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TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page i

A GUIDE TO HEMATOLOGY
IN DOGS AND CATS
This page intentionally left blank
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page iii

A GUIDE TO HEMATOLOGY
IN DOGS AND CATS

Alan H. Rebar DVM, Ph.D., Diplomate, ACVP

Purdue University
School of Veterinary Medicine
West Lafayette, Indiana

Peter S. MacWilliams DVM, Ph.D., Diplomate, ACVP

University of Wisconsin-Madison
School of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Pathobiological Sciences
Madison, Wisconsin

Bernard F. Feldman DVM, Ph.D

Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology
Blacksburg, Virginia

Fred L. Metzger Jr., DVM, Diplomate, ABVP

Metzger Animal Hospital
State College, Pennsylvania

Roy V. H. Pollock DVM, Ph.D.

Fort Hill Company
Montchanin, Delaware

John Roche, M.S.

Hematology Systems
IDEXX Laboratories
Westbrook, Maine

Innovative Publishing
Jackson, Wyoming 83001
www.veterinarywire.com
Teton NewMedia
Teton NewMedia
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Jackson, WY 83001
© 2001 by Tenton NewMedia
Exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa
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TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page v

Table Of Contents
1 HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE 1

2 HEMATOLOGY IN PRACTICE 4

Indications for Hematology 5

In-Clinic Versus Outside Laboratory 6
Communicating the Need for Hematology 7
Communicating the Results 8
The Economics of Laboratory Testing 8

3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY 9

Blood Collection 10
Handling the Sample 11
Blood Films 11
Staining 13
Common Artifacts/Issues 13
Sample Evaluation 14
Morphological Assessment 14
Quantitative Methods 16
Packed Cell Volume 16
Total Plasma Protein 17
Hemoglobin Concentration 18
Manual Cell Counts 19
Automated Cell Counters 21

4 ERYTHROCYTES 29

Overview 30
Production 30
Destruction 30
Function 30
Physiology 31
Morphology 31
Normal Morphology: Dog 31
Normal Morphology: Cat 34
Morphology in Disease 35
Artifacts 40
Quantity 44
Anemia 44
Regenerative Anemia 44
Non-Regenerative Anemia 56
Polycythemia 64
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page vi

5 NEUTROPHIL S 69

Overview 70
Origin 70
Function 71
Quantity 72
Neutropenia 72
Neutrophilia 76
Morphology 79
Normal 79
In Disease 82

6 EOSINOPHILS 87

Overview 88
Origin 88
Function 88
Quantity 88
Eosinopenia 89
Eosinophilia 99
Morphology 90

7 BASOPHILS 93

Overview 94
Origin 94
Function 94
Quantity 94
Basopenia 94
Basophilia 94
Morphology 95

8 MONOCYTES 99

Overview 100
Origin 100
Function 100
Quantity 101
Morphology 101
Normal 101
In Disease 101

vi
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page vii

9 LYMPHOCYTES 104

Overview 105
Origin 105
Function 105
Quantity 105
Lymphopenia 105
Lymphocytosis 107
Morphology 107
Normal 107
Activated (Antigen-Stimulated) Lymphocytes 108
Atypical Lymphocytes 108

10 PLATELETS 112

Overview 113
Laboratory Evaluation of Platelets 114
Morphology 115
Normal Morphology: Dog 115
Normal Morphology: Cat 116
Abnormal Morphology: Dog 116
Abnormal Morphology: Cat 121
Quantity 121
Normal 121
Decreased Platelet Count (Thrombocytopenia) 122
Clinical Signs of Thrombocytopenia 122
Causes of Thrombocytopenia 123
Increased Platelet Count (Thrombocytosis) 128
Mechanisms of Thrombocytosis 128
Platelet Function Disorders (Thrombocytopathia
or Thrombopathia) 130
Causes of Platelet Dysfunction 131
Acquired Platelet Dysfunction 131
Inherited Platelet Dysfunction 132

11 INTERPRETATION OF THE HEMOGRAM 135

Introduction 136
White Cells 136
Red Cells 139
Platelets 143

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12 CASE STUDIES 145

13 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 237

14 APPENDIX - SELF-TEST ANSWERS 245

INDEX 250

viii
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page ix

Acknowledgements
A book of this scope and magnitude would not be possible without
Coming.
the support and input of a number of key individuals. The authors
gratefully acknowledge Ruth Ann Weiderhaft and Heather March for
their role in facilitating communications among the authors and pub-
lishers and for keeping the authors “on task”. Heather also played a
significant role in producing the photomicrographs in the text. We also
thank Dr. Karen Thomason, Dr. Bernard Feldman’s wife and a James
Herriott type of veterinary practitioner, for keeping us in touch with
the realities of everyday veterinary practice. Finally we thank the out-
standing team members of the Metzger Animal Clinic for their daily
patience, commitment and dedication.

ix
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TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page xi

Preface
This text is designed to assist the practicing small animal veterinarian in the
interpretation of hematologic data. Emphasis is placed on both the quantitative
(numeric) and qualitative (morphologic) evaluation of blood cells.
After a brief consideration of in-clinic approaches to hematology and
available cell measurement methodologies (Chapters 2-3), the early
chapters of the book (Chapters 4-10) systematically discuss the normal,
abnormal, and artifactual findings for each cellular component of blood.
The modified outline approach is intended to provide practitioners with
quick and easy access to important information regarding a variety of
hematologic abnormalities. However, the book is not intended as a com-
plete treatise on hematology. For this purpose, readers are referred to
excellent reference texts such as Schalm’s Veterinary Hematology and
John Harvey’s Atlas of Veterinary Hematology.
The latter chapters of the book (Chapters 11-12) illustrate an integrated
and systematic approach to hemogram interpretation. Case studies
(Chapter 12) will hopefully allow practitioners to practice and develop
their interpretive skills and confidence. In addition, these cases illustrate
the scope of abnormal hemograms encountered. While hemogram inter-
pretation can indeed be challenging, rewards to both the practitioner and
patient can be profound.
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TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 1

How To Use
1
This Guide

1
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 2

This guide was developed as a practical hands-on resource for veteri-

narians and veterinary technicians in small animal practice.
We believe that hematology is one of the most useful, and most under-
utilized, diagnostic tools in veterinary practice. The composition of the
blood changes early in response to disease. Blood is readily obtained
and, with modern instrumentation, is quickly and inexpensively evalu-
ated. A complete hemogram provides a wealth of information about a
patient's health or condition.
Our objective is to support the increased use of hematology in clinical
practice by providing information in a concise, easy-to-find manner.
We have chosen an outline format and kept the text to a minimum.
The discussion of each cell type follows the same general outline:
Overview
Quantity
Normal
Decreased
Increased
Morphology
Normal appearance and variation
Abnormalities
Artifacts

Emphasis has been placed on clinical application. Detailed discussions

of ultrastucture, physiologic, and biochemical pathways are covered in
longer texts. Cell icons are used to facilitate locating the appropriate
section, and both normal and abnormal morphology are profusely
illustrated. Multiple Choice Questions and Case Studies are included
to encourage self-evaluation and integration of principles.

2
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 3

1 HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

1. Keep it open in the office laboratory.
2. Use in-clinic hematology instruments or a commercial laboratory
to obtain a complete blood count.
3. Evaluate the cell morphology on stained smears.
4. Refer to the sections on 'Interpreting the Hemogram" and to
specific blood cell type(s).
5. Check the causes of quantitative disorders and the patterns of
findings that suggest specific disease processes.
6. If you encounter abnormalities that you cannot characterize or
that are beyond the scope of this book, consult a board certified
veterinary clinical pathologist at a university or commercial
laboratory.
7. Utilize hematology and this Guide consistently until it becomes
a routine aspect of clinical care in your practice.

LIMITATIONS OF THIS GUIDE

This guide is intended as a practical handbook for practitioners. As
such, it does not cover all the known blood disorders of the dog and
cat or contain detailed discussions of pathophyisiology. Excellent in-
depth reference texts, such as Schalm's Veterinary Hematology, are
available. No guide can substitute for advanced training and experi-
ence in rare or complex disorders. We strongly encourage consulting
with specialists on difficult or unusual cases.

3
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 4

Hematology
2
In Practice

4
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 5

2 I N D I C AT I O N S F O R H E M AT O L O G Y

INDICATIONS FOR HEMATOLOGY

The complete blood count (CBC) provides a broad overview of the
general health status of the patient.
® Peripheral blood serves as a transport medium between the bone
marrow and tissues.
® The CBC therefore provides a “snap-shot” of the hematopoietic
system at a specific point in time.

Complete blood counts are recommended in the laboratory evaluation

of every sick patient, every pre-anesthetic evaluation, every senior/geri-
atric profile, and as a recheck test for patients previously diagnosed
with erythrocyte, leukocyte, or platelet abnormalities.
® Note that the definition of sick includes those patients with
vague histories such as:
– Not eating well
– Unwilling to play
– Has less energy
® Erythrocyte, leukocyte, and platelet abnormalities should be
evaluated prior to anesthesia for several important reasons:
– Anemic patients are more prone to tissue hypoxia, which
increases the likelihood of anesthetic complications.
– Polycythemia most commonly results from dehydration
(relative polycythemia). Dehydration may cause hypotension
and may result in anesthetic complications especially when
coupled with blood loss and the vasodilitory effects of many
anesthetic agents.
♦ Elevated total protein and concentrated urine specific gravity
are other laboratory abnormalities associated with dehydration.
– Leukocytosis may be associated with inflammation, stress, or
excitement (physiologic leukocytosis).
– Leukopenic and neutropenic patients may have difficulty in
mounting an effective anti-inflammatory response postoperatively.
– Thrombocytopenia is the most common bleeding disorder in
veterinary medicine. Platelets must be evaluated in every pre-
anesthetic test because the consequences of thrombocytopenia
can be life threatening.
® Because it is an excellent screening tool which provides a wealth
of information at relatively low cost, we recommend pre-anes-
thesia hematology and chemistry for all surgical candidates
regardless of age.
5
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 6

® Geriatric patients, both healthy and ill, are also prime candidates
for laboratory testing. Annual screening is recommended for
healthy dogs and cats over the age of 7.
– Blood profiling provides important clues to underlying often
unrecognized diseases and helps establish baseline data, nutri-
tional, and vaccine recommendations.
♦ The minimum senior canine database includes the history
(including behavior), physical exam, CBC, biochemical profile
with electrolytes, and complete urinalysis.
♦ The minimum senior feline database includes the history
(including behavior), physical exam, CBC, biochemical profile
with electrolytes, complete urinalysis, and total T4.
– Aging is associated with an increased incidence of a variety of
disease states which may be recognized first on the basis of
abnormalities in the CBC, urinalysis, and/or chemistry profile.
These include:
♦ Immune-mediated disorders
♦ Endocrinopathies such as diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism
(Cushing’s disease), thyroid dysfunction, and hyporadrenocorti-
cism (Addisons’ disease)
♦ Renal disease
♦ Hepatic disease
♦ Neoplasia
– Senior/geriatric laboratory profiling is both good medicine and
good business.
♦ A recent AVMA study reported that 28.1% of U.S. dogs and
25.4% of U.S. cats were 8 years of age or older

IN-CLINIC VERSUS OUTSIDE L ABORATORY

Advantages of in-clinic hematology capability include faster patient
management, better pre-anesthesia management, and the minimiza-
tion of artifacts caused by delayed analysis.
® Improved patient management results from earlier diagnosis
and treatment.
– Clinicians can use in-house laboratory results to determine
the patient’s health status (sick or well), create diagnostic
and treatment plans, and provide written estimates for clients
during the same office call.
6
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 7

2 I N D I C AT I O N S F O R H E M AT O L O G Y

® Client compliance increases when pre-anesthetic testing occurs

in-house because the pre-anesthetic profile is performed the same
day as anesthesia therefore minimizing client inconvenience.
® Pre-anesthetic testing should be performed immediately prior
to anesthesia to properly evaluate patient status and adjust
anesthetic regimes.
® Hematology samples should be analyzed as soon as possible to
prevent artifacts created by exposure to anticoagulants and cell
deterioration due to storage and shipment.
– Blood films should be prepared within 30 minutes of collection
to avoid morphologic artifacts.
– Platelet counts should be performed as soon as possible after
collection for optimal results.

Potential disadvantages of in-clinic hematology include slightly higher

cost/sample, the potential for less complete quality control depending on
the in-clinic technology, and limited expertise in microscopic assessment
of blood films.
® Concerns regarding quality control can be minimized by:
– Running in-house controls on a daily basis and charting results
to ensure that there is no instrument drift in the results.
– Frequently splitting samples and checking in-house results
against those of a quality reference laboratory.
– Joining a national quality control survey such as that provided
by the American Society of Clinical Pathologists.
® As long as in-house quality control is maintained, the slightly
higher costs of in-house hematology can be easily justified on
the basis of better service to the patient.

