Internet of Things Security

Internet of Things Security

Principles, Applications, Attacks,
and Countermeasures

B. B. Gupta
Megha Quamara
CRC Press
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Dedicated to my parents and family for their constant support during
the course of this book

B. B. Gupta

Dedicated to my mentor, my parents, and my friends for their constant

encouragement and belief during the course of this book

Megha Quamara
Contents

List of Figures xi
List of Tables xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Authors xix

1 Internet of Things – Evolution, Statistics, and Forecasts 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definition of IoT 2
1.3 Evolution 3
1.4 Related Statistics 5
1.5 Industrial Forecasts 6
1.5.1 General Forecasts 6
1.5.2 Security-Related Forecasts 6
1.6 Chapter Summary 8
References 8

2 IoT Architecture and Business Models 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 IoT Architecture 12
2.3 Business Models for IoT 14
2.3.1 What Are Business Models? 14
2.3.2 Components of Business Models 15
2.3.3 Challenges in Developing Business Model
Frameworks for the IoT 16
2.3.4 IoT Business Models 18
2.3.5 Technological Perspective of Business Models 19
2.3.5.1 Industrial Context 19
2.3.5.2 Blockchain 20
2.3.5.3 5G 20
2.4 Chapter Summary 21
References 21

vii
viii Contents

3 Communication and Development Primitives in IoT 25

3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Communication Protocols, Standards, and Regulations 26
3.2.1 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport 28
3.2.2 Constrained Application Protocol 30
3.3 Design and Development Tools 32
3.4 Datasets 34
3.5 Chapter Summary 36
References 36

4 Challenges in IoT 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Challenges Associated with IoT Architecture 39
4.3 Challenges Associated with Entities 43
4.4 Technology-Oriented Challenges 44
4.5 Challenges Associated with Features 45
4.6 Challenges Associated with Development Practices 47
4.7 Summary 48
References 49

5 Data Explosion in IoT 51

5.1 Introduction 51
5.2 Big Data Definition 51
5.3 Underlying Factors for Data Explosion in the IoT 52
5.4 Key Challenges Associated with Managing the Data
Explosion in the IoT 53
5.5 Technological Support 54
5.5.1 Machine Learning 55
5.5.2 Artificial Intelligence 55
5.5.3 Intelligent Edge Processing 55
5.6 Summary 56
References 56

6 Computing Paradigms and Security Issues in Connected

and Autonomous Driving Vehicles 59
6.1 Introduction 59
6.2 Connected and Autonomous Driving
Vehicle – A Technical Background 61
6.2.1 Functional Blocks 61
6.2.2 Underlying Technologies 63
6.2.2.1 Radio Detection and Ranging 63
 Contents ix

6.2.2.2 Light Detection and Ranging 63

6.2.2.3 Global Positioning System 64
6.2.2.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 64
6.2.2.5 Dedicated Short Range Communications 65
6.2.2.6 Cameras 65
6.2.2.7 Other Sensors 66
6.2.2.8 Mapping Technologies 66
6.2.2.9 Route Planning and Navigation Algorithms 66
6.2.3 Potential Benefits and Forecasts 67
6.3 Computing Paradigms 68
6.3.1 Artificial Intelligence 68
6.3.2 Vehicular Cloud Computing or Edge Computing 70
6.3.3 End-to-End Networking 71
6.4 Security Issues and Existing Countermeasures 72
6.4.1 Challenges and Countermeasures Associated
with Computing Paradigms 72
6.4.1.1 Artificial Intelligence 75
6.4.1.2 Vehicular Cloud Computing 76
6.4.1.3 End-to-End Networking 76
6.4.2 Challenges and Countermeasures Associated
with Participating Entities 76
6.4.2.1 Vehicles 77
6.4.2.2 Connection Infrastructure 77
6.4.2.3 Human Aspects 79
6.5 Ongoing Research Efforts 80
6.6 Open Research Challenges 80
6.6.1 Deployment and Operational Costs 81
6.6.2 Security 81
6.6.3 Privacy 81
6.6.4 Legal and Ethical Aspects 82
6.6.5 Validation and Testing 82
6.6.6 Standardization 83
6.6.7 Other Aspects 83
6.7 Summary 83
References 84

