ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

Topics covered in this chapter

 Oil properties
 Multi-grade oils
 Viscosity index
 Synthetic oils
 Maintenance checks and repair procedures
 Working details of engine lubrication systems
 Pressure-relief valve
 Full-flow and bypass filters
 Oil cooler
 Oil pumps
 Oil pressure checks

Lubricants
Oil is the principal lubricant used in automobiles and its main purpose is to reduce friction and
prevent wear. In engines and transmission systems the oil performs an additional function, which is to
conduct heat away from moving parts and thus help to keep a system cool (Fig.1).

Reducing friction
In most moving parts of a mechanism friction is a problem. Two methods of reducing it are:
1. Rolling friction (Fig.2). When a hard steel ball rolls across a hard flat surface the ball and flat
surface make contact at a single point. There is no relative sliding at the point of contact,
which means that there is no friction. This is the principle of ball and roller bearings that are
used extensively in automotive systems.
2. Lubrication. A principal purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction. Two important properties
of a lubricant are:
 Viscosity
 Oiliness.
Fig.1: Coefficient of friction Fig.2: Shaft and bearing lubrication

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of resistance offered to the sliding of one layer of lubricant over an adjacent
layer. In automotive use the viscosity is taken to be a measure of the lubricant’s resistance to flow.
For practical purposes the viscosity of a lubricant is measured by recording the time that it takes for a
quantity of the lubricant to flow through an orifice of fixed size at a given temperature. In automotive
practice oils are normally identified by a grading system devised by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) of the USA. An oil with a grading of SAE 40 has a higher resistance to flow than
one with a grading of SAE 20.

Oiliness
If two lubricants with identical viscosities are smeared on to two pairs of surfaces and the friction
between the surfaces is measured and compared, the friction force will be lower for one pair of
surfaces than the other. The lubricant that produces the lowest friction force under these
circumstances is said to have the greater oiliness. Oiliness is the property of an oil to cling to a
surface and it is particularly noticeable in vegetable oils and synthetic oils that have been treated so
that they possess oiliness.

Boundary lubrication
Boundary lubrication is largely restricted to surfaces where sliding contact occurs in components such
as pistons and cylinder walls. In most cases splash lubrication and jets of oil sprayed on the moving
parts is the method used to provide the oil film.

Sources of oil
Mineral oil
Mineral oil that is used as the base of most automotive lubricants is obtained from crude petroleum.
Petrol and diesel fuel are other crude petroleum products.
Vegetable oil
Whilst vegetable oil is not suitable for engine lubrication because of its tendency to decompose under
working conditions, in the twenty-first century it is being increasingly used as a source of fuel. The
large areas of bright yellow crops of rape seed that can be seen throughout the countryside in the UK
are evidence of this trend.

Types of oil
Viscosity vs. temperature
The viscosity of oil is affected by temperature. In effect, the oil becomes thinner as its temperature
rises and this causes problems in engines that operate across a fairly wide range of temperatures. To
address this problem motor oils are designed to have a high viscosity index. The viscosity index is a
number that indicates how much an oil thins out as its temperature rises e an oil that is very thick
when cold and very thin when hot has a low viscosity index. Most modern engine oils are treated with
viscosity index improvers; these are chemicals that restrict the tendency for an oil to get thinner as it
is heated and they give the oil a high viscosity index. Oils that are treated in this way are called multi-
grade oils because they conform to two SAE methods of classifying them: SAE W for cold
temperature performance and the usual SAE number for higher temperatures.

Multi-grade oils
An oil that is graded as 10W/30 is known as a multi-grade oil because it conforms to two viscosity
ratings: one that is based on subzero temperatures, which is the reason for the Win the 10W, denoting
winter, and the other number, which is based on higher temperatures.