COMMUNICATING THE NEED FOR HEMATOLOGY

Most clients understand that human diseases are usually diagnosed
through testing. Make clients aware that you don’t want to guess.
® Clients understand that doctors should base treatment decisions
on diagnosis, not speculation.

Use simple terms and explain that blood tests are required to rule out
common diseases people are familiar with like anemia, infection, dia-
betes, and kidney disease.
® Many clients are familiar with the term “CBC” and “chemistry
panel” through medically oriented television shows.
® Explain that these tests are like puzzle pieces which doctors use
to narrow the list of potential diseases (differential diagnosis).
7
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 8

Remember that “normal” results are good news to the client and not
money wasted.
® “Normal” laboratory results are common and have great value.
® Laboratory testing is used to help rule out diseases as well as to
help identify them!

COMMUNICATING THE RESULTS

Copy the laboratory results page to discuss your findings with clients.
® If results are abnormal, recommend treatment or additional
diagnostics such as cytology, radiography, ultrasonography,
endoscopy, etc.
® If results are normal, advise clients what diseases you have ruled
out (ie, diabetes, anemia, infection, kidney disease).

Provide more information by copying an article on the diagnosed dis-

ease from a textbook or other reference source. This reinforces your
diagnostic efforts and provides treatment and prognostic information
for the client.

THE ECONOMICS OF L ABORATORY TESTING

Laboratory testing is an important profit center for veterinarians and
should represent approximately 20% of average gross income according
to the 2000 Veterinary Economics Best Practice Survey.
® The same survey reported $30 as the average charge for a CBC in
the United States. Regional charges varied from a low of $21 in
the South to $31 in the Northeast.
® Multiple surveys have shown that laboratory testing is relatively
price insensitive when compared to regularly shopped items like
vaccines, office calls, and flea and heartworm preventatives.

In-house testing is generally more expensive than outside laboratory

testing. Consequently, veterinarians should charge a higher fee for
tests performed in-house and justify the higher charges on the basis of
faster, more customized service.

8
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 9

Laboratory
3
Methods in
Hematology

9
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 10

BLOOD COLLECTION
Proper blood collection or handling is critical; improper technique can
result in inaccurate blood cell counts and morphologic artifacts.
® Sample quality is the major contributor to analytical errors.

Hematological assessment requires liquid blood.

® Blood should be drawn into vials or syringes that contain antico-
agulant. EDTA is the anticoagulant of choice for most hematology
(Figures 3-1 and 3-2).
– Smears should be prepared as soon after collection as possible;
prolonged exposure to EDTA produces artifacts in neutrophils
and platelets.
– Red cells show increased susceptibility to lysis after 24 hours
in EDTA.
® Sodium citrate is recommended for platelet and coagulation studies.

Figure 3-1 Collection materi-

als for hematological assessment
include syringe, needles, and
purple topped collection tubes
that contain EDTA. Blood in
tubes should be mixed by inver-
sion rather than shaking.

Figure 3-2 EDTA tubes should

be filled to their labeled capacity.
Short filled tube (left) has an
excessive amount of EDTA relative
to the blood volume. Short filled
tubes cause a false increase in
total plasma protein content and
a false decrease in PCV and RBC
count. Shrinkage of RBCs causes
a reduction in the MCV.

10
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 11

3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

® Heparin should not be used to collect blood for canine and feline
hemogram interpretation. It fails to prevent platelet aggregation
and causes morphologic changes in white cells.

Self-drawing evacuated tubes (e.g., Vacutainer®, Becton Dickinson,

Franklin Lakes, NJ or Monoject®, Kendall, Mansfield, MA) are pre-
ferred to syringes.
® They should be allowed to fill to capacity to achieve the appro-
priate blood/anticoagulant ratio (see Figure 3-2).
® Invert the vial several times after filling to ensure thorough mixing.

Rapid aspiration or transfer of blood with a syringe through a small

gauge needle can cause cell lysis.

HANDLING THE SAMPLE

Blood should be processed as soon as possible after collection.
® Blood films should be made immediately.
® If a delay is anticipated before processing further, the blood
should be refrigerated.
® Excessive time at room temperature can cause autolysis.
® Platelet counts are most affected by delays in processing.
Platelets have short life spans and tend to clump over time,
even in the presence of anticoagulants. Platelet counts
performed more than 4-6 hours after collection are suspect
(See Figure 4-23).

Blood samples should be mixed again several times immediately before

a portion is removed for testing; avoid prolonged mixing to prevent
physical trauma to cells.

Blood Films
Well prepared blood films are prerequisite to accurate assessment of
the hemogram.
Use only new, clean slides.
Place a small drop of blood near the frosted end of one slide (Figure 3-3A).
® Place another slide at an angle of about 30 degrees to the first;
draw back until it touches the drop of blood in the acute angle
between the slides. (Figures 3-3B and 3-3C).
® After the blood has spread to within 2-3 mm of the edge, push
the second slide quickly and smoothly across the full-length of
the first (Figure 3-3C).
11
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 12

A B
Figure 3-3
Preparation of a blood film. A. Small drop
of blood is placed on a glass slide. B. and
C. A second slide is used to spread the blood.
Lowering the spreader slide produces a
longer blood smear. Raising the spreader slide
produces a shorter smear.

C
® A well formed smear has a flame shape.
® Prepare several slides from each patient.

An alternative method preferred by some hematologists is a variant of

the coverslip method.
® Using a PCV tube, place a drop of blood slightly off center on a
CLEANED (IMPORTANT) glass slide.
® Place a second cleaned glass slide on top and watch the spread of
blood by capillary action between the two slides.
® Just as this stops, slip the upper slide off (DO NOT LIFT OFF!).
This most often results in two thumbprint-sized perfect smears.
® The monolayered areas are the entire center of these smears with
a thicker but small perimeter.

Air dry the smears quickly and store at room temperature until
processed.
® Do not blot or wipe dry; this introduces scratches.
® Do not refrigerate; the condensation that forms on cold slides
can lyse cells.
® Keep away from formalin.
® Do not fix until ready to stain, but keep covered; flies will
consume blood on air dried smears.
12
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 13

3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

Staining
Romanowsky stains (Wright, Giemsa, and modified quick stains) afford
the best overall morphologic assessment of the hemogram.
® These stains contain both an acid stain (usually eosin) and a
basic stain (such as methylene blue).
® Structures rich in basic compounds, such as eosinophil granules,
bind the acidic dye and are stained red. Acidic structures, such as
DNA/RNA or basophil granules, are stained blue by the basic stain.

New methylene blue

® A supravital dye used for reticulocyte counts and to accentuate
Heinz bodies.
® Mix a few drop blood with 1-2 times as much of 0.5% new
methylene blue in physiologic saline, allow to stand a few
minutes and use to make blood films.

Common Artifacts/Issues
Stain precipitate
® Stain that is old or has been left open may deposit precipitate on
the slide that can be mistaken for hemoparasites.
® Keep stain fresh and always covered when not in use. Periodically
filter or replace to minimize precipitate.

Over- or under-staining
® It is often necessary to experiment with staining procedures to
avoid over-staining or under-staining.
® In over-stained slides, all cells are deeply colored. The red cells
appear to be more dense and more basophilic (blue) than normal.
Over-staining can obscure important cell details (Figure 3-4).
® In under-stained slides, all cells are pale. Cellular details of the
leukocytes are barely distinguishable and red cells are very faint.
This should not be confused with hypochromia.

13
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 14

Figure 3-4 Blood film that has been overstained with Wright Giemsa. The RBCs are a dark
blue grey color that makes the identification of polychromasia impossible. The neutrophil on
the right contains a canine distemper inclusion in the cytoplasm (arrow).

SAMPLE EVALUATION
Morphological Assessment
Microscopic examination of a blood smear is an essential part of any hema-
tological evaluation, regardless of the method used to enumerate the cells.
® Blood cell counts alone are not sufficient to adequately evaluate
the hemogram.
® The size, nature, and condition of cells and platelets provide informa-
tion vital to characterize disease processes.
– Some diseases, for example, blood parasites and certain neoplasms,
can be diagnosed directly from examination of the blood film.

A systematic approach to evaluation of the blood smear is essential to

obtain accurate and complete results.
® A common error is to begin to identify and count the white cells
immediately at high magnification, failing to observe the charac-
teristics of the leukocytes, erythrocytes and platelets.
® Scan at low magnification (10-20X) for rouleaux formation and
for RBC, WBC or platelet aggregation, which can cause erroneous
cell counts in most automated counters.
– Estimate the total number of leukocytes (Figure 3-5) and develop

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

Figure 3-5
Series of blood smears
with increasing WBC
counts. A. Blood film
from a dog that is
severely leukopenic and
anemic. The density of
RBCs and WBCs is
markedly reduced. B.
Blood film from a dog
with normal WBC count.
C. A marked leukocyto-
sis (WBC=158,000/µL) is
evident.

C
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a mental image of the appearance of typical leukocytes of each

cell line (neutrophil, eosinophil, lymphocyte, monocyte) (Figure 3-6).
– Evaluate the red cells for evidence of polychromasia, anisocytosis,
hypochromasia, poikilocytosis, etc.
– Note any unusual findings (atypical cells, parasites).
® Oil immersion magnification.
– Examine erythrocytes and confirm observations made at low
magnification (size, shape, color, abnormalities and any inclusions).
– Examine platelet morphology and distribution; estimate relative
number.
– Examine leukocyte morphology (abnormalities and inclusions).
– Perform differential leukocyte count if not using automated
equipment.
– If using automated equipment, estimate the differential count
and compare to that reported by the instrument; this serves as
an in-clinic quality control check!

Quantitative Methods
Packed Cell Volume (microhematocrit)
® Microhematocrits are accurate and repeatable. Instrumentation
and supplies are inexpensive and suitable for all practices (Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-6 Major abnor-

malities can be detected by
scanning a smear. The
majority of leukocytes in a
normal canine or feline
blood film should be seg-
mented neutrophils. In this
smear, most of the WBCs
are large mononuclear cells.
Note that these cells are
larger than a neutrophil
(arrow) and are most likely
atypical lymphocytes or
neoplastic cells.

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

B
Figure 3-7 Microhematocrit centrifuge and (A)
card reader (B) to measure PCV. The microhemat-
ocrit centrifuge produces accurate measurements
of circulating RBC mass and provides an opportu-
nity to assess abnormalities in plasma color and to
measure the total protein concentration by refrac-
A tometry.

® High speed centrifugation is used to separate cells from plasma.

® The major source of error is trying to save time by not allowing
the sample to spin the full amount of time. This produces an
overestimate of the PCV because the plasma and cells are not
fully separated.
® Hematocrits may also be computed and reported by in-clinic
automated analyzers.
® The appearance of plasma in hematocrit tubes also can provide
important information. Icterus, hemolysis, and lipemia may all
be detected (Figure 3-8).
Total Plasma Protein
® Total plasma protein can be measured easily by refractometry
(Figure 3-9). For dogs and cats, the reference range is generally
between 5.5 g/dl and 7.5 g/dl.
® Low total protein values reflect one of the following abnormalities
– Protein losing nephropathy (characterized by proteinuria).
– Protein losing enteropathy (usually associated with chronic
weight loss and diarrhea).
– Loss of lymph (check for pleural or peritoneal effusion).
– Chronic or severe blood loss (check hematocrit!).
– Lack of protein production by the liver.
® Elevated protein values reflect either hemoconcentration or increased
globulin production.

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A
Figure 3-8 Abnormal plasma colors in canine
plasmas. In the large blood tubes (A), from left to
right, icterus, normal plasma, lipemia with hemoly-
sis, and hemolysis are noted. Abnormal plasma col-
ors in microhematocrit tubes (B) are more difficult
to observe because of their small diameters. Icterus, B
lipemia, hemolysis, and normal plasma are displayed
left to right. The first two samples are animals that
were anemic. Note the markedly reduced PCV.

Figure 3-9 Hand held refracto-

meters can be easily used to deter-
mine total plasma protein as well as
urine specific gravity.

– Hemoconcentration can cause elevations in red cell parameters,

concentrated urine specific gravity, and elevations in serum elec-
trolytes.
– Increased globulin production is most commonly associated with
inflammation; an inflammatory leukogram is generally present.
® Evaluation of serum protein and serum albumin levels are useful
in further clarifying the interpretation of plasma protein abnormalities.
Hemoglobin Concentration
® Hand held hemoglobinometers provide a simple and rapid method
to estimate hemoglobin concentration if automated equipment is
not available.

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

® Some in-clinic chemistry analyzers measure hemoglobin in whole

blood samples electrochemically.