Index 91
List of figures

1.1 Global financial damages to businesses due to cyber

attacks (as of April 2018) 5
1.2 Global IoT security spending forecast 7
2.1 IoT architecture 14
2.2 Components of business models 15
6.1 Capabilities of autonomous vehicles 60
6.2 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) – levels of automation 61
6.3 Inter-connection among CADV modules 62
6.4 CADV computing paradigms 68
6.5 Factors associated with security attacks against autonomous
vehicles 73
6.6 Taxonomy of security challenges in CADV technology 73

xi
List of tables

1.1 Events associated with the evolution of IoT 4

3.1 Layer-wise IoT protocols 26
3.2 Standards for IoT 28
3.3 Comparison of MQTT and CoAP 31
3.4 Design and development tools for IoT 32
3.5 Datasets for IoT development 34
4.1 Challenges in the IoT 40
5.1 Big data attributes 52
6.1 Security challenges and existing countermeasures
associated with computing paradigms 74
6.2 Vehicle-specific security challenges and existing
countermeasures 77

xiii
Preface

The Internet of Things (IoT) is defined as an idea of inter-connected devices

around us that are capable of sharing information and resources among each
other to work for the achievement of a specific goal. It involves devices and
technologies with heterogeneous capabilities and properties for the improve­
ment of the efficiency of the resulting applications and to raise economic and
social benefits for people. With the growing edge of the concept of the IoT,
it becomes necessary to understand and counter the challenges, including
security issues, associated with the field. The overall purpose of producing this
book is to develop an understanding of the core concepts of the IoT among the
readers including architects, developers, researchers, and industrialists in
the field so that they can contribute toward its overall development, while at
the same time, considering the novel and challenging aspects associated with
its adoption. The subject matter of the book explores, and aims at drawing the
attention of the reader toward, the existing literature, ongoing research, and
possible future research directions in the field.
Specifically, the chapters contained in this book are summarized as
follows:
Chapter 1 introduces the concept of the IoT with some related definitions
and comprises the events associated with the evolution of the IoT, related sta­
tistics, and industrial forecasts provided by well known organizations across
the world.
Chapter 2 discusses the architectural model of the IoT in detail, encom­
passing different layers with a description of the various entities involved, their
functionalities, along with security aspects. Moreover, it discusses potential
and innovative business models for the IoT including the underlying compo­
nents, challenges, and technological perspectives.
Chapter 3 discusses various protocols for IoT networks, along with dif­
ferent communication standards, regulation, tools, and datasets for IoT
development.

xv
xvi Preface

Chapter 4 discusses the challenges associated with the architecture,

different entities, underlying technologies, characteristics, and developmental
practices in the IoT ecosystem.
Chapter 5 addresses the problem of data explosion in the IoT.
Chapter 6 presents autonomous driving vehicles as an application area of
the IoT and highlights the computing paradigms and security issues associated
with them.
Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed greatly to this book on the Internet of Things
Security: Principles, Applications, Attacks, and Countermeasures. The authors
would like to acknowledge all of them for their valuable help and generous
ideas in improving the quality of this book. With our feelings of gratitude,
we would like to introduce them in turn. The first mention is the staff of both
CRC Press and Taylor & Francis Group for their constant encouragement,
continuous assistance, and untiring support. Without their technical support,
this book would not be completed. The next mention is the authors’ families
for being the source of continuous love, unconditional support, and prayers
not only for this work, but throughout our lives. Last, but far from least, we
express our heartfelt thanks to the Almighty for bestowing over us the courage
to face the complexities of life and complete this work.

B. B. Gupta
Megha Quamara

xvii
Authors

B. B. Gupta received a PhD degree from the Indian Institute of Technology,

Roorkee, India, in the area of information and cyber security. He has pub­
lished more than 200 research papers in international journals and conferences
of high repute including IEEE, Elsevier, ACM, Springer, Wiley, Taylor &
Francis Group, Inderscience, etc. He has visited several countries, i.e.,
Canada, Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, Australia,
Thailand, China, Hong Kong, Italy, Spain, etc. to present his research work.
His biography was selected and published in the 30th Edition of Marquis
Who’s Who in the World, 2012. Dr. Gupta also received the Young Faculty
Research Fellowship award from the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology, Government of India in 2018. He is also working as a princi­
pal investigator of various research and development projects. He is serving
as an associate editor of IEEE Access, IEEE TII, and the executive editor
of IJITCA, Inderscience, respectively. At present, Dr. Gupta is working as
an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Engineering, National
Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India. His research interests include
information security, cyber security, mobile security, cloud computing, web
security, intrusion detection, and phishing.

Megha Quamara received her master of technology (M.Tech) degree

in cyber security from the National Institute of Technology (NIT),
Kurukshetra, India, in 2018. She was awarded the Gold Medal for being
the best graduating student throughout the course. She received her bach­
elor of technology (B.Tech) degree in computer science and engineering
from the University Institute of Engineering and Technology (UIET),
Kurukshetra University, India, in the year 2015, with a First Division with
Honour. Her research interests include security in the Internet of Things
(IoT) and cloud computing, authentication in smart card technology, secu­
rity in autonomous vehicles, and data privacy. She has published and pre­
sented 11 research papers (including one book chapter) in international
platforms of high repute, including Wiley, Elsevier, IEEE, and Springer.
She is a co-author of the book Smart Card Security: Applications, Attacks,

xix
xx Authors

and Countermeasures published by CRC Press. She is also serving as a

reviewer of various journals and conferences. Soon, she will start pursu­
ing a doctoral program at CEA, Paris, in collaboration with the University
of Toulouse, France, where her main area of work will be the safety and
security of cyber-physical systems.
Internet of
Things –
Evolution,
1
Statistics, and
Forecasts