Additives
Motor oil needs to perform a variety of functions under a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Therefore, several additives are incorporated into the formulation:
1. Detergent/dispersant additives used to maintain engine cleanliness, keeping the various
contaminants in a fine suspension and preventing them from settling out on vital engine
components.
2. Rust and corrosion inhibitors added to protect the engine from water and acids formed as
combustion by-products.
3. Antioxidants added to inhibit the oxidation process, which can result in oil thickening and
sludge formation.
4. Anti-wear additives form a film on metal surfaces to help prevent metal-to-metal contact.
 5. Viscosity modifiers and pour point depressants help improve the flow characteristics of motor
oil.

Oil quality
The SAE rating is merely concerned with viscosity; other methods of grading are used as a guide to
quality and suitability of an oil for specific purposes. Two of these grading systems are:
1. American Petroleum Institute (API)
2. European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association

The grading of these organizations are designed to ensure that oils meet the requirements of modern
automobiles and emissions regulations. Examples of these grading are:
 API SL. For all automotive engines presently in use. Introduced on 30 November 2004, SM
oils are designed to provide improved oxidation resistance, improved deposit protection,
better wear protection, and better low-temperature performance over the life of the oil.
 ACEA A1/B1. A stable, stay-in-grade oil intended for use at extended drain intervals in
gasoline engines, and car and light van diesel engines that are specifically designed to use
low-viscosity oils.
 The grade of oil to be used in a specific vehicle is normally stated in the driver’s handbook.

Engine Lubrication system

There are three main types of lubrication systems in common use on internal combustion engines:
 Wet sump
 Dry sump
 Total loss.
The object of the lubrication system is to feed oil to all the moving parts of the engine to reduce
friction and wear, and to dissipate heat. Modern oils also clean the engine by keeping the products of
combustion, dirt, etc. in suspension. This makes it essential that oil and filters are changed in
accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions. It can be seen from this that the oil performs four
important functions:
 It keeps friction and wear on the moving parts to a minimum.
 It acts as a coolant and transfers the heat from the moving parts.
 It keeps the moving parts clean and carries the impurities to the oil filter.
 It reduces corrosion and noise in the engine. It also acts as a sealant around the piston and
rings.
Main components in the lubrication system
The lubrication system is mostly pressurized and consists of the following main components:
 Oil pump - draws the oil from the sump and delivers it under pressure to the engine
lubrication system.
 Relief valve - limits the maximum pressure of the oil supplied by the pump to the system.
 Sump e serves as a reservoir for the oil.
 Oil galleries are channels or drillings through which the oil passes to the different lubrication
points in the engine.
 Oil pressure - indicator shows whether the oil pressure is being kept within the
manufacturers’ limits.
 Oil filter - filters the oil, removing impurities to keep it clean.

Fig.3: Engine lubrication system

A typical lubrication system works in the following way:

1. Oil is drawn from the sump by the oil pump.
2. The pump pressurizes the oil and passes it through the oil filter into the oil galleries and
passages that lead to the crankshaft and camshaft bearings and, in some engines, the rocker
shaft and rocker arms.
3. The oil splashed from the crankshaft lubricates the pistons and other internal parts of the
engine.
 4. After lubricating the moving components, the oil drips back down into the sump. Fig. 3 shows
the oil flow in an engine lubrication system.

Function of the lubricating oil

When looking at the working surfaces of, say, the crankshaft and the main bearings in which it runs
(B), they appear to be blank and smooth. But when observed under a powerful microscope they will
be seen to be uneven and rough. When oil is introduced between these surfaces, it fills up the slight
irregularities and forms a thin layer, called an oil film. It is this oil film that separates the surfaces
and, when the components are rotating, prevents metal-to-metal contact. When the engine is operating
the oil must be strong enough to withstand the heavy loads imposed on all the moving parts. The oil
is therefore delivered under pressure to the bearings and, to enable it to enter, a very small clearance
between the shaft and bearing is necessary. The clearance must be sufficient for the oil to enter, but
small enough to resist the heavy loadings to which the bearings are subjected. This clearance is
approximately 0.05mm for a shaft of 60-70mm diameter. When the shaft is not rotating but is resting
on the bearings, only a very thin film of residual oil separates the surfaces. As the engine starts the
only lubrication for the first revolution is provided by this thin film of oil; as the revolutions increase,
the oil pump starts to deliver the oil under pressure to the bearings. The oil is drawn round by the
rotating shaft which, together with the pressure, forms an oil wedge that lifts the shaft up from the
bearing. The shaft then rotates freely, separated from the bearings by this thin film of oil.