Manual Cell Counts (Figure 3-10)

® Microscopic counting of red and white cells is the oldest and
most time-consuming method of determining blood cell counts.
® Microscope and special slide (hemocytometer) are required.
– The hemocytometer is calibrated to hold a known volume of
fluid between the cover slip and a grid etched on the slide
– Can also used for counting cells in other body fluids and
effusions.
® Dilution of blood
– Different dilutions for red and white cell counts are necessary.
– For white cell counts, erythrocytes are lysed.
– The Unopette® System (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ)
provides a convenient and reproducible system of pre-measured
diluents (Figure 3-11).
® Red cell count
– Red cells can be counted using a hemocytometer, but the margin
of error is high even among skilled medical technologists.
– Red cell counts themselves offer little additional information
over the hematocrit. They are needed to calculate of red cell
indices, but manual counts are generally too variable to yield
reliable information.
® Reticulocyte count
– Performed by counting at least 1,000 erythrocytes on a smear
made with supravital (new methylene blue) stained blood.
– The absolute reticulocyte count is determined by multiplying
the red cell count times the percent of reticulocytes.
® Differential white cell count
– The stained smear should be examined with the oil immersion lens.
– 100-200 white cells are characterized by type. The larger the
number counted, the smaller the margin of error.

Avoid areas where cells are overlapping or distorted.

Use a consistent method to scan the slide to ensure random
sampling and avoid counting the same area twice.
– The percent of each cell type is multiplied by the total white
cell count to determine the absolute number of each leukocyte/µl.

Absolute numbers (not %) should always be used in evaluating
the hemogram.
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Figure 3-10A
Hemocytometer grid lines. Erythrocyte and
leukocyte count. Red = zones to be counted
under high power for erythrocytes. White =
zones to be counted under low power for
leukocytes.

Figure 3-10B
Left: The hemocytometer is designed to keep the coverglass 0.1 mm above the grid so that
there is a known volume of fluid over each grid area. Right: The arrow indicates the direc-
tion in which the count should be made. Triple ruling: Cells touching top and left center
lines are counted (shaded cells for the first row). Cells touching bottom and right center
lines are not counted. Double ruling: Cells touching top and left outer lines are counted.
Cells touching bottom and right inner lines are not counted.
Reprinted with permission from Benjamin MM, outline of Veterinary Clinical Pathology, 3 ed., Ames, IA,
the Iowa State University Press, 1978

Figure 3-11 Unopette® diluting

pipette and reservoir for counting WBCs
and platelets in a hemocytometer.

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

® Platelet count
– Can be performed using hemocytometer and ammonium
oxalate diluent but it is difficult to achieve accuracy even
among skilled medical technologists.
– Platelet count can be estimated from the blood smear.

10-12 platelets per oil immersion field (100x nose piece
objective) is an appropriate number in the dog and cat.

In the absence of obvious clumping, fewer than 10-12
platelets per 100x field suggests thrombocytopenia and
indicates the need for a quantitative platelet count.

Advantages
® Manual counting is the least expensive in terms of equipment,
supplies.
® Can be performed in mobile clinics.

Limitations
® Time consuming; most expensive in terms of professional staff
time.
® Greatest variability/ unreliability in results.
– Inherent error is 20% or more, even among experienced
technologists.
– Requires a high level of care and skill to produce accurate and
precise results.

Automated Cell Counters

® Several kinds and brands of electronic cell counters are now
available for use in veterinary hospitals.
® All produce more accurate counts than manual methods and
require less technician time.
– Compared to manual methods, a much larger number of cells
are counted (several thousand) producing repeatable differentials
and absolute counts.
® Some automated in-office equipment will produce partial or, more
recently, complete differential counts.
– The most recently-introduced systems also produce accurate
platelet and reticulocyte counts.
® In-office equipment offers the advantage of immediacy, producing
results during the visit.
– It is therefore especially well suited to acute care and to pre-
anesthetic and well-patient screening.
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® Systems are of two types: semi-automated and fully automated.

– Semi-automated equipment requires sample preparation (for
example, dilution) by a technician; fully automated equipment
performs all steps subsequent to obtaining the sample itself.
® All automated equipment must be properly maintained and periodi-
cally re-calibrated to produce accurate and consistent results.
– Written standard operating procedures should be available and
understood by all persons who will be operating the equipment.
– The manufacturer's recommendations for instrument calibration,
quality control, and maintenance should be followed closely.
Establishing guidelines for in-clinic quality control is essential.
– Instruments designed for analysis of human blood samples
require modification and validation to produce accurate
hemograms for other species.
® Each method has its strengths and limitations (see below); like all
techniques in medicine, automated cell counting must be used
intelligently.
– The clinician should first rule out laboratory or collection artifact
when the lab data are incongruent with the clinical assessment.

Impedance (Figure 3-12)

® All impedance counters make use of Coulter principle.
® A dilute solution of cells in electrolyte solution is drawn through
a small aperture between two electrodes.
® When a particle passes through the opening, it causes a change in
electrical impedance and a measurable voltage pulse.
– The magnitude of the voltage change is proportional to the size
of the cell.
– Voltage pulses are detected, analyzed and counted electronically.
® The red cell count actually includes both red and white cells, but
because the proportion of white cells is usually small, the effect is
insignificant unless the animal is simultaneously anemic and
leukemic.
® Red cells are lysed in order to obtain a white cell count.
® Erythrocytes and platelets are differentiated on the basis of size
(magnitude of the voltage change).

Advantages
® Faster and more effective use of staff time than manual methods.
® Newer models store calibration settings for different species.

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

Figure 3-12 Impedance counters rely on the Coulter principle.

When a particle passes through a narrow orifice, it cause a change in
the resistance. The magnitude of the change (corresponding to cell
size) and the number (corresponding to the number of cells) are
recorded by the detection circuit.

® Fully automated impedance counters are available for veterinary

use that simultaneously perform RBC, WBC and platelet counts,
determine mean corpuscular volume, and calculate hematocrit,
MCHC and MCH.
® Some of the newer systems produce three-part differentials.
® Relatively inexpensive to operate and use.

Limitations
® Major limitation is the lack of any reticulocyte data.
® Major limitation is the inability to produce a complete differential
count. Impedance counters group granulocytes into one catagory.
® Older models still require multiple step sample processing
(dilution); red and white cells must be counted in separate steps.
® Relatively poor ability to differentiate among white cells and to
differentiate white cells from nucleated RBCs.
– WBC cell count must be corrected for nucleated RBCs.
® The overlap in size between feline platelets and erythrocytes
leads to overestimates of the erythrocyte count and underesti-
mates platelet numbers.
® Clumping of leukocytes leads to undercounting, and artifactual
leukopenia.
® Only nuclear material is analyzed not cytoplasmic.
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® Does not distinguish between bands and segmented neutrophils;

consequntly a left shift cannot be determined from impedance data.
® Fibrin strands resulting from microclotting can plug the aperture
and cause falsely decreased counts.
® Aggregates of platelets may be counted as white cells; this is
especially problematic in cats.
® White cell counts are determined after lysing red cells; failure of
RBCs to lyse completely produces falsely elevated white cell counts.
– Erythrocytes with Heinz bodies don't lyse; hence, cats with large
numbers of Heinz bodies may have falsely elevated WBC counts,
hemoglobin measurement and the RBC indices (MCH, MCHC).
– Polychromatic erythrocytes are more resistant to lysing and
lead to falsely elevated WBC counts.

Quantitative Buffy Coat (QBC) Analysis (Figure 3-13)

® Based on differential centrifugation
– Under high speed centrifugation, blood separates into plasma,
buffy coat and red cells.
– The buffy coat itself is divided into layers based the relative
density of the white cells and platelets; the platelets are the
least dense and form a layer just beneath the plasma. Followed
by monocytes and lymphocytes the granulocytes are the most
dense of the white cells and come to rest immediately on top of
the erythrocytes.
® Uses special acridine orange-coated tubes that include a cylindrical
float with the same density as the buffy coat. When a tube is cen-
trifuged, the float effectively reduces the diameter of the tube in
the region of the buffy coat, causing it to spread along a greater
length of the tube, enabling resolution of the various layers.
® The acridine orange stains nucleoproteins and other cellular com-
ponents, which fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light.
® An automated reader (QBC® Vet Autoread, IDEXX Laboratories,
Westbrook, Maine) scans the buffy coat layer and records
the intensity of fluorescence produced by DNA and RNA/lipopro-
teins. Abrupt changes in slope are used to detect changes in cell
type. The relative width of each band of fluorescence is used to
calculate the population of cells.
– The results and a graph of the pattern are printed out. The
software is programmed to alert the operator of unexpected or
uninterpretable results or patterns.
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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

Figure 3-13 The quantitative buffy coat (QBC) uses

centrifugation to separate cells by density. A 'float' in the
QBC tube reduces the volume of the lumen in the area
of the buffy coat, causing the cells to be spread out
over a greater distance. Cells types are differentiated by
fluorescence in the presence of acridine orange.

Advantages
® The QBC is an efficient and economical way to screen blood samples.
® Instrument is simple to operate and relatively fast, producing
results in about 7 minutes making it especially valuable for
pre-anesthetic, acute care and in-office screening procedures.
® Hematocrit, hemoglobin, and white cell and platelet counts
correlate well with reference methods.
® System flags abnormal or unexpected result.

Limitations
® The major limitation is the inability to produce a complete differ-
ential count. QBC cannot distinguish between lymphocytes and
monocytes. Canine eosinophils inconsistently separated from
lymphocytes and monocytes.
® Does not distinguish between bands and segmented neutrophils.
The degree of left shift cannot be determined from the QBC data.
® Tends to underestimate frequency of leukopenia.
® Algorithms used to calculate RBC and WBC counts assume
normal cell size and structure. They are thus invalidated by
conditions such as microcytosis, hypochromasia, and cell immat-
urity. Assessment of a stained blood smear is essential to rule out
conditions that could lead to inaccurate differential counts.
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Flow Cytometry (Figure 3-14)

® Laser flow cytometry is the newest and most accurate method of
automated cell counting.
® Generally considered the gold standard in automated hematology
– Used in most commercial laboratories, but until recently was
cost-prohibitive for in-office use.
® A suspension of blood cells is broken into micro-droplets and
passed through a laser beam.
® Cells absorb and scatter the laser light. Each cell type produces a
characteristic "signature" depending on its size, nuclear configuration
and cytoplasmic inclusions.
® The most sophisticated models generate a five-part differential,
platelet count, reticulocyte count, and red cell indices.
® Fully automated models require no dilution or other sample
preparation.
® Advanced units include particle standards in the diluent.

Advantages
® Because laser flow cytometry systems evaluate multiple para-
meters (nuclear and cytoplasmic material) of each cell or platelet,
they produce more accurate and reliable counts than other methods.
® Clumped cells or platelets can be detected and ignored.
® Large platelets (frequently encountered in cats) can be distin-
guished from erythrocytes due to difference in light scattering
caused by the platelet granules.
® Flow cytometers are able to rapidly count and categorize large
numbers (>2,000) of erythrocytes which are needed to produce
accurate and repeatable reticulocyte counts.

Limitations
® In some systems, light scattering from aggregates of granular
platelets produces a pattern that can be miscounted as leukocytes
(pseudoleukocytosis).
® Although recent breakthroughs in technology have reduced the
cost so that these units are economically justified in most hospitals,
they may not be economical in small practices or those that
make minimal use of hematology.
® Examination of the blood film is still needed to detect abnormali-
ties such as the presence of left shift, toxicity, reactive lympho-
cytes, blast cells, mast cells, microfilaria and red cell parasites.

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3 LABORATORY METHODS IN HEMATOLOGY

Figure 3-14 Laser flow cytometry detects and counts individual cells in micro-
droplets as they pass through a laser beam. Each cell type scatters the laser in a
characteristic 'signature' based on its size, nucleus and cytoplasmic contents.

Commercial Laboratory
® Many commercial laboratories offer hematology services at reason-
able prices to veterinarians.
® Leading laboratories have state of the art equipment because they
are able to amortize the cost over a very large number of samples.
® Counts are performed on automated equipment supplemented by
microscopic examination by trained personnel.

Advantages
® Well-run laboratories have quality control programs to ensure accuracy.
® Films are evaluated by personnel who evaluate hundreds of
smears daily. They are thus more likely to notice and diagnose
rare and unusual abnormalities.
® Identification of bizarre or neoplastic cells is a job for an expert;
unusual or highly abnormal samples should be sent to a laboratory
with a board-certified veterinary clinical pathologist.
® Red cell parasites and inclusions can also be difficult to differentiate
and should be sent for expert confirmation.

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® Commercial laboratories can provide additional commentary on

unusual findings and consultation with veterinary clinical
pathologists.

