature cools, the control device switches on the furnace. Likewise, if
our body temperature cools, blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth, and we feel driven to
put on more clothes or seek a warmer environment.
Not only are we pushed by our need to reduce drives, we also are pulled by incentives—
positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us. This is one way our individual learning
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histories influence our motives. Depending on our learning, the aroma of good food, whether
fresh roasted peanuts or toasted ants, can motivate our behavior. So can the sight of those we
find attractive or threatening.
When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven. The food – deprived
person who smells baking bread feels a strong hunger drive. In the presence of that drive, the
baking bread becomes a compelling incentive. For each motive, we can therefore ask, “How
is it pushed by our inborn physiological needs and pulled by incentives in the environment?”
Need hierarchy theory
Abraham Maslow was a social psychologist who was interested in a broad spectrum
of human psychological needs rather than on individual psychological problems. He is best
known for his hierarchy-of-needs theory. Depicted in a pyramid (shown in Figure 1), the
theory organizes the different levels of human psychological and physical needs in order of
importance.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is illustrated here. In some versions of the pyramid, cognitive
and aesthetic needs are also included between esteem and self-actualization. Others include
another tier at the top of the pyramid for self-transcendence.
The needs in Maslow's hierarchy include physiological needs (food and clothing), safety
needs (job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization. This
hierarchy can be used by managers to better understand employees' needs and motivation and
address them in ways that lead to high productivity and job satisfaction.
At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or basic) human needs that are required
for survival: food, shelter, water, sleep, etc. If these requirements are not met, the body
cannot continue to function. Faced with a lack of food, love, and safety, most people would
probably consider food to be their most urgent need.
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Once physical needs are satisfied, security (sometimes referred to as individual safety) takes
precedence. Security and safety needs include personal security, financial security, and health
and well-being. These first two levels are important to the physical survival of the person.
Once individuals have basic nutrition, shelter, and safety, they seek to fulfill higher-level
needs.
The third level of need is social, which includes love and belonging; when individuals have
taken care of themselves physically, they can address their need to share and connect with
others. Deficiencies at this level, on account of neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc., can impact
an individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Humans
need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group
or a small network of family and friends. Other sources of social connection may be
professional organizations, clubs, religious groups, social media sites, and so forth. Humans
need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. Without these
attachments, people can be vulnerable to psychological difficulties such as loneliness, social
anxiety, and depression. These conditions, when severe, can impair a person's ability to
address basic physiological needs such as eating and sleeping.
The fourth level is esteem, which represents the normal human desire to be valued and
validated by others, through, for example, the recognition of success or status. This level also
includes self-esteem, which refers to the regard and acceptance one has for oneself.
Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People
suffering from low self-esteem may find that external validation by others—through fame,
glory, accolades, etc.—only partially or temporarily fulfills their needs at this level.
At the top of the pyramid is self-actualization. At this stage, people feel that they have
reached their full potential and are doing everything they're capable of. Self-actualization is
rarely a permanent feeling or state. Rather, it refers to the ongoing need for personal growth
and discovery that people have throughout their lives. Self-actualization may occur after
reaching an important goal or overcoming a particular challenge, and it may be marked by a
new sense of self-confidence or contentment.
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow's hierarchy of
needs into a theory of his own. Alderfer's ERG theory suggests that there are three groups
of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G)—hence the acronym ERG.
These groups align with Maslow's levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-
actualization needs, respectively.
Existence needs concern our basic material requirements for living. These include what
Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter) and safety-
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related needs (such as health, secure employment, and property).
Relatedness needs have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships.
These needs are based in social interactions with others and align with Maslow's levels of
love/belonging-related needs (such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-
related needs (gaining the respect of others).
Finally, growth needs describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs
align with the other portion of Maslow's esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence,
and achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality, creativity, problem-solving,
and discovery).