Fig.5: Bearing clearance correct and how oil lubricates

It is important that the bearings have the correct clearance. Too much will cause the oil to escape
from the bearing without being able to create the required oil wedge; too little will restrict the oil
from entering the bearing, causing metal-to-metal contact.

Function of the sump

When the engine is filled with oil, it flows down through the engine into a container called the sump.
This is attached to the bottom of the engine block with a series of small bolts, usually with a gasket
between the block and the sump. It is commonly formed from sheet steel pressed to a shape that has
one end slightly lower to form the oil reservoir. In the bottom of the sump is the drain plug. Baffle
plates are fitted to prevent the oil from splashing around or surging when the vehicle is accelerating
and braking or going round corners. If all the oil is allowed to move to the rear or to the side of the
sump, the oil pick-up may become exposed, causing air to be drawn into the lubrication. The sump
also acts as an oil cooler because it extends into the air stream under the vehicle. To assist with the
cooling process there may also be small fins formed on the outside to increase its surface area.
Aluminium is sometimes used to give a more rigid structure to support the crankshaft and crankcase
of the engine.

Oil level indicators

The level in the sump is checked by means of a dipstick on which the maximum and minimum oil
levels are indicated. A number of vehicles fit indicators to show the driver the level of oil in the
engine without having to lift the bonnet and remove the dipstick manually. One of the popular types
used is the ‘hot wire’ dipstick, where a resistance wire is fitted inside the hollow stick between the oil
level marks. The current is only supplied to the wire for about 1.5 seconds at the instant the ignition is
switched on. If the wire is not in the oil it overheats and an extra electrical resistance is created, which
signals the ECU (electronic control unit) to operate the driver’s warning light.
Fig. Operation of Oil pressure gauge Fig. Oil pressure and low oil level warning circuit

Oil pump
The oil enters the pump via a pipe with a strainer on the end, which is immersed in the oil reservoir in
the sump. This strainer prevents larger particles from being sucked into the lubrication system. The
oil pump creates the required pressure that forces the oil to the various lubrication points. The
quantity of oil delivered by the pump varies greatly from vehicle to vehicle and also depends on
engine speed, but will be approximately 120 litres when the speed of the vehicle is 100 km/h. The
most common types of pumps used in the motor vehicle engines which are the gear, rotary, or vane.

Gear pump
As shown in Fig. 12.12, the gear pump consists of two gears in a compact housing with an inlet and
outlet. The gears can be either spur or helical in shape (the helical being quieter in operation). The
pump drive shaft is mounted in the housing and fixed to this is the driving gear. Oil is drawn via the
inlet into the pump. It passes through the pump in the spaces between the gear teeth and pump casing,
and out through the outlet at a faster rate than is used by the system. In this way pressure is created in
the system until the maximum pressure is reached, at which time the pressure-relief valve will open
and release the excess pressure into the sump.
Fig. Eccentric vane pump Fig. Gear pump

Rotary pump
The main parts of this type of pump (shown in Fig. 12.13) are the inner rotor, the outer rotor, and the
housing containing the inlet and outlet ports. The inner rotor, which has four lobes, is fixed to the end
of a shaft; the shaft is mounted off-centre in the outer rotor, which has five recesses corresponding to
the lobes. When the inner rotor turns, its lobes slide over the corresponding recesses in the outer rotor
turning it in the pump housing. At the inlet side the recess is small; as the rotor turns the recess
increases in size, drawing oil up from the sump into the pump. When the recess is at its largest the
inlet port finishes, further movement of the rotor reveals the outlet port, and the recess begins to
decrease in size, forcing the oil under pressure through the outlet port.

