Sensation and

Perception
Chapter 4
 Naïve Realism
• Definition = the belief that our sensory systems are
infallible and that our perceptions are perfect
representations of the world around us
 Sensation
1. Vision
2. Hearing
3. Smell
4. Taste
5. Somatosensory
 Transduction
• Definition = process of converting an external energy
or substance into electrical activity within neurons
• Occurs via sensory receptors
 Sensory receptor
• Definition = specialized cell responsible for converting
external stimuli into neural activity for a specific
sensory system
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 Sensory Adaptation
• Definition = process in which activation is greatest
when a stimulus is first detected
• Response to the stimulus declines in strength over
time
 Vision
1.Cornea 6.Vitreous humor
2.Pupil 7.Fovea
3.Lens 8.Blind spot
4.Ciliary muscles 9.Retina
5.Aqueous humor
Cornea
• Definition = transparent
cover for the pupil, lens,
and iris
• Its shape bends incoming
light to focus the image at
the back of the eye
Pupil
• Definition = circular hole
through which light enters
the eye
• Pupillary reflex is a muscle
response that dilates or
contracts the pupil
Lens
• Definition = part of the eye
that changes curvature to
keep images in focus
• Consists of some of the
most unusual cells in the
body
• Presbyopia = declining
eyesight with age due to
the lens becoming more
rigid over time
Ciliary Muscles
• Definition = changes the
thickness of the lens
• Ring of smooth muscle fibers
• Connected to the lens via
sensory ligaments
• Allows the lens to focus on
objects depending on their
distance
 Nearsightedness
• Definition = inability to see
far objects well but able to
see close objects clearly
• Results when images are
focused in front of the rear
of the eye, due to our
cornea being too long
Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From
Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Farsightedness
• Definition = inability to
see close objects well but
able to see far objects
clearly
• Results when our cornea
is too flat or our eyes are
too short
Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From
Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
Aqueous Humor

• Definition = transparent,
gelatinous fluid supporting
the structure of the cornea
and lens
Vitreous Humor

• Definition = transparent,
gelatinous fluid supporting
the primary structure of the
eye and retina
Fovea

• Definition = central portion

of the retina
• Responsible for acuity
Blind Spot
• Definition = point of exit of
ganglion cell axons where
the optic nerve connects to
the retina
• Contains no rods or cones
• Creates some of the most
remarkable visual illusions
Retina
• Definition = membrane at
the back of the eye
responsible for converting
light into neural activity
• Contains photoreceptors
 Photoreceptors
• Definition = cells that respond to light (or lack there of)
• Not equally distributed across the retina
• Two types:
a) Rods
b) Cones
 Rods
• Definition = receptor cells in the retina that are
sensitive to light
• Long and narrow
• Located around the peripheral of the retina

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 Rods
• Enable us to see basic shapes and forms
• Dark adaptation = time in dark before rods regain
maximum light sensitivity
• Contains photopigments called rhodopsin
• Approx. 125 million/retina
 Cones
• Definition = receptor cells in the retina that are
sensitive to detail
• Cone-shaped
• Located in the center of the retina

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 Cones
• Enable us to see colour
• Less sensitive to light
• Contains photopigments called iodopsin
• Approx. 6.4 million/retina
 Colour Blindness
• Definition = inability to see some or all colours
• Most often due to absence or reduced cones due to
genetic abnormalities
• Can also result due to brain injury
• Males > Females
• Very rare
 Blindness
• Definition = dramatic reduction or inability to see
• Vision ≤ 20/200 on Snellen eye chart
• Can be the result of cataracts, clouding of the lens, or
glaucoma
• To compensate, they often rely on other senses (e.g.,
touch and hearing)
 Visual Agnosia
• Definition = a condition in which a person can see but
cannot recognize or interpret visual information
• Caused by a disorder in the parietal lobes
 Hearing
• Sound = vibration (waves)
• Sound waves can travel through gases, liquids, and
solids
• We hear them best, though, when they travel through
air
 Elements of Sound
1.Frequency
2.Amplitude
3.Timbre
 Frequency
• Definition = number of cycles a sound wave completes
in a given time
• Measured in hertz (Hz)
• Humans hear sounds between 3—20,000 Hz

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Amplitude
• Definition = strength (or height) of a sound wave
• Measured in decibels (dB)

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From
Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Timbre
• Definition = complexity or quality of sound that makes
musical instruments, human voices, or other sounds
unique
• Allows the ear to distinguish sounds with the same
pitch and loudness
• Determined by the harmonic content of a sound and
the dynamic characteristics of the sound (e.g., vibrato)
 Structure of the Ear
1. Pinna 6. Basilar Membrane
2. Tympanic 7. Cochlear Duct
Membrane 8. Organ of Corti
3. Ossicles 9. Hair Cells
4. Oval Window 10.Cilia
5. Cochlea
 Outer Ear
Components
Pinna
• Definition = structure
of the ear that
amplifies sound and
funnels it down the
auditory canal to the
tympanic membrane
• Helps with
localization
Tympanic Membrane
• Definition =
membrane which
vibrates according
to the frequency of
the sound
• Commonly known as
the “eardrum”
 Middle Ear
Components
Ossicles
• Definition = structure
consisting of three bones
that transmit vibrations
from the tympanic
membrane to the oval
window
• Bones:
a) Malleus (Hammer)
b) Incus (Anvil)
c) Stapes (Stirrup)
 Inner Ear
Components
Oval Window
• Definition =
membrane that
receives vibrations
from the ossicles and
sends it to the
cochlea
• Connects middle and
inner ear
Cochlea
• Definition =
spiral-shaped and
filled with fluid
• Contains:
a) Basilar
membrane
b) Cochlear duct
c) Organ of corti
Basilar Membrane

