4.

Bending Stress

Tree is blown over by strong winds. Knowing where the maximum bending stress will occur gives
us an idea of why trees come off by the root when blown over and do not snap at the trunk.

4.1 Introduction
A previous chapter showed how loads acting on beams create bending moments and shear forces
(otherwise known as stress resultants) within a beam. This section investigates the stresses and
strains associated with those stress resultants. Knowledge of these stresses and strains is essential
in analysing and designing beams.

Only beams with a longitudinal plane of symmetry will be considered in this section. This plane
runs along the length of the beam. The loading, support conditions and member cross-section are
symmetric in the longitudinal plane.

Figure 4.1: Longitudinal fibres shown with a longitudinal plane of symmetry

A longitudinal ‘fibre‘ is a line that runs parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam. The usual
coordinate axis scheme is the y-axis vertically upwards and the x-axis running along the longitudinal
axis as seen in figure 4.1.
 4-2 Chapter 4. Bending Stress

4.2 Flexural Strains

Consider a beam in pure bending where there is no transverse shear force, V = dM dx = 0. On the
top surface, the longitudinal fibres are compressed. On the lower surface, the longitudinal fibres are
in tension. There is a surface that is not elongated or shortened and is called the neutral surface.
The intersection of the neutral surface with any cross-section of the beam is called the neutral axis
as seen in figure 4.1.
The beam cross-section is assumed to stay plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during
deformation. The beam cross-section will rotate perpendicular to the longitudinal axis when the
axis curves. This rotation can be seen with lines h-h and k-k, which represent surfaces that remain
plane and perpendicular in figure 4.2(a) and (c).

Figure 4.2: beam in pure bending (a) with zero shear force and constant bending moment (b). The
flexural deformation is shown in (c)

When subject to pure bending, the beam deforms to the shape of a circular arc, as shown in
figure 4.2(c). The centre of this arc is labelled O, the centre of curvature. The radius of the arc is
called the radius of curvature, denoted with a Greek letter ρ (rho). The radius of curvature has the
same sign as an internal moment.
Consider part of a longitudinal fibre a distance y above the neutral surface. It has length ∆x before
bending and ∆x′ after bending. The normal strain εx can be related to shortening of ∆x by the
equation:

δ ∆x′ − ∆x
εx = = lim
L ∆x→0 ∆x
If the interior angle is denoted ∆θ then arc length ∆x and ∆x′ can be related to the radius of curvature
ρ:

δ ∆x′ − ∆x (ρ − y) ∆θ − ρ∆θ
εx = = lim = lim ⇒
L ∆x→0 ∆x ∆θ →0 ρ∆θ

y
εx = − (4.1)
ρ
 4.3 Normal Stresses 4-3

The normal strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. The negative sign in
equation (4.1) shows that if the curvature is positive and the y-value is positive, above the x-axis,
the strain will be negative.
Curvature is denoted with the Greek letter κ (kappa):

1
κ= (4.2)
ρ

Radius and curvature are positive if the centre of curvature O is above the beam or in positive
y-direction as shown in figure 4.2. Conversely, they are negative if the centre is below the beam or
has a negative y-coordinate.

4.3 Normal Stresses

Firstly, it is assumed that the stresses are lower than yield strength and that the beam behaves
as linear elastic. The normal stress in a beam can then be determined by considering the linear
stress-strain relationship or Hooke’s Law (σ = Eε). The variation of stress in a beam is then given
by substituting Hooke’s Law into equation (4.1):

E
σx = − y = −Eκy (4.3)
ρ

The stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral axis. This can be seen in figure 4.3 with
no normal bending stress at the neutral axis.

Figure 4.3: Normal stress distribution in a beam with positive applied moment

A beam is subject to pure bending with no resultant force in the x-direction. In other words, no
axial force. The resultant internal moment acting about the z-axis can be related to the normal
stresses in the x-direction and be used to calculate the position of the neutral axis.
 4-4 Chapter 4. Bending Stress

4.3.1 Neutral Axis Location

The neutral axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of a beam or the x-axis in figure 4.3. There is no
strain due to bending on the neutral axis.

Figure 4.4: Beam cross section showing axes

Consider a small element on a homogeneous beam with area dA and distance y from the neutral
surface in figure 4.4. The resultant force acting on this element is dF given by σx dA. To satisfy
static equilibrium for the beam, the sum of all these resultants should equal zero:
Z Z
∑ Fx = dF =
A
σx dA = 0

substitute equation (4.3) gives:

E E
Z Z Z
∑ Fx = A σx dA = A − ρ y dA = − ρ A
y dA = 0

For a solid material, the elastic modulus E does not equal zero, and if the radius of curvature were
infinity, the beam would not bend at all, which implies:

Z
y dA = 0 (4.4)
A

Therefore, the first moment of area with respect to the z-axis must be zero. Recall from your
course in statics that the distance of the centroid with respect to the x-axis includes the first moment
of area:

R
y dA
y = RA (4.5)
A dA

Substitution of Equation (4.5) into Equation (4.4) gives y = 0. Therefore, the distance from the
neutral surface to the centroid must be zero. In other words, the neutral axis must pass through
the centroid.
 4.3 Normal Stresses 4-5

4.3.2 Moment-Curvature Relationship

The second equation of equilibrium to be satisfied is the moment equilibrium. The bending moment
M equals the moment resultant of the bending stresses σx acting over the cross-section. The
element of force σx dA is positive when σx is positive and acts in the positive direction of the
axis. Similarly, σx dA is negative when it acts in the negative x−direction and places the section in
compression.
Z
∑ Mz = − yσx dA − M = 0
A
Subsitute equation (4.3) for σx gives
E
Z Z
M = − yσx dA = y2 dA (4.6)
A ρ A

The integral term in this equation is called the second moment of area

Z
Iz = y2 dA (4.7)
A

The subscript z indicates the area moment of the area taken with respect to the z- axis. The integral
term can be replaced by the moment of area in equation (4.6):

1 M
κ= = (4.8)
ρ EIz

Equation (4.8) is called the moment-curvature relationship. It shows that the beam curvature is
directly related to the bending moment and inversely related to the quantity EIz , which is called the
flexural rigidity. Flexural rigidity is a measure of bending resistance.

4.3.3 Flexure Formula

The relationship between the normal stress σx and the curvature from equation (4.3) can be
substituted into the moment curvature relationship, equation (4.8) to give:

Mz y
σx = − (4.9)
Iz

This equation is known as the elastic flexure formula or the flexure formula. The normal stresses
produced by bending are called the bending stresses or flexural stresses.
 4-6 Chapter 4. Bending Stress

4.4 Bending of Composite Beams

Beams that are composed of two or more materials are called composite beams. Examples
include wooden beams with steel reinforcing plates and concrete reinforced with steel bars. Using
composite beams allows the stiffer material to be used more efficiently to support loads.
The flexure formula, equation (4.9), was for homogeneous beams of one material. Modifications
are required to make it applicable to composite beams. The composite beam will be changed into
an equivalent cross-section that consists of a single material. The dimensions of the beam with an
equivalent cross-section can then be used in the flexure formula to calculate the bending stresses.
The cross-sections remain plane during bending, and the strains vary linearly through the beam
cross-section as expressed in equation (4.1)

y
εx = − (4.10)
ρ

Consider a beam section of two materials where material (2) is stiffer than material (1). In other
words E2 > E1 . The force transmitted by an area element dA is given by:

dF = σx dA = (E2 εx ) dy dz

Figure 4.5: Illustration of bending stresses in composite beams (c) and (d) show how the more stiff
material (2) is transformed into the less stiff material (1), keeping the strain distribution the same.

Here, the stresses are transformed into strains with Hooke’s Law. Now consider a changed section
which replaces material (2) with material (1). The strain distribution should be the same in these
cross-sections, so the y-dimension must be the same. The width in the z-dimension can be changed.
Since Material (2) is stiffer than Material (1), more material (1) will be required to replace Material
(2).
4.4 Bending of Composite Beams 4-7

Let the equivalent amount of Material (1) have area dA′ with height dy and width n dz.

dF ′ = σx dA′ = (E1 εx ) dy n dz

Since these two sections have to transmit the same amount of forces dF = dF ′

(E2 εx ) dy dz = (E1 εx ) dy n dz
It follows that:

E2
n= (4.11)
E1

The ratio n is called the modular ratio. The new material (1) is called the transformed section.

Figure 4.6: Distribution of strain (a) and stress (b) in a composite beam.

The normal stresses can be expressed in terms of the radius of curvature ρ as:

E1 E2
σx1 = − y ; σx2 = − y (4.12)
ρ ρ

Here σx1 and σx2 are the stresses in material (1) and material (2), respectively.
Now, let us consider the force equilibrium on the composite beam.
Z Z Z
∑ Fx = A
σx dA =
A1
σx1 dA +
A2
σx2 dA = 0

Substitute equation (4.12) to give:

E1 E2
Z Z
− y dA − y dA = 0
A1 ρ A2 ρ
The curvature is the same and can be cancelled out. The modular ratio can be substituted from
equation (4.11) to give:
Z Z
E1 y dA + E2 yn dA = 0
A1 A2

The area of a transformed cross section (At ) can be expressed as:

Z Z Z
dA = dA + n dA = 0
At A1 A2

Combining the previous two equations gives:

4-8 Chapter 4. Bending Stress

Z
y dA = 0 (4.13)
At

Therefore, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the transformed cross section not the
centroid of the original area.
The moment relationship for the beam of two materials is:
Z Z Z
M =− yσx dA = − yσx dA − yσx dA
A A1 A2

Substitute equation (4.11) and equation (4.12) gives

Z 
E1
Z
M= y2 dA + ny2 dA
ρ A1 A2

The moment of area of a transformed section It is defined as:

Z Z Z
It = y2 dAt = y2 dA + ny2 dA (4.14)
At A1 A2

The moment-curvature relationship is then:

E1 It
M= (4.15)
ρ

The stresses in Material (1) can be expressed as:

My
σx1 = − (4.16)
It

and the stresses in Material (2), bearing in mind that the section in transformed

My
σx2 = −n (4.17)
It
4.4 Bending of Composite Beams 4-9

■ Example 4.1 A beam has a maximum moment, Mmax = 60 kN m. The cross-section of the beam
is a hollow box with wood flanges and steel side plates, as shown in figure 4.7. The wood flanges
are 75 mm by 100 mm in cross-section, and the steel plates are 300 mm deep. What is the required
thickness t of the steel plates if the allowable stresses are 120 MPa for the steel and 6.5 MPa for
the wood? (Assume that the moduli of elasticity for the steel and wood are 210 GPa and 10 GPa,
respectively, and disregard the weight of the beam.)

Figure 4.7: Composite beam section made of steel and wood.

Solution
The Maximum Moment = Mmax = 60 kN m = 60 × 106 N mm. The allowable stress in the steel
(σsteel = 120 MPa) and the wood σwood = 6.5 MPa. The second moment of area is unknown. We
calculate the required second moment of area Ieqsteel based on σsteel and then the required Ieqwood
based on σwood . These are two separate cases.

Steel Case
Mmax ysteel 60 × 106 (300/2)
Limited by σsteel : Ieqsteel = = = 75.0 × 106 mm4
σsteel 120
The second moment of area has to be related to the thickness t of the steel. The overall requirement
Ewood
Ieqsteel has been calculated but includes both steel Isteel−steel and transformed wood Iwood
Esteel
components. These have to be separated, and the untransformed wood moment of area only is:
100 × 3003 100 × 1503
Iwood = − = 196.8 × 106 mm4
12 12
The required moment of area of only the steel section if the wood was transformed into steel:
Ewood
Isteel−steel = Ieqsteel − Iwood = 65.625 × 106 mm4
Esteel
Wood Case
Mmax ywood 60 × 106 (300/2)
Limited by σwood : Ieqwood = = = 1.384 × 109 mm4
σwood 6.5
The required moment of area of the steel section if the steel was transformed into wood:

Ewood
Isteel−wood = Ieqwood − Iwood = 56.559 × 106 mm4
Esteel
Since the requirement of the steel is higher, the steel strength is used as opposed to the wood
strength to calculate the thickness.
2t × 3003
Isteel−steel = ⇒ t =14.583 mm
12
■
 4-10 Chapter 4. Bending Stress

4.5 Eccentric Loading

In a previous chapter, a load acted through the centroid of the cross-section and is called centric
loading. This load creates stress that is uniform over the cross-section. If the force does not pass
through the centroid of the section, then there is an eccentric axial load. Additional bending
stresses occur with the normal stresses.

Figure 4.8: Cantilever beam with an eccentric load P and equivalent system

Consider an eccentric axial load P, which acts at a distance e (eccentricity of the load) away from
the centroid as seen in figure 4.8. The eccentricity is measured in the positive y-direction.
The stresses are calculated by combining the normal stresses and the bending stresses:

P My
σx = −
A Iz
This system is statically equivalent to an axial force P through the centroid with an applied moment
of magnitude Pe. Since the internal moment is the negative of the applied moment, the expression
is −M = Pe.

P (Pe) y
σx = + (4.18)
A Iz

Figure 4.9: Stress distributions caused by an eccentric axial load.

Figure 4.9 shows the applied moment and force in (a). The uniform stress distribution is seen in (b),
which is added to the stress from bending in (c) to give the complete Distribution of stresses in (d).
The neutral axis will no longer be situated at the centre of the cross-section. If the axial force is
large enough relative to the bending stresses, the structure will have no neutral axis. To obtain the
location of the neutral axis, set σx = 0 and solve for the distance from the centroid of the section.
4.5 Eccentric Loading 4-11

■ Example 4.2 A C-shaped machine component has a load applied to it of 12 kN. The cross-section
of the beam is a hollow square tube with sidewalls of thickness 5 mm. The width and breadth
is 40 mm and 30 mm respectively. Determine the maximum tensile and compression stresses in
section a − a as shown.

Figure 4.10: A C-shaped component with an eccentric axial load.

Solution
Section Properties
A = (40 × 30) − ((40 − 2 × 5) × (30 − 2 × 5)) = 600 mm2

Note the axis on which the component will bend.

30 × 403 (30 − 2 × 5) × (40 − 2 × 5)3
Izz = − = 115 × 103 mm4
12 12
Maximum tensile stress
P (Pe) x 12000 (12000 × 80) (40/2)
σy = + = + = 20 + 166.96 = 187.0 MPa
A Iz 600 115000

Maximum compression stress

P (Pe) x 12000 (12000 × 80) (−40/2)
σy = + = + = 20 − 166.96 = −147.0 MPa ■
A Iz 600 115000