Fig. Plunger pump Fig. Rotor pump

Vane-type pump
This pump, shown in Fig. 12.14, takes the form of a driven rotor that is eccentrically mounted
(mounted offset) inside a circular housing. The rotor is slotted and the eccentric vanes are free to slide
within the slots, a pair of thrust rings ensuring that the vanes maintain a close clearance with the
housing. When in operation the vanes are pressurized outwards by the centrifugal action of the rotor
rotating at high speed. As the pump rotates the volume between the vanes at the inlet increases, thus
drawing oil from the sump into the pump; this volume decreases as the oil reaches the outlet,
pressurizing the oil and delivering it to the oil gallery. This type has the advantage of giving a
continuous oil flow rather than the pulsating flow that is rather characteristic of the gear-type pump.

Pressure-relief valve
As engine speed increases, the oil pump produces a higher pressure than is required by the engine
lubrication system. A pressure-relief valve (see Fig. 12.15) is therefore fitted in the system to take
away the excess pressure and maintain it at a level appropriate for the bearings and seals used. It will
be seen then that the relief valve performs two important functions: first, it acts as a pressure
regulator; second, it acts as a safety device in the lubrication system. The main types in use are the
ball valve, the plate, and the plunger or poppet valve. Each is held in the closed position by a spring.
As the oil pressure in the oil gallery rises above the setting for the relief valve, the valve opens against
spring pressure, allowing the oil to bypass the system and return back to the sump via the return
outlet. The force on the spring determines the oil pressure in the lubrication system.

Fig. External relief valve Fig. Oil pressure relief valve

Oil filter
When the oil passes through the engine it becomes contaminated with carbon (the by-product of the
combustion process), dust (drawn in from the atmosphere), small metal particles (from components
rubbing together), water, and sludge (a combination of all these impurities mixed together). All these
will cause engine wear if they remain in the oil, so the engine must be equipped with a filtering
system that will remove them and keep the oil as clean as possible. Most modern engines are
equipped with a filtering system where all the oil is filtered before it reaches the bearings. This
arrangement is called the full-flow system. There is another system also in use where only a portion
of the oil passes through the filter, called the by-pass filter Fig. 12.14 Vane pump system. The two
systems are shown in Fig. 12.16.

The importance of filtering the oil is shown by the results of an investigation into the wear on the
cylinder and piston, using the two filtering systems. It was found that maximum wear (100%) occurs
in engines working without an oil filter. When a bypass filter is used, wear is reduced to about 43%
on the cylinder and 73% on the piston, which means that the life of the piston and cylinder are almost
doubled. Minimum wear occurs when a full-flow filter is used; wear is again reduced by a further
15% on the cylinder and 22% on the piston. This means that the life of the piston and cylinder is four
to five times longer than in an engine working without a filter. A good oil filter must be capable of
stopping the flow of very small particles without restricting the flow of oil through the filter. To meet
this requirement, different materials are used as the filtering medium.

Fig. By-pass oil filter

Resin-impregnated paper is widely used, the paper being folded in order to make a large surface area
available for the oil to flow through; particles are left on the paper and clean oil is passed to the
lubrication system. In this way, when the filter is changed the impurities are removed at the same
time. In other types of oil filters, different kinds of fibrous materials are used. The filtering material is
enclosed in perforated cylinders, one outer and one inner, to form a filter element (Fig. 12.17).
The oil enters through the perforations in the cylinder, passes through the filtering element and leaves
through the central tube outlet. Many modern filters are now the cartridge type, which is removed
complete. The advantages of this disposable type are that it cleans the oil very efficiently, it is
relatively easy to change, and it is less messy to remove. The filter element can also be located in a
removable metal container. With the replaceable-element type it is only the element itself that is
changed, the container is thoroughly cleaned, and the ‘O’ ring replaced.
Full-flow filter
Oil filter operation is shown in Fig. 12.18. The most widely used filtering system is the full-flow
filter. The construction of the filter is very efficient because all the oil is passed through the filter
before it flows to the bearings. After a certain length of time the element becomes dirty and less
efficient, and must therefore be changed. If the element is not changed regularly the impurities will
accumulate and the element will become clogged, restricting or preventing the oil from passing
through the filter. For this reason a relief valve is fitted into the filter, which opens and allows the oil
to bypass the clogged filter element and flow directly to the bearings unrestricted. If the condition is
allowed to continue, unfiltered oil will carry abrasive particles to the bearings, causing rapid wear.