• Definition = membrane
below the organ of
Corti that assists in
translating vibrations
into neural activity via
action potentials

© 2001 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Cochlear Duct
• Definition =
endolymph filled
cavity inside the
cochlea
• Sound vibrations
create waves in this
fluid triggering
movement in the hair
cells and cilia
© 2001 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
Organ of Corti
• Definition = tissue
containing the hair cells
(and cilia) necessary for
hearing
• Translates the waves in
the endolymph into
neural activity via
action potentials
© 2001 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
Hair Cells
• Attached to the top of
each cell in the basilar
membrane
• When the basilar
membrane vibrates, it
causes movement in the
hair cells
• Each hair cell has many
fine filaments called
cilia
© 2001 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
 Cilia
• Definition = short, microscopic, hair-like structure
extending from hair cells
• Movement of the cilia open ion channels causing the
release of neurotransmitters to send signals to the
brain
 Smell
• “Olfactory”
• Humans are only capable of detecting between 2000-
4000 different odours
• Decreased sense of smell may be an early sign of
Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease
• Women > men
 Taste
• “Gustation”
• Humans are even less taste-orientated
• Five basic tastes = sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami
• Taste preferences are primarily culturally determined
• Emotional disorders (e.g., anxiety and depression) can
distort taste perception
• Contain different papillae (taste buds) with different
distributions of receptors
 Somatosensory
• Definition = our sense of touch, temperature, and pain
• Distinguished via:
1. Skin senses
2. Internal senses
3. Vestibular senses
 Skin Senses
• Nerve endings embedded into the skin send sensory
information to the brain
• Free nerve endings = associated with pain and
temperature
• Specialized nerve endings = associated with touch and
pressure
 Internal Senses
• Receptors in the bones, joints, and muscles send
sensory information to the brain
• Tells you where your body parts are with respect to
each other
 Vestibular Senses
• Our sense of equilibrium
• Enables us to sense and maintain our balance as we
move about
• Consists of two vestibular sacs and three semicircular
canals in the inner ear
 Somatosensory
1.Skin senses
2.Internal senses
3.Vestibular sense
 Pain
• Threshold = point at which we perceived it as painful
• Gate control theory
̶ The idea that pain is blocked (or gated) from
consciousness by neural mechanisms
• Also, has a large emotional component
 Perceptions
• Definition = the brain’s interpretation of raw sensory
inputs
• When light hits objects, part of it is absorbed while
the rest is reflected off the object
• Our perception of an object’s brightness is influenced
by how much light is reflected
 Psychophysics of Perception
• Definition = the study of how we perceive sensory
stimuli based on their physical characteristics
• Ways to measure perception:
1. Absolute threshold
2. Just noticeable difference (JND)
3. Signal detection theory
 Absolute Threshold

Definition = lowest level of

a stimulus needed for the
nervous system to detect a
change 50% of the time

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 Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
• Definition = smallest change in intensity of a stimulus
that we can detect
• Webster’s Law dictates that there is a constant
proportional relationship between JND and the
original stimulus intensity
 Signal Detection Theory
• Definition = theory regarding how stimuli are detected
under different conditions
• Two components:
a) Signal à The stimulus you are trying to perceive
b) Noise à Anything that could distract you from the
stimulus
 Was the stimulus present?
YES NO
Did you perceive the
FALSE
YES HIT
ALARM
stimulus?

CORRECT
MISS
NO

REJECTION
 Stages of Perception
1. Sensation
̶ External stimuli trigger action potentials of sensory neurons
that travel to the brain
2. Perceptual organization
̶ The process of synthesizing (i.e., grouping) sensory features
into internal representations of an external stimulus
3. Identification and recognition
̶ The process of creating perception by identifying and
assigning meaning to perceived sensations
 Laws of Perceptual Grouping
1. Law of proximity
2. Law of similarity
3. Law of continuity
4. Law of closure
5. Law of symmetry
6. Law of figure-ground
 Law of Proximity
• Definition = objects physically close to each other tend
to be perceived as unified wholes

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Law of Similarity
• Definition = we perceive similar objects as composing
a whole more than dissimilar objects

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Law of Continuity
• Definition = we perceive objects as wholes, even if
other objects block part of them

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Law of Closure
• Definition = when partial visual information is present,
our brains fill in what is missing

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Law of Symmetry
• Definition = we perceive objects that are
symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than
those that are not

Lilienfeld, S.O., Lynn, S.J., Namy, L.L. Woolf, N.J., Cramer, K.M., & Schmaltz, R. (2017). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (3rd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson.
 Law of Figure-Ground
• Definition = perceptually, we make an instantaneous
decision to focus on what we believe to be the central
figure, and largely ignore what we believe to be the
background
 Perceptual Organization
Types of perception processing:
a) Bottom-up processing = processing in which a whole
is constructed from its parts
b) Top-down processing = conceptually driven
processing influenced by beliefs and expectations
 Perceptual Organization
Types of perception processing:
a) Bottom-up processing = processing in which a whole
is constructed from its parts
b) Top-down processing = conceptually driven
processing influenced by beliefs and expectations
 Perceptual Illusion
• Parallel processing = ability to attend to many sense
modalities simultaneously

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