Limitations
® The main drawback to the use of external laboratories is time; results
are not usually available for several hours or until the next day.
– Can be an issue for time-sensitive cases or pre-anesthetic
screening.
– Fresh blood smears should be prepared in-clinic and sent with
EDTA samples is hematology is performed at reference laboratories.
– Check with your reference laboratory and confirm that blood
smears are at least scanned by trained professionals.
® Hematology is species specific. Some laboratories that do primarily
human clinical pathology will accept veterinary samples, but this
can lead to erroneous results.
– Automated hematology equipment must be re-calibrated for
each species or it will produce inaccurate results.
– Likewise, persons evaluating blood smears must be familiar
with species differences or they may mis-classify white blood
cell types and may misinterpret normal variation as a disease
condition.
– Large laboratories have many technologists. Each technologist
evaluates blood films somewhat differently. The veterinarian
cannot assume that all slides are evaluated in the same way.
– Always use a veterinary reference laboratory or one that is
familiar with evaluating veterinary samples and has veterinary
pathologists on staff.

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Erythrocytes
4

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OVERVIEW
Production
Red blood cells (RBC) are produced in the bone marrow.
Numbers of circulating RBCs are affected by changes in plasma volume,
rate of RBC destruction or loss, splenic contraction, erythropoietin (EPO)
secretion, and the rate of bone marrow production.
A normal PCV is maintained by an endocrine loop that involves genera-
tion and release of erythropoietin (EPO) from the kidney in response to
renal hypoxia.
Decreased Renal
Arterial Hypoxia Kidney
PO2

Increased Bone Erythropoietin

RBC Mass Marrow Secretion

Erythropoietin stimulates platelet production as well as red cell pro-

duction. However, erythropoietin does not stimulate white blood cell
(WBC) production.
Erythropoiesis and RBC numbers are also affected by hormones from
the adrenal cortex, thyroid, ovary, testis, and anterior pituitary.

Destruction
Red cells have a finite circulating lifespan. In dogs, the average normal
red cell circulates approximately 100 days. In cats, 85-90 days.
Since in health circulating red cell numbers remain fairly constant,
approximately 1% of the circulating red cells of the dog are replaced daily
(slightly higher percentage in the cat). The new cells are young and mor-
phologically distinct (large, polychromatophilic – see morphology section).
Effete red cells are phagocytized and metabolized by the macrophages
of spleen, bone marrow, and liver. Iron is preserved for reutilization.

Function
The primary function of the red cell is to carry oxygen to tissue cells
and to carry carbon dioxide away.

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4 E RY T H R O C Y T E S

To facilitate this exchange, red cells consist essentially of gas-carrying

soluble protein (hemoglobin) surrounded by a protective cell membrane.
The fluidity of normal red cells allow them to traverse tortuous capil-
lary beds leading to close approximation of red cells with tissue cells.
This in turn makes gaseous exchange efficient.

Physiology
Red cell physiology is geared to facilitate function and protect red cell
integrity.
The primary red cell metabolic pathway is anaerobic glycolysis. The
glycolytic pathway allows the cell to produce energy to maintain mem-
brane stability with minimal utilization of oxygen.
The red cell also has metabolic pathways (hexose monophosphate
shunt and methemoglobin reductase) which protect hemoglobin from
oxidation. Oxidation of hemoglobin leads to methemoglobinemia
and/or Heinz body formation.
Cat hemoglobin is more susceptible to oxidation than dog hemoglobin
because it contains a high percentage of sulfur-containing amino acids
which are easily oxidized. Therefore, Heinz body formation and Heinz
body hemolytic anemia occurs more readily in cats than dogs.

MORPHOLOGY
Normal Morphology: Dog
Shape: biconcave disc with prominent central pallor (Figure 4-1)
Size: 6.0-7.0 µ
Rouleaux formation (stacking): moderate (Figure 4-2)
Polychromatophils (bluish-red immature erythrocytes): comprise
approximately 1% of total red cell population (Figures 4-3 and 4-4)
Polychromatophils correspond to reticulocytes in new methylene blue
stained preparations (Figure 4-5)
Howell-Jolly bodies are deeply staining nuclear remnants found in red
cells. These inclusions are rare in normal dogs (Figure 4-6).

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Figure 4-1
Canine blood, normal
erythrocyte morpholo-
gy. Canine RBCs are all
about the same size,
shape, and color, and
have a prominent area
of central pallor
(100x).

Figure 4-2
Canine blood,
rouleaux formation.
RBCs are arranged in
overlapping chains
(60x).

Figure 4-3
Canine blood.
Regenerative anemia.
Immature RBCs
are visible as larger
erythrocytes that have
blue-grey cytoplasm.
These cells are termed
macrocytic polychro-
matophilic erythro-
cytes (100x).

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4 E RY T H R O C Y T E S

Figure 4-4
Canine blood. Iron deficien-
cy anemia. Hypochromia
and poikilocytosis are evi-
dent. Hypochromic RBCs
have a large area of central
pallor due to reduced
hemoglobin content. The
polychromatophilic RBC
(arrow) in this field has a
vacuolated or moth-eaten
cytoplasm. Compare these
cells with those in Figure 4-
3 (100x).

Figure 4-5
Canine blood. New methyl-
ene blue stain.
Reticulocytes are visible as
pale yellow cells with
basophilic precipitates of
RNA (100x).

Figure 4-6
Canine blood, Howell Jolly
body. Small basophilic
round inclusion in the RBC
cytoplasm (arrow) is a
remnant of a nucleus
(100x).

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Normal Morphology: Cat

Shape: biconcave disc with minimal central pallor (Figure 4-7)
Size: 5.5-6.0 µ
Rouleaux formation: marked
Polychromatophils: comprise 1.5-2.0% of total red cell population
(Figure 4-8)
Howell-Jolly bodies: occasional; more common than in dogs.

Figure 4-7
Feline blood.
Normal erythrocyte mor-
phology. Feline RBCs are
smaller than dog ery-
throcytes, exhibit a
slight amount of crena-
tion, and have a mini-
mal area of central pal-
lor (100x).

Figure 4-8
Feline blood.
Regenerative anemia.
Immature RBCs are visi-
ble as larger erythro-
cytes that have blue-
grey cytoplasm. These
cells are termed macro-
cytic polychromatophilic
erythrocytes. Two NRBCs
(arrows) are noted and
are smaller than a lym-
phocyte (100x).

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4 E RY T H R O C Y T E S

Morphology in Disease
Anisocytosis – variation in red cell size (Figure 4-9).
® Macrocytes – large red cells
® Microcytes – small red cells

Polychromasia – increased numbers of polychromatophils on the blood film.

Hypochromasia – decreased hemoglobin concentration. Hypochromic
red cells have enlarged areas of central pallor (Figure 4-10).

Figure 4-9
Canine blood. Marked
anisocytosis and poik-
ilocytosis are present
due to macrocytic cells,
spherocytes, schisto-
cytes, acanthocytes
and microcytes (100x).
See subsequent figures
for indentification of
specific poikilocytes.

Figure 4-10
Canine blood.
Numerous poikilocytes,
marked hypochromia,
and microcytosis are
evident. Platelets are
numerous and
enlarged. These
changes are usually
associated with iron
deficiency secondary
to chronic hemorrhage
(100x).

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Poikilocytosis–the presence of abnormally shaped red cells.

® Acanthocytes – red cells with 2-10 blunt elongate finger-like
surface projections (Figure 4-11).
® Spherocytes – small round red cells that stain inten-
sely and lack central pallor (Figure 4-12).
® Elliptocytes – oval erythrocytes.
® Dacryocytes – tear-drop shaped erythrocytes.
® Stomatocytes – cup-shaped erythrocytes (Figure 4-12).
® Heinz bodies – precipitates of oxidized hemoglobin. Often recog-
nized as nose-like projections from the red cell surface (Figures 4-13
and 4-14).

Figure 4-11
Canine blood. The poikilocytes in this blood smear have irregular mem-
brane projections that have rounded tips. These cells are called acantho-
cytes (arrows) and represent an in vivo alteration rather than an artifact.
Acanthocytes are frequently associated with hemangiosarcoma in the liver.
A few spherocytes are also noted. (100x).

® Eccentrocytes – red cells with hemoglobin concentrated at one

pole with an unstained area at the other pole (Figures 4-15 and 4-16).
® Schistocytes – irregularly shaped, often roughly triangular, red cell
fragments (Figure 4-17).
® Burr cells – elongated red cells with ruffled margins (also termed
echino elliptocytes).

36
TNM GuideToHema:03058 TNM text_cp 6/28/07 3:49 PM Page 37

4 E RY T H R O C Y T E S

Figure 4-12
Canine blood. Regenerative anemia with spherocytes. Anisocytosis is due
to macrocytic cells and spherocytes, which are smaller than normal and lack
central pallor. Spherocytes are associated with hemolytic anemias due to
immune disease or fragmentation. The polychromatophilic RBC with a rod-
shaped area of central pallor (arrow) is a stomatocyte (100x).

Figure 4-13
Feline blood. Heinz body hemolytic anemia. Morphologic evidence of
regenerative anemia is present as anisocytosis and polychromasia. Smaller
RBCs (arrows) have singular rounded membrane projections that are Heinz
bodies. These inclusions are caused by oxidative injury due to drugs, toxic
plants, certain chemicals, and metabolic diseases. Heinz bodies can be seen
in cats that are clinically normal and not anemic (100x).

37
 Another Random Document on
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 was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, graduating as
Thomas a Bachelor of Arts, and being made a fellow of his
Vaughan
(“Eugenius
college. He appears also to have taken holy orders and
Philalethes”) to have had the living of St. Bridget’s (Brecknockshire)
(1622-1666.) conferred on him.[80] During the civil wars he bore
arms for the king, but his allegiance to the Royalist
cause led to his being accused of “drunkenness, swearing,
incontinency and bearing arms for the King”; and he appears to
have been deprived of his living. He retired to Oxford and gave
himself up to study and chemical research. He is to be regarded as
an alchemist of the transcendental order. His views as to the nature
of the true Philosopher’s Stone may be gathered from the following
quotation: “This, reader,” he says, speaking of the mystical
illumination, “is the Christian Philosopher’s Stone, a Stone so often
inculcated in Scripture. This is the Rock in the wildernesse, because
in great obscurity, and few there are that know the right way unto it.
This is the Stone of Fire in Ezekiel; this is the Stone with Seven Eyes
upon it in Zacharie, and this is the White Stone with the New Name
in the Revelation. But in the Gospel, where Christ himself speakes,
who was born to discover mysteries and communicate Heaven to
Earth, it is more clearly described.”[81] At the same time he appears
to have carried out experiments in physical Alchemy, and is said to
have met with his death in 1666 through accidentally inhaling the
fumes of some mercury with which he was experimenting.

[80] See Anthony à Wood: Athenæ Oxonienses, edited by Philip Bliss, vol.
iii. (1817), cols. 722-726.
[81] Thomas Vaughan (“Eugenius Philalethes”): Anima Magica Abscondita
(see The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan, edited by A. E. Waite,
1888, p. 71).

Thomas Vaughan was an ardent disciple of Cornelius Agrippa, the

sixteenth-century theosophist. He held the peripatetic philosophy in
very slight esteem. He was a man devoted to God, though probably
guilty of some youthful follies, full of love towards his wife, and with
an intense desire for the solution of the great problems of Nature.
Amongst his chief works, which are by no means wanting in flashes
of mystic wisdom, may be mentioned Anthroposophia Theomagica,
Anima Magica Abscondita (which were published together), and
Magia Adamica; or, the Antiquitie of Magic. With regard to his views
as expressed in the first two of these books, a controversy ensued
between Vaughan and Henry Moore, which was marked by
considerable acrimony.
§ 60. The use of the pseudonym “Philalethes” has not
“Eirenæus been confined to one alchemist. The cosmopolitan
Philalethes”
(1623?-?)
adept who wrote under the name of “Eirenæus
and George Philalethes,” has been confused, on the one hand,
Starkey (? with Thomas Vaughan, on the other hand with George
-1665). Starkey (?-1665). He has also been identified with Dr.
Robert Child (1613-1654); but his real identity remains
shrouded in mystery.[82] George Starkey (or Stirk), the son of
George Stirk, minister of the Church of England in Bermuda,
graduated at Harvard in 1646 and practised medicine in the United
States of America from 1647 to 1650. In 1651 he came to England
and practised medicine in London. He died of the plague in 1665. In
1654-5 he published The Marrow of Alchemy, by “Eirenæus
Philoponos Philalethes,” which some think he had stolen from his
Hermetic Master. Other works by “Eirenæus Philalethes” appeared
after Starkey’s death and became immensely popular. The Open
Entrance to the Closed Palace of the King (the most famous of
these) and the Three Treatises of the same author will be found in
The Hermetic Museum. Some of his views have already been noted
(see §§ 1 and 22). On certain points he differed from the majority of
the alchemists. He denied that fire was an element, and, also, that
bodies are formed by mixture of the elements. According to him
there is one principle in the metals, namely, mercury, which arises
from the aqueous element, and is termed “metalically differentiated
water, i.e., it is water passed into that stage of development, in
which it can no longer produce anything but mineral substances.”[83]
Philalethes’s views as to “metallic seed” are also of considerable
interest. Of the seed of gold, which he regarded as the seed, also, of
all other metals, he says: “The seed of animals and vegetables is
something separate, and may be cut out, or otherwise separately
exhibited; but metallic seed is diffused throughout the metal, and
contained in all its smallest parts; neither can it be discerned from its
body: its extraction is therefore a task which may well tax the
ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher. . . .”[84] Well might
this have been said of the electron of modern scientific theory.