Alderfer proposed that when a certain category of needs isn't being met, people will redouble
their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category. For example, if someone's self-esteem is
suffering, he or she will invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.
Comparing Maslow and Alderfer’s theories
Maslow's theory and the ERG theory both seek to explain human motivation and how it
affects behavior. Both theories are rooted in the idea that there are basic needs that drive
people to do certain things and to behave in certain ways. Another similarity is that both
theories have a hierarchical framework, with primitive needs at the bottom, and more refined
needs at the top.
One of the primary differences between these two theories is that Maslow's theory has five
ascending levels, and the ERG theory only has three levels. In fact, in the ERG theory,
existence equates to Maslow's first two levels of physical and security needs, relatedness
equates to Maslow's next two levels of social needs and ego needs, and growth equates to
Maslow's final level of self-actualization.
Another difference is that Maslow believes each need is fulfilled one at a time in ascending
order, whereas Alderfer believes that more than one need can be fulfilled at the same time. In
other words, Maslow's theory is that everyone's needs progress through the specific five-level
pyramid structure, whereas the ERG theory is that people satisfy their needs in different ways
at different levels.
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory
Psychologist David McClelland's acquired-needs theory splits the needs of employees into
three categories rather than the two we discussed in Herzberg's theory. These three categories
are achievement, affiliation, and power.
Employees who are strongly achievement-motivated are driven by the desire for mastery.
They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty in which outcomes are the result of their
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effort rather than luck. They value receiving feedback on their work.
Employees who are strongly affiliation-motivated are driven by the desire to create and
maintain social relationships. They enjoy belonging to a group and want to feel loved and
accepted. They may not make effective managers because they may worry too much about
how others will feel about them.
Employees who are strongly power-motivated are driven by the desire to influence, teach, or
encourage others. They enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. However, they may
take a zero-sum approach to group work—for one person to win, or succeed, another must
lose, or fail. If channeled appropriately, though, this approach can positively support group
goals and help others in the group feel competent.
The acquired-needs theory doesn't claim that people can be neatly categorized into one of
three types. Rather, it asserts that all people are motivated by all of these needs in varying
degrees and proportions. An individual's balance of these needs forms a kind of profile that
can be useful in creating a tailored motivational paradigm for her. It is important to note that
needs do not necessarily correlate with competencies; it is possible for an employee to be
strongly affiliation-motivated, for example, but still be successful in a situation in which
her affiliation needs are not met.
McClelland proposes that those in top management positions generally have a high need for
power and a low need for affiliation. He also believes that although individuals with a need
for achievement can make good managers, they are not generally suited to being in top
management positions.
What Role Is Suitable For Each Need?
People with a high need for achievement can be given challenging roles or tasks that are
achievable. Feedback should be provided promptly, and monetary rewards are secondary but
could work to motivate them along with appropriate feedback. Entrepreneurial jobs would be
a good fit for them.
People with a high need for power can be given leadership or management roles. They can be
asked to lead a team or work as a manager in a company. A coach or mentor could also be a
good fit. This opportunity to lead others and make decisions for others would work for the
people under this category.
People with a high need for affiliation prefer working in a collaborative environment. They
should be given teamwork-related tasks or customer service jobs, to make use of their needs.
Applications Of McClelland’s Theory Of Needs
McClelland’s theory of needs is mostly used within organizational or industrial contexts. It is
used to recruit employees based on their needs and motivations.
Personality tests can be administered based on this theory, leading to an appropriate
delegation of roles. It also helps in gaining more information about the individual.
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A manager can use this theory to understand the different needs of his employees and provide
feedback, motivation and rewards, accordingly.
Team members can be assigned various roles according to their needs. For example, a
member who displays a high need for achievement can be given a challenging responsibility.
Criticism
The theory fails to explain how individuals get motivated. The process of motivation is not
described adequately.
People with a high need for achievement seem to expect others to be on the same level as
them, in terms of need and that can make them impatient managers or entrepreneurs.