Fig. Full flow oil filter

Fig. Lubrication systems. (a) Full-flow system. (b) Bypass system

Figure 8-9. Filter System Configurations.

Cartridge filter
In the cartridge filter the relief valve is in the filter (shown in the open position in Fig. 12.19). Many
of the filters now contain a valve underneath the inlet hole, which opens when oil pressure forces oil
into the filter. When the engine stops and the oil flow ceases, the valve closes and the oil is kept
within the filter. This prevents it from draining back into the sump. It also has the advantage of
enabling the engine to develop the oil pressure more quickly when starting from cold. Correct
operation is shown in Fig. 12.20.
Disc filter
This type of full-flow filter (shown in Fig. 12.21) is used in large diesel engines. The oil is filtered by
being forced through very narrow gaps (0.05 mm) between thin steel discs, which form an assembly
that can be rotated. The narrow gap between the discs prevents impurities in the oil from passing
through. The deposits accumulate on the outside of the discs, which are kept clean by scrapers that
scrape off the deposits as the disc assembly rotates. In most cases the assembly is connected to the
clutch pedal; each time the pedal is operated the disc assembly is rotated a small amount. The filter
must be drained as per manufacturers’ recommendations, this being done by removing the drain plug,
allowing dirt and some oil to be flushed out.
Centrifugal filter
Again mainly found on larger engines, this consists of a housing with a shaft and rotor inside. The oil
is forced through the inlet ports by the pump and fills the rotor through the inlet holes in the rotor
shaft, passing down the pipes to the jets. Due to the force of the oil passing through the jets, the rotor
rotates at very high speed. Owing to the centrifugal force, the impurities (which are heavier than the
oil) accumulate on the walls of the rotor. The filter must be periodically cleaned by dismantling the
filter and washing with a suitable cleaning fluid.
Dry-sump lubrication
This type of system (Fig. 12.22) is fitted to vehicles where the engine is mounted on its side, or where
greater ground clearance is required. It is also used for motor cycle engines, cross-country vehicles,
and racing engines, where under certain conditions the pick-up pipe could be exposed for a period of
time and therefore the oil supply to the engine lubrication system could be interrupted. To overcome
this problem, a dry-sump system is often fitted. The oil is stored in a separate oil tank instead of in the
sump. The oil pump takes the oil from the tank and passes it to the lubrication system. The oil then
drops down to the crankcase, where a separate scavenge oil pump often running at a higher speed
than the pressure pump returns it back to the oil tank. This means that the sump remains almost dry.
The faster speed of the scavenge pump is due to the fact that it must be capable of pumping a mixture
of air and oil (which has a larger volume than just oil) back to the tank.
Fig. Operation of dry-sump lubrication system Fig. Oil pressure and low oil level warning circuit

Oil coolers (sometimes called heat exchangers)

Two types of oil coolers are fitted where the heat is removed from the oil: one is the oil-to-air, where
the heat is passed directly to the air; the other is the oil-water, where the heat from the oil is passed to
the water cooling system. Both types are shown in Fig. 12.23. In water-cooled engines the oil cooler
is normally located in front of, and sometimes combined with, the radiator. The advantage of the
water-type heat exchanger is that the oil and water are operating at roughly the same temperature and
each is maintained at its most efficient working temperature under most operating conditions. In air-
cooled heat exchanger engines the cooler is usually located in the air stream of the cooling fan and is
similar in construction to the cooling system radiator. An oil cooler bypass valve is fitted in the
system, which allows the oil to heat up more rapidly from cold by initially restricting its circulation to
the engine only.