[82] See Mr. A. E. Waite’s Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers, art.

“Eirenæus Philalethes,” and the Biographical Preface to his The Works of
Thomas Vaughan (1919); also the late Professor Ferguson’s “‘The Marrow
of Alchemy’,” The Journal of The Alchemical Society, vol. iii. (1915), pp.
106 et seq., and Professor G. L. Kittredge’s Doctor Robert Child, The
Remonstrant (Camb., Mass., 1919). The last mentioned writer strongly
urges the identification of “Eirenæus Philalethes” with George Starkey.
[83] “Eirenæus Philalethes”: The Metamorphosis of Metals (see The
Hermetic Museum, vol. ii. p. 236). Compare with van Helmont’s views, §
57.
[84] Ibid., p. 240.
 CHAPTER V
THE OUTCOME OF ALCHEMY

§ 61. The alchemists were untiring in their search for

Did the the Stone of the Philosophers, and we may well ask
Alchemists
achieve the
whether they ever succeeded in effecting a real
“Magnum transmutation. That many apparent transmutations
Opus”? occurred, the observers being either self-deceived by a
superficial examination—certain alloys resemble the
“noble metals”—or deliberately cheated by impostors, is of course
undoubted. But at the same time we must not assume that, because
we know not the method now, real transmutations have never taken
place. Modern research indicates that it may be possible to
transmute other metals, such as lead or bismuth, into gold, and
consequently we must admit the possibility that amongst the many
experiments carried out, a real transmutation was effected. On the
other hand, the method which is suggested by the recent researches
in question could not have been known to the alchemists or
accidentally employed by them; and, moreover, the quantity of gold
which is hoped for, should such a method prove successful, is far
below the smallest amount that would have been detected in the
days of Alchemy. But if there be one method whereby the metals
may be transmuted, there may be other methods. And it is not
altogether an easy task to explain away the testimony of eminent
men such as were van Helmont and Helvetius.
§ 62. John Baptist van Helmont (see § 57), who
The was celebrated alike for his skill as a physician and
Testimony of
van Helmont.
chemist and for his nobility of character, testified in
more than one place that he had himself carried out the
transmutation of mercury into gold. But, as we have mentioned
above, the composition of the Stone employed on these occasions
was unknown to him. He says: “. . . For truly, I have divers times
seen it [the Stone of the Philosophers], and handled it with my
hands: but it was of colour, such as is in Saffron in its Powder, yet
weighty, and shining like unto powdered Glass: There was once
given unto me one fourth part of one Grain: But I call a Grain the six
hundredth part of one Ounce: This quarter of one Grain therefore,
being rouled up in Paper, I projected upon eight Ounces of Quick-
silver made hot in a Crucible; and straightway all the Quick-silver,
with a certain degree of Noise, stood still from flowing, and being
congealed, setled like unto a yellow Lump: but after pouring it out,
the Bellows blowing, there were found eight Ounces, and a little less
than eleven Grains [eight Ounces less eleven Grains] of the purest
Gold: Therefore one only Grain of that Powder, had transchanged
19186 [19156] Parts of Quick-silver, equal to itself, into the best
Gold.”[85]

[85] J. B. van Helmont: Life Eternal (see Oriatrike, translated by J. C.,

1662; or van Helmont’s Workes, translated by J. C., 1664, which is merely
the former work with a new title-page and preliminary matter, pp. 751 and
752).

And again: “I am constrained to believe that there is the Stone

which makes Gold, and which makes Silver; because I have at
distinct turns, made projection with my hand, of one grain of the
Powder, upon some thousand grains of hot Quick-silver; and the
buisiness succeeded in the Fire, even as Books do promise; a Circle
of many People standing by, together with a tickling Admiration of us
all. . . . He who first gave me the Gold-making Powder, had likewise
also, at least as much of it, as might be sufficient for changing two
hundred thousand Pounds of Gold: . . . For he gave me perhaps half
a grain of that Powder, and nine ounces and three quarters of Quick-
silver were thereby transchanged: But that Gold, a strange man [a
stranger], being a Friend of one evenings acquaintance, gave
me.”[86]

[86] J. B. van Helmont: The Tree of Life (see Oriatrike or Van Helmont’s
Workes, p. 807).

PLATE 13.

To face page 84]

 § 63. John Frederick Helvetius (see plate 13), an
The eminent doctor of medicine, and physician to the
Testimony of
Helvetius.
Prince of Orange, published at the Hague in 1667 the
following remarkable account of a transmutation he
claimed to have effected. Certain points of resemblance between this
account and that of van Helmont (e.g., in each case the Stone is
described as a glassy substance of a pale yellow colour) are worth
noticing: “On the 27 December, 1666, in the forenoon, there came to
my house a certain man, who was a complete stranger to me, but of
an honest, grave countenance, and an authoritative mien, clothed in
a simple garb like that of a Memnonite. . . .
“After we had exchanged salutations, he asked me whether he might
have some conversation with me. He wished to say something to me
about the Pyrotechnic Art, as he had read one of my tracts (directed
against the sympathetic Powder of Dr. Digby), in which I hinted a
suspicion whether the Grand Arcanum of the Sages was not after all
a gigantic hoax. He, therefore, took that opportunity of asking me
whether I could not believe that such a grand mystery might exist in
the nature of things, by means of which a physician could restore
any patient whose vitals were not irreparably destroyed. I answered:
‘Such a Medicine would be a most desirable acquisition for any
physician; nor can any man tell how many secrets there may be
hidden in Nature; yet, though I have read much about the truth of
this Art, it has never been my good fortune to meet with a real
Master of the Alchemical Science.’ I also enquired whether he was a
medical man. . . . In reply, he . . . described himself as a
brassfounder. . . . After some further conversation, the Artist Elias
(for it was he) thus addressed me: ‘Since you have read so much in
the works of the Alchemists about this Stone, its substance, its
colour, and its wonderful effects, may I be allowed the question,
whether you have not yourself prepared it?’ On my answering his
question in the negative, he took out of his bag a cunningly-worked
ivory box, in which there were three large pieces of a substance
resembling glass, or pale sulphur, and informed me that here was
enough of the Tincture for the production of 20 tons of gold. When I
had held the precious treasure in my hand for a quarter of an hour
(during which time I listened to a recital of its wonderful curative
properties), I was compelled to restore it to its owner, which I could
not help doing with a certain degree of reluctance. After thanking
him for his kindness in shewing it to me, I then asked how it was
that his Stone did not display that ruby colour, which I had been
taught to regard as characteristic of the Philosopher’s Stone. He
replied that the colour made no difference, and that the substance
was sufficiently mature for all practical purposes. My request that he
would give me a piece of his Stone (though it were no larger than a
coriander seed), he somewhat brusquely refused, adding, in a milder
tone, that he could not give it me for all the wealth I possessed, and
that not on account of its great preciousness, but for some other
reason which it was not lawful for him to divulge; . . .
§ 64. “When my strange visitor had concluded his
Helvetius narrative, I besought him to give me a proof of his
obtains the
Philosopher’s
assertion, by performing the transmutatory operation
Stone. on some metals in my presence. He answered
evasively, that he could not do so then, but that he
would return in three weeks, and that, if he was then at liberty to do
so, he would shew me something that would make me open my
eyes. He appeared punctually to the promised day, and invited me to
take a walk with him, in the course of which we discoursed
profoundly on the secrets of Nature in fire, though I noticed that my
companion was very chary in imparting information about the Grand
Arcanum. . . . At last I asked him point-blank to show me the
transmutation of metals. I besought him to come and dine with me,
and to spend the night at my house; I entreated; I expostulated; but
in vain. He remained firm. I reminded him of his promise. He
retorted that his promise had been conditional upon his being
permitted to reveal the secret to me. At last, however, I prevailed
upon him to give me a piece of his precious Stone—a piece no larger
than a grain of rape seed. He delivered it to me as if it were the
most princely donation in the world. Upon my uttering a doubt
whether it would be sufficient to tinge more than four grains of lead,
he eagerly demanded it back. I complied, in the hope that he would
exchange it for a larger piece; instead of which he divided it in two
with his thumb, threw away one-half and gave me back the other,
saying: ‘Even now it is sufficient for you.’ Then I was still more
heavily disappointed, as I could not believe that anything could be
done with so small a particle of the Medicine. He, however, bade me
take two drachms, or half an ounce of lead, or even a little more,
and to melt it in the crucible; for the Medicine would certainly not
tinge more of the base metal than it was sufficient for. I answered
that I could not believe that so small a quantity of Tincture could
transform so large a mass of lead. But I had to be satisfied with
what he had given me, and my chief difficulty was about the
application of the Tincture. I confessed that when I held his ivory
box in my hand, I had managed to extract a few crumbs of his
Stone, but that they had changed my lead, not into gold, but only
into glass. He laughed, and said that I was more expert at theft than
at the application of the Tincture. ‘You should have protected your
spoil with “yellow wax,” then it would have been able to penetrate
the lead and to transmute it into gold.’ . . .
§ 65. “. . . With . . . a promise to return at nine
Helvetius o’clock the next morning, he left me. But at the stated
performs a
Transmutatio
hour on the following day he did not make his
n. appearance; in his stead, however, there came, a few
hours later, a stranger, who told me that his friend the
Artist was unavoidably detained, but that he would call at three
o’clock in the afternoon. The afternoon came; I waited for him till
half-past seven o’clock. He did not appear. Thereupon my wife came
and tempted me to try the transmutation myself. I determined,
however, to wait till the morrow, and in the meantime, ordered my
son to light the fire, as I was now almost sure that he was an
impostor. On the morrow, however, I thought that I might at least
make an experiment with the piece of ‘Tincture’ which I had
received; if it turned out a failure, in spite of my following his
directions closely, I might then be quite certain that my visitor had
been a mere pretender to a knowledge of this Art. So I asked my
wife to put the Tincture in wax, and I myself, in the meantime,
prepared six drachms of lead; I then cast the Tincture, enveloped as
it was in wax, on the lead; as soon as it was melted, there was a
hissing sound and a slight effervescence, and after a quarter of an
hour I found that the whole mass of lead had been turned into the
finest gold. Before this transmutation took place, the compound
became intensely green, but as soon as I had poured it into the
melting pot it assumed a hue like blood. When it cooled, it glittered
and shone like gold. We immediately took it to the goldsmith, who at
once declared it to be the finest gold he had ever seen, and offered
to pay fifty florins an ounce for it.
§ 66. “The rumour, of course, spread at once like
Helvetius’s wildfire through the whole city; and in the afternoon, I
Gold
Assayed.
had visits from many illustrious students of this Art; I
also received a call from the Master of the Mint and
some other gentlemen, who requested me to place at their disposal
a small piece of the gold, in order that they might subject it to the
usual tests. I consented, and we betook ourselves to the house of a
certain silversmith, named Brechtil, who submitted a small piece of
my gold to the test called ‘the fourth’: three or four parts of silver
are melted in the crucible with one part of gold, and then beaten out
into thin plates, upon which some strong aqua fortis [nitric acid] is
poured. The usual result of this experiment is that the silver is
dissolved, while the gold sinks to the bottom in the shape of a black
powder, and after the aqua fortis has been poured off, [the gold,]
melted once again in the crucible, resumes its former shape. . . .
When we now performed this experiment, we thought at first that
one-half of the gold had evaporated; but afterwards we found that
this was not the case, but that, on the contrary, two scruples of the
silver had undergone a change into gold.
§ 67. “Then we tried another test, viz., that which is
Helvetius’s performed by means of a septuple of Antimony; at
Gold Further
Tested.
first it seemed as if eight grains of the gold had been
lost, but afterwards, not only had two scruples of the
silver been converted into gold, but the silver itself was greatly
improved both in quality and malleability. Thrice I performed this
infallible test, discovering that every drachm of gold produced an
increase of a scruple of gold, but the silver is excellent and
extremely flexible. Thus I have unfolded to you the whole story from
beginning to end. The gold I still retain in my possession, but I
cannot tell you what has become of the Artist Elias. Before he left
me, on the last day of our friendly intercourse, he told me that he
was on the point of undertaking a journey to the Holy Land. May the
Holy Angels of God watch over him wherever he is, and long
preserve him as a source of blessing to Christendom! This is my
earnest prayer on his and our behalf.”[87]

[87] J. F. Helvetius: The Golden Calf, ch. iii. (see The Hermetic Museum,
vol. ii. pp. 283 et seq.).

