UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF ICT

IS 143
Discrete Structure

Lecture 3
 Instructor
Dr. Joseph Cosmas

Kijitonyama Campus
Block A,
Room No. A023

[email protected]
 Content
 Introduction to Course

 Proposition, Sets, Relations and Functions

 Algorithm and Basic Logics

 Proof Techniques

 Basics Of Counting (Mathematical Reasoning)

 Graphs And Trees

 Discrete Probability
Sets
 A set is a collection or group of objects or elements or
members.

o A set is said to contain its elements.

o There must be an underlying universal set U, either

specifically stated or understood.
Sets (cont.)
 Notation:

o List the elements between braces:

S = {a, b, c, d}={b, c, a, d, d}
 Note: listing an object more than once does not change the set.
 Ordering means nothing.

o Specification by predicates:
S= {x | P(x)},
 S contains all the elements from U which make the predicate P
true.

o Brace notation with ellipses:

S = { . . . , -3, -2, -1},
the negative integers.
Sets (cont.)
 Common Universal Sets
o R = reals
o N = natural numbers = {0,1, 2, 3, . . . }, the counting numbers
o Z = all integers = {. . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . .}
o Z+ is the set of positive integers

 Notation:
x is a member of S or x is an element of S:
x  S.

x is not an element of S:
x  S.
Sets (cont.)
 Subsets
o Definition: The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted
A  B, iff
x [x  A  x  B]

o Definition: The void set, the null set, the empty set, denoted
, is the set with no members.
Note: the assertion x   is always false.
Hence
x [x    x  B]
is always true.

o Therefore,  is a subset of every set.

Note: a set, say B, is always a subset of itself.

Sets (cont.)
o Definition:
If A  B but A  B then we say A is a proper subset
of B, denoted A  B.

o Definition:
The set of all subset of a set A, denoted P(A), is
called the power set of A.

o Example:
If A = {a, b} then
P(A) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
Sets (cont.)
o Definition:
The number of (distinct) elements in A, denoted |A|,
is called the cardinality of A.
If the cardinality is a natural number (in N), then the set is
called finite, else infinite.

o Example:
A = {a, b},
| A | = |{a, b}| = 2,
| P(A) | = |P({a, b})| = 4.

 If A is finite then P(A) is also finite.

n
 Useful Fact: |A| = n implies |P(A)| = 2
Sets (cont.)
 Definition: The Cartesian product of A with B, denoted A x B, is
the set of ordered pairs {<a, b> | a  A  b  B}

 Ai   a1 , a2 ,..., an  ai  Ai 
n
Notation: i 1

Note: The Cartesian product of anything with  is . (why?)

o Example:
A = {a,b}, B = {1, 2, 3}

AxB = {<a, 1>, <a, 2>, <a, 3>, <b, 1>, <b, 2>, <b, 3>}

o What is BxA? AxBxA?

o If |A| = m and |B| = n, what is |AxB|?

Set Operations (cont.)
 Propositional calculus and set theory are both instances
of an algebraic system called a

Boolean Algebra.

o The operators in set theory are defined in terms of the

corresponding operator in propositional calculus

o As always there must be a universe U. All sets are assumed

to be subsets of U
Set Operations (cont.)
 Definition:

Two sets A and B are equal, denoted A = B, iff

x [x  A  x  B].

o Note: From a previous logical equivalence we have

A = B iff x [(x  A  x  B)  (x  B  x  A)]

or

A = B iff A  B and B  A
Set Operations (cont.)
 Definitions:
o The union of A and B, denoted A U B, is the set {x | x  A  x  B}
o The intersection of A and B, denoted A  B, is the set
{x | x  A  x  B}
Note: If the intersection is void, A and B are said to be disjoint.
o The complement of A, denoted , is the set {x | (x  A)}
A and {x|x  A}.
Note: Alternative notation is Ac,

o The difference of A and B, or the complement of B relative to A,

denoted A - B, is the set A  B
Note: The (absolute) complement of A is U - A.

 The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted A  B, is the set

(A - B) U (B - A)
Set Operations (cont.)
o Examples:
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
Then

 AB =
 AB=
 A=
 B=
 A-B=
 B -A =
 AB=
Set Operations (cont.)
 Venn Diagrams
o A useful geometric visualization tool (for 3 or less sets)
o The Universe U is the rectangular box
o Each set is represented by a circle and its interior

o All possible combinations of the sets must be represented

U U
A B
A B
C

For 2 sets For 3 sets

o Shade the appropriate region to represent the given set operation.

Set Operations (cont.)
 Set Identities

o Set identities correspond to the logical equivalences.

o Example:
The complement of the union is the intersection of the
complements:
A B = A  B

Proof: To show:

x [x  A  B  x  A  B ]

To show two sets are equal we show for all x that x is a

member of one set if and only if it is a member of the other.
Set Operations (cont.)
o We now apply an important rule of inference (defined later)
called

Universal Instantiation
In a proof we can eliminate the universal quantifier which binds
a variable if we do not assume anything about the variable
other than it is an arbitrary member of the Universe. We can
then treat the resulting predicate as a proposition.
Set Operations (cont.)
o We say
'Let x be arbitrary.'
Then we can treat the predicates as propositions:
Set Operations (cont.)
o Hence
x A B  x  A  B

is a tautology.

Since

• x was arbitrary
• we have used only logically equivalent assertions
and definitions
Set Operations (cont.)
o we can apply another rule of inference called
Universal Generalization
We can apply a universal quantifier to bind a variable if we
have shown the predicate to be true for all values of the
variable in the Universe.

and claim the assertion is true for all x, i.e.,

x [x  A B  x  A  B ]
Set Operations (cont.)
o Note: As an alternative which might be easier in some cases, use the
identity
A = B  [A  B and B  A]

o Example:
Show A  (B - A) = 

The void set is a subset of every set. Hence,

A  (B - A)  
Therefore, it suffices to show

A  (B - A)   or x [xA  (B - A)  x  ]

So as before we say 'let x be arbitrary’.

Set Operations (cont.)
o Example (cont.)
Show xA  (B - A)  x   is a tautology.
But the consequent is always false.
Therefore, the antecedent better always be false also.
Apply the definitions:
Set Operations (cont.)
 Union and Intersection of Indexed Collections

o Let A1,A2 ,..., An be an indexed collection of sets.

o Union and intersection are associative (because 'and' and
'or' are) we have:
n
 Ai  A1  A2  ...  An
i 1
and
n
 Ai  A1  A2  ...  An
i 1
Set Operations (cont.)
o Examples

Let

Ai  [ i ,  ),1  i  
n
 Ai  [ 1 ,  )
i 1
n
 Ai  [ n ,  )
i 1
Examples
o Assignment details:
 Book Title: Discrete Mathematical Structure (shared earlier)

 Book Author: Shanker G. Rao

 Page: 67

 Exercise 2.2

 Question no. 2, 4, 7, 8, 25, 26