Fig. Basic principles of oil coolers. (a) Oil-to-air. (b) Oil-to-water

Total loss lubrication
There is one system commonly used that has so far not been mentioned e that is the total loss system.
This is where the oil used to lubricate the piston, main, and big-end bearings is burnt during the
combustion stroke, and therefore lost through the exhaust system to the atmosphere. One example of
this is the two-stroke petrol engine used in the motor cycle.
Oil sealing
The various joint faces of the engine must be made oil-tight to reduce oil consumption. This oil seal is
usually accomplished by the use of gaskets of thin waxed paper, of cork, or of a special material
which is resistance to heat, water, and oil. The thicker the gasket the more important it is to tighten
the joint evenly.
Crankcase ventilation
It is important to arrange for constant stream of fresh air to pass through the crankcase while the
engine is running to reduce the contamination of the oil petrol vapour or exhaust gases. Such
contamination forms acids in the oil which corrode the bearing surfaces and may cause bearing
surfaces and may cause bearing failure. Water vapour is also removed and this reduces the formation
of slugde. Many modern engines have a positive system of ventilation in which foul air is drawn out
of the crankcase into the inlet manifold. The foul air is replaced by fresh air which is passed through a
wire-gauzed air is clean before it enters the crankcase the air cleaner being in the carburetor cleaner
or in the filler cap.
Splash System
The splash lubrication system no longer is used in automotive engines, though it is used in small
equipment engines. In a splash lubrication system, dippers on the connecting rods enter the oil in the
crankcase with each crankshaft revolution, thus splashing the oil. As the oil is thrown upward, it finds
its way into the various engine parts. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from the dipper to
the bearing to ensure lubrication. This system is too uncertain for modern automotive applications.
One reason is that the level of oil in the crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received
by the engine; a high level results in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level
results in inadequate lubrication.
Combination Splash and Force-Feed System
In the combination system, oil is delivered to some parts by means of splash and to other parts
through oil passages, under pressure from a pump in the crankcase. The main and the camshaft
bearings are usually the items that are force fed while the connecting rods are fitted with dippers that
supply oil to the rest of the engine by splash. Some configurations utilize small troughs under each
connecting rod that are kept full by small nozzles that deliver oil under pressure from the oil pump.
These oil nozzles deliver an increasingly heavy stream as speed increases. At very high speeds these
oil streams are powerful enough to strike the dippers directly. This causes a much heavier splash so
that adequate lubrication of the pistons and the connecting rod bearings is provided at higher speeds.
If a combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is lubricated by
pressure from the oil pump.

Figure. Combination Splash and Force-Feed Lubrication System

Force-Feed Lubrication System

A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the force-feed lubrication
system. Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the main bearings and the camshaft
bearings. Unlike the combination system (para8-18) the connecting rod bearings are also fed oil under
pressure from the pump. Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft in order to lead oil to the
connecting rod bearings. The passages deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing
journals. In some engines, these openings are holes that index (line up) once for every crankshaft
revolution. In other engines, there are annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil can
feed constantly into the hole in the crankshaft. The pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting rod
bearings goes on to lubricate the pistons and walls by squirting out through strategically drilled holes.
This lubrication system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with semi-floating piston
pins.
Figure Force-Feed Lubrication System.

Full Force-Feed Lubrication System

In the full force-feed lubrication system, all of the bearings mentioned. This includes main bearings,
rod bearings, camshaft bearings, and the complete valve mechanism. In addition, the full force-feed
lubrication system provides lubrication under pressure to the pistons and the piston pins. This is
accomplished by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil passage from the
connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds the piston pin bearings,
but also provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This lubrication system is used in
virtually all current automotive engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.

Figure. Full Force-Feed Lubrication System.

Practical on lubrication system

Figure. Gear-Type Oil Pump.