Testimony such as this warns us not to be too sure that a real

transmutation has never taken place. On the whole, with regard to
this question, an agnostic position appears to be the more
philosophical.
§ 68. But even if the alchemists did not discover the
The Genesis Grand Arcanum of Nature, they did discover very
of Chemistry.
many scientifically important facts. Even if they did not
prepare the Philosopher’s Stone, they did prepare a very large
number of new and important chemical compounds. Their labours
were the seeds out of which modern Chemistry developed, and this
highly important science is rightfully included under the expression
“The Outcome of Alchemy.” As we have already pointed out (§ 48), it
was the iatro-chemists who first investigated chemical matters with
an object other than alchemistic, their especial end in view being the
preparation of useful medicines, though the medical-chemist and the
alchemist were very often united in the one person, as in the case of
Paracelsus himself and the not less famous van Helmont. It was not
until still later that Chemistry was recognised as a distinct science
separate from medicine.
 § 69. In another direction the Outcome of Alchemy
The was of a very distressing nature. Alchemy was in many
Degeneracy
of Alchemy.
respects eminently suitable as a cloak for fraud, and
those who became “alchemists” with the sole object of
accumulating much wealth in a short space of time, finding that the
legitimate pursuit of the Art did not enable them to realise their
expectations in this direction, availed themselves of this fact. There
is, indeed, some evidence that the degeneracy of Alchemy had
commenced as early as the fourteenth century, but the attainment of
the magnum opus was regarded as possible for some three or more
centuries.
The alchemistic promises of health, wealth and happiness and a
pseudo-mystical style of language were effectively employed by
these impostors. Some more or less ingenious tricks—such as the
use of hollow stirring-rods, in which the gold was concealed, &c.—
convinced a credulous public of the validity of their claims. Of these
pseudo-alchemists we have already made the acquaintance of
Edward Kelley, but chief of them all is generally accounted the
notorious “Count Cagliostro.” That “Cagliostro” is rightfully placed in
the category of pseudo-alchemists is certain, but it also appears
equally certain that, charlatan though he was, posterity has not
always done him that justice which is due to all men, however bad
they may be.
§ 70. Of the birth and early life of the personage
“Count calling himself “Count Cagliostro” nothing is known
Cagliostro”
(—?-1795).
with any degree of certainty, even his true name being
enveloped in mystery. It has, indeed, been usual to
identify him with the notorious Italian swindler, Giuseppe Balsamo,
who, born at Palermo in 1743 (or 1748), apparently disappeared
from mortal ken after some thirty years, of which the majority were
spent in committing various crimes. “Cagliostro’s” latest biographer,
[88] who appears to have gone into the matter very thoroughly,
however, throws very grave doubts on the truth of this theory.
[88] W. R. H. Trowbridge: Cagliostro: The Splendour and Misery of a
Master of Magic (1910). We must acknowledge our indebtedness for many
of the particulars which follow to this work. It is, however, unfortunately
marred by a ridiculous attempt to show a likeness between “Cagliostro”
and Swedenborg, for which, by the way, Mr. Trowbridge has already been
criticised by the Spectator. It may justly be said of Swedenborg that he
was scrupulously honest and sincere in his beliefs as well as in his actions;
and, as a philosopher, it is only now being discovered how really great he
was. He did, indeed, claim to have converse with spiritual beings; but the
results of modern psychical research have robbed such claims of any
inherent impossibility, and in Swedenborg’s case there is very considerable
evidence for their validity.

PLATE 14.
 To face page 92]

If the earlier part of “Cagliostro’s” life is unknown, the latter part is

so overlaid with legends and lies, that it is almost impossible to get
at the truth concerning it. In 1776 Cagliostro and his wife were in
London, where “Cagliostro” became a Freemason, joining a lodge
connected with “The Order of Strict Observance,” a secret society
incorporated with Freemasonry, and which (on the Continent, at
least) was concerned largely with occult subjects. “Cagliostro,”
however, was unsatisfied with its rituals and devised a new system
which he called Egyptian Masonry. Egyptian Masonry, he taught, was
to reform the whole world, and he set out, leaving England for the
Continent, to convert Masons and others to his views. We must look
for the motive power of his extraordinary career in vanity and a love
of mystery-mongering, without any true knowledge of the occult; it
is probable, indeed, that ultimately his unbounded vanity triumphed
over his reason and that he actually believed in his own pretensions.
That he did possess hypnotic and clairvoyant powers is, we think, at
least probable; but it is none the less certain that, when such failed
him, he had no scruples against employing other means of
convincing the credulous of the validity of his claims. This was the
case on his visit to Russia, which occurred not long afterwards. At
St. Petersburg a youthful medium he was employing, to put the
matter briefly, “gave the show away,” and at Warsaw, where he
found it necessary to turn alchemist, he was detected in the process
of introducing a piece of gold in the crucible containing the base
metal he was about to “transmute.” At Strasburg, which he reached
in 1780, however, he was more successful. Here he appeared as a
miraculous healer of all diseases, though whether his cures are to be
ascribed to some simple but efficacious medicine which he had
discovered, to hypnotism, to the power of the imagination on the
part of his patients, or to the power of imagination on the part of
those who have recorded the alleged cures, is a question into which
we do not propose to enter. At Strasburg “Cagliostro” came into
contact with the Cardinal de Rohan, and a fast friendship sprang up
between the two, which, in the end, proved “Cagliostro’s” ruin. The
“Count” next visited Bordeaux and Lyons, successfully founding
lodges of Egyptian Masonry. From the latter town he proceeded to
Paris, where he reached the height of his fame. He became
extraordinarily rich, although he is said to have asked, and to have
accepted, no fee for his services as a healer. On the other hand,
there was a substantial entrance-fee to the mysteries of Egyptian
Masonry, which, with its alchemistic promises of health and wealth,
prospered exceedingly. At the summit of his career, however, fortune
forsook him. As a friend of de Rohan, he was arrested in connection
with the Diamond Necklace affair, on the word of the infamous
Countess de Lamotte; although, of whatever else he may have been
guilty, he was perfectly innocent of this charge. After lying
imprisoned in the Bastille for several months, he was tried by the
French Parliament, pronounced innocent, and released. Immediately,
however, the king banished him, and he left Paris for London, where
he seems to have been persistently persecuted by agents of the
French king. He returned to the Continent, ultimately reaching Italy,
where he was arrested by the Inquisition and condemned to death
on the charge of being a Freemason (a dire offence in the eyes of
the Roman Catholic Church). The sentence, however, was modified
to one of perpetual imprisonment, and he was confined in the Castle
of San Leo, where he died in 1795, after four years of imprisonment,
in what manner is not known.
 CHAPTER VI
THE AGE OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

§ 71. Chemistry as distinct from Alchemy and Iatro-

The Birth of chemistry commenced with Robert Boyle (see plate
Modern
Chemistry.
15), who first clearly recognised that its aim is neither
the transmutation of the metals nor the preparation of
medicines, but the observation and generalisation of a certain class
of phenomena; who denied the validity of the alchemistic view of the
constitution of matter, and enunciated the definition of an element
which has since reigned supreme in Chemistry; and who enriched
the science with observations of the utmost importance. Boyle,
however, was a man whose ideas were in advance of his times, and
intervening between the iatro-chemical period and the Age of
Modern Chemistry proper came the period of the Phlogistic Theory—
a theory which had a certain affinity with the ideas of the alchemists.

PLATE 15.
 PORTRAIT OF ROBERT BOYLE.

To face page 94]

§ 72. The phlogiston theory was mainly due to Georg

The Ernst Stahl (1660-1734). Becher (1635-1682) had
Phlogiston
Theory.
attempted to revive the once universally accepted
sulphur-mercury-salt theory of the alchemists in a
somewhat modified form, by the assumption that all substances
consist of three earths—the combustible, mercurial, and vitreous;
and herein is to be found the germ of Stahl’s phlogistic theory.
According to Stahl, all combustible bodies (including those metals
that change on heating) contain phlogiston, the principle of
combustion, which escapes in the form of flame when such
substances are burned. According to this theory, therefore, the
metals are compounds, since they consist of a metallic calx (what
we now call the “oxide” of the metal) combined with phlogiston;
and, further, to obtain the metal from the calx it is only necessary to
act upon it with some substance rich in phlogiston. Now, coal and
charcoal are both almost completely combustible, leaving very little
residue; hence, according to this theory, they must consist very
largely of phlogiston; and, as a matter of fact, metals can be
obtained by heating their calces with either of these substances.
Many other facts of a like nature were explicable in terms of the
phlogiston theory, and it became exceedingly popular. Chemists at
this time did not pay much attention to the balance; it was observed,
however, that metals increased in weight on calcination, but this was
“explained” on the assumption that phlogiston possessed negative
weight. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), utilising Priestley’s discovery
of oxygen (called “dephlogisticated air” by its discoverer) and
studying the weight relations accompanying combustion,
demonstrated the non-validity of the phlogistic theory[89] and proved
combustion to be the combination of the substance burnt with a
certain constituent of the air, the oxygen. By this time Alchemy was
to all intents and purposes defunct, Boerhave (1668-1738) was the
last eminent chemist to give any support to its doctrines, and the
new chemistry of Lavoisier gave it a final death-blow. We now enter
upon the Age of Modern Chemistry, but we shall deal in this chapter
with the history of chemical theory only so far as is necessary in
pursuance of our primary object, and hence our account will be very
far from complete.
 [89] It should be noted, however, that if by the term “phlogiston” we were to understand energy and not some
form of matter, most of the statements of the phlogistics would be true so far as they go.

Boyle and the § 73. Robert Boyle (1626-1691) had defined an element as a substance which could not
Definition of be decomposed, but which could enter into combination with other elements giving
an Element. compounds capable of decomposition into these original elements. Hence, the metals
were classed among the elements, since they had defied all attempts to decompose them. Now, it must
be noted that this definition is of a negative character, and, although it is convenient to term “elements”
all substances which have so far defied decomposition, it is a matter of impossibility to decide what
substances are true elements with absolute certainty; and the possibility, however faint, that gold and
other metals are of a compound nature, and hence the possibility of preparing gold from the “base”
metals or other substances, must always remain. This uncertainty regarding the elements appears to
have generally been recognised by the new school of chemists, but this having been so, it is the more
surprising that their criticism of alchemistic art was not less severe.
§ 74. With the study of the relative weights in which substances combine, certain
The generalisations or “natural laws” of supreme importance were discovered. These
Stoichiometri
stoichiometric laws, as they are called, are as follows:—
c Laws.
1. “The Law of Constant Proportion”—The same chemical compound always contains the same
elements, and there is a constant ratio between the weights of the constituent elements present.
2. “The Law of Multiple Proportions”—If two substances combine chemically in more than one
proportion, the weights of the one which combine with a given weight of the other, stand in a simple
rational ratio to one another.
3. “The Law of Combining Weights”—Substances combine either in the ratio of their combining
numbers, or in simple rational multiples or submultiples of these numbers. (The weights of different
substances which combine with a given weight of some particular substance, which is taken as the unit,
are called the combining numbers of such substances with reference to this unit. The usual unit now
chosen is 8 grammes of Oxygen.)[90]

[90] In order that these laws may hold good, it is, of course, necessary that the substances are weighed under
precisely similar conditions. To state these laws in a more absolute form, we can replace the term “weight” by
“mass,” or in preference, “inertia”; for the inertias of bodies are proportional to their weights, providing that they
are weighed under precisely similar conditions. For a discussion of the exact significance of these terms “mass”
and “inertia,” the reader is referred to the present writer’s Matter, Spirit and the Cosmos (Rider, 1910), Chapter
I., “On the Doctrine of the Indestructibility of Matter.”

As examples of these laws we may take the few following simple facts:—
1. Pure water is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio of 1·008 parts
by weight of the latter to 8 parts by weight of the former; and pure sulphur-dioxide, to take another
example, is found always to consist of sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of 8·02 parts by weight
of sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. (The Law of Constant Proportion.)
2. Another compound is known consisting only of oxygen and hydrogen, which, however, differs entirely
in its properties from water. It is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio
of 1·008 parts by weight of the latter to 16 parts by weight of the former, i.e., in it a definite weight of
hydrogen is combined with an amount of oxygen exactly twice that which is combined with the same
weight of hydrogen in water. No definite compound has been discovered with a constitution
intermediate between these two. Other compounds consisting only of sulphur and oxygen are also
known. One of these (viz., sulphur-trioxide, or sulphuric anhydride) is found always to consist of sulphur
and oxygen combined in the ratio of 5·35 parts by weight of sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. We
see, therefore, that the weights of sulphur combined with a definite weight of oxygen in the two
compounds called respectively “sulphur-dioxide” and “sulphur-trioxide,” are in the proportion of 8·02 to
5·35, i.e., 3 : 2. Similar simple ratios are obtained in the case of all the other compounds. (The Law of
Multiple Proportions.)
3. From the data given in (1) above we can fix the combining number of hydrogen as 1·008, that of
sulphur as 8·02. Now, compounds are known containing sulphur and hydrogen, and, in each case, the
weight of sulphur combined with 1·008 grammes of hydrogen is found always to be either 8·02
grammes or some multiple or submultiple of this quantity. Thus, in the simplest compound of this sort,
containing only hydrogen and sulphur (viz., sulphuretted-hydrogen or hydrogen sulphide), 1·008
grammes of hydrogen is found always to be combined with 16·04 grammes of sulphur, i.e., exactly
twice the above quantity. (The Law of Combining Weights.)
Berthollet (1748-1822) denied the truth of the law of constant proportion, and a controversy ensued
between this chemist and Proust (1755-1826), who undertook a research to settle the question, the
results of which were in entire agreement with the law, and were regarded as completely substantiating
it.

PLATE 16.

[by Worthington, after Allen]

PORTRAIT OF JOHN DALTON.]

To face page 100]

§ 75. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, John Dalton (see plate 15) put forward
Dalton’s his Atomic Theory in explanation of these facts. This theory assumes (1) that all matter is
Atomic
made up of small indivisible and indestructible particles, called “atoms”; (2) that all atoms
Theory.
are not alike, there being as many different sorts of atoms as there are elements; (3) that
the atoms constituting any one element are exactly alike and are of definite weight; and (4) that
compounds are produced by the combination of different atoms. Now, it is at once evident that if matter
be so constituted, the stoichiometric laws must necessarily follow. For the smallest particle of any
definite compound (now called a “molecule”) must consist of a definite assemblage of different atoms,
and these atoms are of definite weight: whence the law of constant proportion. One atom of one
substance may combine with 1, 2, 3 . . . atoms of some other substance, but it cannot combine with
some fractional part of an atom, since the atoms are indivisible: whence the law of multiple proportions.
And these laws holding good, and the atoms being of definite weight, the law of combining weights
necessarily follows. Dalton’s Atomic Theory gave a simple and intelligible explanation of these
remarkable facts regarding the weights of substances entering into chemical combination, and,
therefore, gained universal acceptance. But throughout the history of Chemistry can be discerned a
spirit of revolt against it as an explanation of the absolute constitution of matter. The tendency of
scientific philosophy has always been towards Monism as opposed to Dualism, and here were not
merely two eternals, but several dozen; Dalton’s theory denied the unity of the Cosmos, it lacked the
unifying principle of the alchemists. It is only in recent times that it has been recognised that a scientific
hypothesis may be very useful without being altogether true. As to the usefulness of Dalton’s theory
there can be no question; it has accomplished that which no other hypothesis could have done; it
rendered the concepts of a chemical element, a chemical compound and a chemical reaction definite;
and has, in a sense, led to the majority of the discoveries in the domain of Chemistry that have been
made since its enunciation. But as an expression of absolute truth, Dalton’s theory, as is very generally
recognised nowadays, fails to be satisfactory. In the past, however, it has been the philosophers of the
materialistic school of thought, rather than the chemists quâ chemists, who have insisted on the
absolute truth of the Atomic Theory; Kekulé, who by developing Franklin’s theory of atomicity or
valency[91] made still more definite the atomic view of matter, himself expressed grave doubts as to the
absolute truth of Dalton’s theory; but he regarded it as chemically true, and thus voices what appears to
be the opinion of the majority of chemists nowadays, namely, there are such things as chemical atoms
and chemical elements, incapable of being decomposed by purely chemical means, but that such are
not absolute atoms or absolute elements, and consequently not impervious to all forms of action. But of
this more will be said later.

[91] The term “valency” is not altogether an easy one to define; we will, however, here do our best to make
plain its significance. In a definite chemical compound we must assume that the atoms constituting each
molecule are in some way bound together (though not, of course, rigidly), and we may speak of “bonds” or
“links of affinity,” taking care, however, not to interpret such terms too literally. Now, the number of “affinity
links” which one atom can exert is not unlimited; indeed, according to the valency theory as first formulated, it
is fixed and constant. It is this number which is called the “valency” of the element; but it is now known that the
“valency” in most cases can vary between certain limits. Hydrogen, however, appears to be invariably univalent,
and is therefore taken as the unit of valency. Thus, Carbon is quadrivalent in the methane-molecule, which
consists of one atom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen; and Oxygen is divalent in the water-
molecule, which consists of one atom of oxygen combined with two atoms of hydrogen. Hence, we should
expect to find one atom of carbon combining with two of oxygen, which is the case in the carbon-dioxide—
(carbonic anhydride)—molecule. For a development of the thesis, so far as the compounds of carbon are
concerned, that each specific “affinity link” corresponds in general to a definite and constant amount of energy,
which is evolved as heat on disruption of the bond, the reader is referred to the present writer’s monograph On
the Calculation of Thermo-Chemical Constants (Arnold, 1909). The phenomena of valency find their explanation
in modern views concerning the constitution of atoms (see § 81).

The § 76. With the acceptance of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, it became necessary to determine
Determinatio the atomic weights of the various elements, i.e., not the absolute atomic weights, but the
n of the relative weights of the various atoms with reference to one of them as unit.[92] We cannot
Atomic
in this place enter upon a discussion of the various difficulties, both of an experimental
Weights of
the Elements. and theoretical nature, which were involved in this problem, save to remark that the
correct atomic weights could be arrived at only with the acceptance of Avogadro’s
Hypothesis. This hypothesis, which is to the effect that equal volumes of different gases measured at
the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of gaseous molecules, was put forward in
explanation of a number of facts connected with the physical behaviour of gases; but its importance
was for some time unrecognised, owing to the fact that the distinction between atoms and molecules
was not yet clearly drawn. A list of those chemical substances at present recognised as “elements,”
together with their atomic weights, will be found on pp. 106, 107.
 [92] Since hydrogen is the lightest of all known substances, the unit, Hydrogen = 1, was at one time usually
employed. However, it was seen to be more convenient to express the atomic weights in terms of the weight of
the oxygen-atom, and the unit, Oxygen = 16 is now always employed. This value for the oxygen-atom was
chosen so that the approximate atomic weights would in most cases remain unaltered by the change.

Prout’s § 77. It was observed by a chemist of the name of Prout, that, the atomic weight of
Hypothesis. hydrogen being taken as the unit, the atomic weights of nearly all the elements
approximated to whole numbers; and in 1815 he suggested as the reason for this
regularity, that all the elements consist solely of hydrogen. Prout’s Hypothesis received on the whole a
very favourable reception; it harmonised Dalton’s Theory with the grand concept of the unity of matter
—all matter was hydrogen in essence; and Thomas Thomson undertook a research to demonstrate its
truth. On the other hand, however, the eminent Swedish chemist, Berzelius, who had carried out many
atomic weight determinations, criticised both Prout’s Hypothesis and Thomson’s research (which latter,
it is true, was worthless) in most severe terms; for the hypothesis amounted to this—that the decimals
in the atomic weights obtained experimentally by Berzelius, after so much labour, were to be regarded
as so many errors. In 1844, Marignac suggested half the hydrogen atom as the unit, for the element
chlorine, with an atomic weight of 35·5, would not fit in with Prout’s Hypothesis as originally
formulated; and later, Dumas suggested one-quarter. With this theoretical division of the hydrogen-
atom, the hypothesis lost its simplicity and charm, and was doomed to downfall. Recent and most
accurate atomic weight determinations show clearly that the atomic weights are not exactly whole
numbers, but that, nevertheless, the majority of them (if expressed in terms of O = 16 as the unit) do
approximate very closely to such. The Hon. R. J. Strutt has recently calculated that the probability of
this occurring, in the case of certain of the commoner elements, by mere chance is exceedingly small
(about 1 in 1,000),[93] and several attempts to explain this remarkable fact have been put forward.
Modern scientific speculations concerning the constitution of atoms tend towards a modified form of
Prout’s hypothesis, or to the view that the atoms of other elements are, in a manner, polymerides of
hydrogen and helium atoms. As has been pointed out, it is possible, according to modern views, for
elements of different atomic weight to have identical chemical properties, since these latter depend only
upon the number of free electrons in the atom and not at all upon the massive central nucleus. By a
method somewhat similar to that used for determining the mass of kathode particles (see § 79), but
applied to positively charged particles, Sir Joseph Thomson and Dr. F. W. Aston discovered that the
element neon was a mixture of two isotopic elements in unequal proportions, one having an atomic
mass of 20, the other (present only to a slight extent) having an atomic mass of 22. Dr. Aston has
perfected this method of analysing mixtures of isotopes and determining their atomic masses.[94] The
results are of great interest. The atomic weight of hydrogen, 1·008, is confirmed. The elements helium,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, phosphorus, sulphur, arsenic, iodine and sodium are found to be
simple bodies with whole-number atomic weights. On the other hand, boron, neon, silicon, chlorine,
bromine, krypton, xenon, mercury, lithium, potassium and rubidium are found to be mixtures. What is
specially of interest is that the indicated atomic mass of each of the constituents is a whole number.
Thus chlorine, whose atomic weight is 35·46, is found to be a mixture of two chemically-identical
elements whose atomic weights are 35 and 37. Some of the elements, e.g., xenon, are mixtures of
more than two isotopes.

[93] Hon. R. J. Strutt: “On the Tendency of the Atomic Weights to approximate to Whole Numbers,”
Philosophical Magazine, [6], vol. i. (1901), pp. 311 et seq.
[94] F. W. Aston: “Mass-spectra and Atomic Weights,” Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. cix. (1921), pp. 677
et seq.

It is highly probable that what is true of the elements investigated by Dr. Aston is true of the remainder.
It appears, therefore, that the irregularities presented by the atomic weights of the ordinary elements,
which have so much puzzled men of science in the past, are due to the fact that these elements are, in
many cases, mixtures. As concerns hydrogen, it is only reasonable to suppose that the close packing of
electrically charged particles should give rise to a slight decrease in their total mass, so that the atomic
weights of other elements referred to H = 1 should be slightly less than whole numbers, or, what is the
same thing, that the atomic weight of hydrogen referred to O = 16 should be slightly more than unity.
§ 78. A remarkable property of the atomic weights was discovered, in the sixties,
The “Periodic independently by Lothar Meyer and Mendeléeff. They found that the elements could be
Law.”
arranged in rows in the order of their atomic weights so that similar elements would be
found in the same columns. A modernised form of the Periodic Table will be found on pp. 106, 107. It
will be noticed, for example, that the “alkali” metals, Lithium, Sodium, Rubidium and Cæsium, which
resemble one another very closely, fall in Column 1; the “alkaline earth” metals occur together in
Column 2; though in each case these are accompanied by certain elements with somewhat different
properties. Much the same holds good in the case of the other columns of this Table; there is
manifested a remarkable regularity, with certain still more remarkable divergences (see notes appended
to Table on pp. 106, 107). This regularity exhibited by the “elements” is of considerable importance,
since it shows that, in general, the properties of the “elements” are periodic functions of their atomic
weights; and, together with certain other remarkable properties of the “elements,” distinguishes them
sharply from the “compounds.” It may be concluded with tolerable certainty, therefore, that if the
“elements” are in reality of a compound nature, they are all, in general, compounds of a like nature
distinct from that of other compounds.
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hydrogen Hydrogen
[a]
H = 1·008 H = 1·008

Helium Lithium Glucinum Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine

He = 4·00 Li = 6·94 Gl = 9·1 B = 10·9 C = 12·005 N = 14·008 O = 16·00 F = 19·0

Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine

Ne = 20·2 Na = 23·00 Mg = 24·32 Al = 27·1 Si = 28·3 P = 31·04 S = 32·06 Cl = 35·46

Argon Potassium[b] Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese

A = 39·9 K = 39·10 Ca = 40·07 Sc = 45·1 Ti = 48·1 V = 51·0 Cr = 52·0 Mn = 54·93

Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine

Cu = 63·57 Zn = 65·37 Ga = 70·1 Ge = 72·5 As = 74·96 Se = 79·2 Br = 79·92

Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Columbium Molybdenum

?
Kr = 82·92 Rb = 85·45 Sr = 87·63 Y = 89·33 Zr = 90·6 Cb = 93·1 Mo = 96·0

Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine[d]

Ag = 107·88 Cd = 112·40 In = 114·8 Sn = 118·7 Sb = 120·2 Te = 127·5 I (or J) = 126·92

Xenon Cæsium Barium Lanthanum Cerium[e]

? ? ?
Xe = 130·2 Cs = 132·81 Ba = 137·37 La = 139·0 Ce = 140·25

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Tantalum Tungsten
? ? ? ? ? ?
Ta = 181·5 W = 184·0
 Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium
?
Au = 197·2 Hg = 200·6 Tl = 204·0 Pb = 207·20 Bi = 208·0 (210)

Emanation Radium Actinium Thorium Ekatantalum Uranium

? ?
(Niton) 222·0 Ra = 226·0 ? Th = 232·15 ? U = 238·2

NOTES.
There are several somewhat different forms of this Periodic Table. This is one of the simplest, but it lacks certain
advantages of some of the more complicated forms. The atomic weights given are those of the International
Atomic Weights Committee for 1920-1. They are calculated on the basis, Oxygen = 16. The number of decimal
places given in each case indicates the degree of accuracy with which each atomic weight has been determined.
The letter or letters underneath the name of each element is the symbol by which it is invariably designated by
chemists.
The number above each column indicates the valency which the elements of each group exhibit towards oxygen.
Many of the elements are exceptional in this respect.
a: The exact position of Hydrogen is in dispute.
b: The positions of Argon and Potassium have been inverted in order that these elements may fall in the right
columns with the elements they resemble; d: so also have the positions of Tellurium and Iodine.
c: The whole of “Group 8” forms an exception to the Table.
e: There are a number of ill-defined rare earth metals with atomic weights lying between those of Cerium and
Tantalum. They all appear to resemble the elements of “Group 3,” so that their positions in the Table cannot be
decided with accuracy.

It is now some years since the late Sir William Crookes attempted to explain the periodicity of the
properties of the elements on the theory that they have all been evolved by a conglomerating process
from some primal stuff—the protyle—consisting of very small particles. He represented the action of this
generative cause by means of a “figure of eight” spiral, along which the elements are placed at regular
intervals, so that similar elements come underneath one another, as in Mendeléeff’s table, though the
grouping differs in some respects. The slope of the curve is supposed to represent the decline of some
factor (e.g., temperature) conditioning the process, which process is assumed to be of a recurrent
nature, like the swing of a pendulum. After the completion of one swing (to keep to the illustration of a
pendulum) whereby one series of elements is produced, owing to the decline of the above-mentioned
factor, the same series of elements is not again the result as would otherwise be the case, but a
somewhat different series is produced, each member of which resembles the corresponding member of
the former series. Thus, if the first series contains, for example, helium, lithium, carbon, &c., the second
series will contain instead, argon, potassium, titanium, &c. The whole theory, though highly interesting,
is, however, by no means free from defects.
§ 79. We must now turn our attention to those recent views of the constitution of matter
The which originated to a great extent in the investigations of the passage of electricity
Corpuscular
Theory of
through gases at very low pressures. It will be possible, however, on the present
Matter. occasion, to give only the very briefest account of the subject; but a fuller treatment is
rendered unnecessary by the fact that these and allied investigations and the theories to
which they have given rise have been fully treated in several well-known works, by various authorities
on the subject, which have appeared during the last few years.[95]

[95] We have found Prof. Harry Jones’ The Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity (1906), Mr. Soddy’s
Radioactivity (1904), and Mr. Whetham’s The Recent Development of Physical Science (1909) particularly
interesting. Mention, of course, should also be made of the standard works of Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson and Prof.
Rutherford.

When an electrical discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube, invisible rays are emitted from the
kathode, generally with the production of a greenish-yellow fluorescence where they strike the glass
walls of the tube. These rays are called “kathode rays.” At one time they were regarded as waves in the
ether, but it was shown by Sir William Crookes that they consist of small electrically charged particles,
moving with a very high velocity. Sir J. J. Thomson was able to determine the ratio of the charge carried
by these particles to their mass or inertia; he found that this ratio was constant whatever gas was
contained in the vacuum tube, and much greater than the corresponding ratio for the hydrogen ion
(electrically charged hydrogen atom) in electrolysis. By a skilful method, based on the fact discovered by
Mr. C. T. R. Wilson, that charged particles can serve as nuclei for the condensation of water-vapour, he
was further able to determine the value of the electrical charge carried by these particles, which was
found to be constant also, and equal to the charge carried by univalent ions, e.g., hydrogen, in
electrolysis. Hence, it follows that the mass of these kathode particles must be much smaller than the
hydrogen ion, the actual ratio being about 1 : 1700. The first theory put forward by Sir J. J. Thomson in
explanation of these facts, was that these kathode particles (“corpuscles” as he termed them) were
electrically charged portions of matter, much smaller than the smallest atom; and since the same sort of
corpuscle is obtained whatever gas is contained in the vacuum tube, it is reasonable to conclude that
the corpuscle is the common unit of all matter.
§ 80. This eminent physicist, however, had shown mathematically that a charged particle
Proof that moving with a very high velocity (approaching that of light) would exhibit an appreciable
the Electrons
increase in mass or inertia due to the charge, the magnitude of such inertia depending on
are not
Matter. the velocity of the particle. This was experimentally verified by Kaufmann, who
determined the velocities, and the ratios between the electrical charge and the inertia, of
various kathode particles and similar particles which are emitted by compounds of radium (see §§ 89
and 90). Sir J. J. Thomson calculated these values on the assumption that the inertia of such particles is
entirely of electrical origin, and thereby obtained values in remarkable agreement with the
experimental. There is, therefore, no reason for supposing the corpuscle to be matter at all; indeed, if it
were, the above agreement would not be obtained. As Professor Jones says: “Since we know things
only by their properties, and since all the properties of the corpuscle are accounted for by the electrical
charge associated with it, why assume that the corpuscle contains anything but the electrical charge? It
is obvious that there is no reason for doing so.
“The corpuscle is, then, nothing but a disembodied electrical charge, containing nothing material, as we
have been accustomed to use that term. It is electricity, and nothing but electricity. With this new
conception a new term was introduced, and, now, instead of speaking of the corpuscle we speak of the
electron.”[96] Applying this modification to the above view of the constitution of matter, we have what is
called “the electronic theory,” namely, that the material atoms consist of electrons, or units of electricity
in rapid motion; which amounts to this—that matter is simply an electrical phenomenon.

[96] H. C. Jones: The Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity (1906), p. 21.

The § 81. Sir J. J. Thomson has elaborated this theory of the nature and constitution of
Electronic matter; he has shown what systems of electrons would be stable, and has attempted to
Theory of find therein the significance of Mendeléeff’s generalisation and the explanation of valency.
Matter.
There can be no doubt that there is a considerable element of truth in the electronic
theory of matter; the one characteristic property of matter, i.e., inertia, can be accounted for electrically.
The fundamental difficulty is that the electrons are units of negative electricity, whereas matter is
electrically neutral. Several theories have been put forward to surmount this difficulty. Certainly the
electron is a constituent of matter; but is it the sole constituent? Recent research indicates that, as
already pointed out, all atoms consist of two distinct portions, a massive central nucleus, whose net
charge is positive, surrounded by a number of electrons, just sufficient to neutralize this charge. The
point of greatest interest is that the indicated number of free electrons is exactly the number which
expresses the position of the element in the Periodic Table, reckoning helium as 2, lithium as 3, and so
on; and it would seem that the chemical properties of the elements are determined entirely by these
electrons, and are, therefore, not, strictly speaking, periodic functions of their atomic weights, as was
formerly thought (§ 78), but of their atomic numbers. The exact nature of the nuclei of the various
atoms has yet to be determined: in the case of the atoms heavier than helium they would appear to be
made up of the nuclei of hydrogen and (or) helium atoms together with—in many cases—electrons
insufficient in number to neutralize the positive charges associated with these.
§ 82. The analysis of matter has been carried a step further. A philosophical view of the
The Etheric Cosmos involves the assumption of an absolutely continuous and homogeneous medium
Theory of
filling all space, for an absolute vacuum is unthinkable, and if it were supposed that the
Matter.
stuff filling all space is of an atomic structure, the question arises, What occupies the
interstices between its atoms? This ubiquitous medium is termed by the scientists of to-day “the Ether
of Space.” Moreover, such a medium as the Ether is demanded by the phenomena of light. It appears,
however, that the ether of space has another and a still more important function than the transmission
of light: the idea that matter has its explanation therein has been developed by Sir Oliver Lodge. The
evidence certainly points to the conclusion that matter is some sort of singularity in the ether, probably
a stress centre. We have been too much accustomed to think of the ether as something excessively
light and quite the reverse of massive or dense, in which it appears we have been wrong. Sir Oliver
Lodge calculates that the density of the ether is far greater than that of the most dense forms of
matter; not that matter is to be thought of as a rarefaction of the ether, for the ether within matter is as
dense as that without. What we call matter, however, is not a continuous substance; it consists, rather,
of a number of widely separated particles, whence its comparatively small density compared with the
perfectly continuous ether. Further, if there is a difficulty in conceiving how a perfect fluid like the ether
can give rise to a solid body possessed of such properties as rigidity, impenetrability and elasticity, we
must remember that all these properties can be produced by means of motion. A jet of water moving
with a sufficient velocity behaves like a rigid and impenetrable solid, whilst a revolving disc of paper
exhibits elasticity and can act as a circular saw.[97] It appears, therefore, that the ancient doctrine of the
alchemistic essence is fundamentally true after all, that out of the “One Thing” all material things have
been produced by adaptation or modification; and, as we have already noticed (§ 60), there also
appears to be some resemblance between the concept of the electron and that of the seed of gold,
which seed, it should be borne in mind, was regarded by the alchemists as the common seed of all
metals.

[97] See Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.: The Ether of Space (1909).

Further § 83. There are also certain other facts which appear to demand such a modification of
Evidence of Dalton’s Atomic Theory as is found in the Electronic Theory. One of the characteristics of
the the chemical elements is that each one gives a spectrum peculiar to itself. The spectrum
Complexity of
of an element must, therefore, be due to its atoms, which in some way are able, at a
the Atoms.
sufficiently high temperature, to act upon the ether so as to produce vibrations of definite
and characteristic wave-length. Now, in many cases the number of lines of definite wave-length
observed in such a spectrum is considerable, for example, hundreds of different lines have been
observed in the arc-spectrum of iron. But it is incredible that an atom, if it were a simple unit, would
give rise to such a number of different and definite vibrations, and the only reasonable conclusion is
that the atoms must be complex in structure. We may here mention that spectroscopic examination of
various heavenly bodies leads to the conclusion that there is some process of evolution at work building
up complex elements from simpler ones, since the hottest nebulæ appear to consist of but a few simple
elements, whilst cooler bodies exhibit a greater complexity.
§ 84. Such modifications of the atomic theory as those we have briefly discussed above,
Views of although profoundly modifying, and, indeed, controverting the philosophical significance
Wald and
of Dalton’s theory as originally formulated, leave its chemical significance practically
Ostwald.
unchanged. The atoms can be regarded no longer as the eternal, indissoluble gods of
Nature that they were once supposed to be; thus, Materialism is deprived of what was thought to be its
scientific basis.[98] But the science of Chemistry is unaffected thereby; the atoms are not the ultimate
units out of which material things are built, but the atoms cannot be decomposed by purely chemical
means; the “elements” are not truly elemental, but they are chemical elements. However, the atomic
theory has been subjected to a far more searching criticism. Wald argues that substances obey the law
of definite proportions because of the way in which they are prepared; chemists refuse, he says, to
admit any substance as a definite chemical compound unless it does obey this law. Wald’s opinions have
been supported by Professor Ostwald, who has attempted to deduce the other stoichiometric laws on
these grounds without assuming any atomic hypothesis[99]; but these new ideas do not appear to have
gained the approval of chemists in general. It is not to be supposed that chemists will give up without a
struggle a mental tool of such great utility as Dalton’s theory, in spite of its defects, has proved itself to
be. There does seem, however, to be logic in the arguments of Wald and Ostwald, but the trend of
recent scientific theory and research does not appear to be in the direction of Wald’s views. Certainly,
however, it appears that, on the one hand, the atomic theory is not necessitated by the so-called
“stoichiometric laws”; but, on the other hand, a molecular constitution of matter seems to be demanded
by the phenomenon known as the “Brownian Movement,” i.e., the spontaneous, irregular and
apparently perpetual movement of microscopic portions of solid matter when immersed in a liquid
medium; such movement appearing to be explicable only as the result of the motion of the molecules of
which the liquid in question is built up.[100]

[98] For a critical examination of Materialism, the reader is referred to the present writer’s Matter, Spirit and the
Cosmos (Rider, 1910), especially Chapters I. and IV.
[99] W. Ostwald: “Faraday Lecture,” Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. lxxxv. (1904), pp. 506 et seq. See also
W. Ostwald: The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry (translated by H. W. Morse, 1909), especially Chapters VI.,
VII. and VIII.
[100] For an account of this singular phenomenon, see Prof. Jean Perrin: Brownian Movement and Molecular
Reality (translated from the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 8me Séries, September, 1909, by F. Soddy, M.A.,
F.R.S., 1910).
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