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things is the idea of seamless integration of physical devices
with the Internet that are equipped with sensors, processors, and communi­
cation components facilitating sensing, computing, and communication capa­
bilities for perceiving, processing, and exchanging information through the
Internet with limited or no human intervention. These devices may include
security systems, vehicles, home appliances, electronic gadgets, people, ani­
mals, and so forth. User interface is provided for their installation and for pro­
viding commands to these devices to control their functionality [1–4]. These
devices share data with one another, or they are sent to the local processing
units or remote cloud servers for processing.
From its very beginning, the idea of the IoT is transforming various
aspects of our everyday lives and has proven to be a revolutionary technologi­
cal and networking paradigm. Various industries are adopting the concept of
the IoT in order to function in a smooth and more efficient manner, with a
better understanding of how to deliver enhanced services to the customers and

1
2 Internet of Things Security

for improving the decision-making process to increase the overall revenue.

It encourages business organizations to integrate and adapt new business mod­
els, and to monitor the overall business processes for the improvement of busi­
ness strategies. Network and communication protocols used in IoT networks
are highly dependent on the nature of underlying applications. These real-
world applications range from consumer-oriented applications, such as smart
homes, wearables, and healthcare, to enterprise applications, such as smart
cities, agriculture, smart industries, and traffic management. It is not incor­
rect to say that the current hype of the IoT is immense, and newer IoT-enabled
products are coming to the market every day [5–8].
Despite various benefits of the idea of inter-connecting things, the IoT
accompanies various challenges as well. Ever-growing Internet-connected
devices and data points expand the attack surface that makes security and pri­
vacy aspects that are often ignored crucial. Beyond this, setting up infrastruc­
ture capabilities involving large numbers of devices that are of a heterogeneous
nature is another challenging aspect. Many of the IoT-enabled initiatives have
failed due to lack of effective integration and collaboration among various
components, while at the same time creating a new culture of the technology.
Even with the availability of resources, poor analysis and decision-making
prevent industries from obtaining substantial benefits from the IoT. It is thus
worth digging into knowing what the IoT exactly is and how its different com­
ponents are inter-related.
The next section presents some of the definitions presented by well-known
organizations from around the globe to understand the concept of the IoT.
In later sections, evolutionary aspects of the IoT along with industrial statistics
and forecasts are discussed.

1.2 DEFINITION OF IoT

National Institute of Standards and Technology defines the IoT as a system
involving sensing, actuation, communication, and computation compo­
nents [9,10]. IoT devices are different from the conventional digital devices in
the sense that these can interact with the physical world, cannot be accessed,
monitored, and managed through conventional means, and are characterized
by enhanced security and privacy capabilities in terms of availability, effec­
tiveness, and efficiency. According to Gartner, the IoT is the network con­
sisting of physical objects having embedded technology for communication
and sensing and for interaction with internal states and the external environ­
ment [11]. It will have a great economic impact through the transformation
 1 • Internet of Things – Evolution, Statistics, and Forecasts 3

of traditional enterprises into digital and smart businesses. It will also facili­
tate new business models that would improve the efficiency and employee-
customer engagement.
Recommendation ITU-T Y.2060 defines the IoT as a global infrastructure
for the information society, which enables advanced and high-end services
through inter-connection of physical and virtual things based on existing and
progressing information and communication technologies that support inter-
operability [12]. Physical things are a part of the physical world, and these can
be sensed, actuated, and connected. These can interact with each other via
gateway, without gateway, or directly. On the other hand, virtual things (e.g.,
application software, multi-media content) are a part of the information world,
and these can be stored, processed, and accessed remotely. Fundamental char­
acteristics of the IoT include inter-connectivity, heterogeneity, dynamic state
changes, and scalability.
Cisco defines the IoT as a network of sensors that are attached to the
objects and communication devices and provide data that can be analyzed and
utilized for initiating automated actions [13]. Decision-making is dependent on
when the objects can sense and when they can communicate. The IoT has been
designated as a crucial component for business growth in terms of deploy­
ing IoT-enabled components or business strategies. It will speed up time-to­
market, optimize asset utilization, improve supply-chain efficiency, optimize
asset utilization, improve product development, and implement predictive
maintenance.

1.3 EVOLUTION
Since its invention, the IoT has paved an eventful journey and has now become
a powerful driver for the growth of businesses. Although the IoT is rapidly
progressing, there is a need to look at the development of key fundamentals
associated with the evolutionary process of the IoT and to understand in a bet­
ter way how it entered into the current technological mainstream.
The concept of Internet connectivity began proliferating in the early
1990s when consumer markets and enterprises were in the growing stage.
Kevin Ashton, who was the co-founder of Auto-ID Center at MIT, coined
the term “Internet of Things” in the year 1999. The core idea was to identify
and track the products more accurately using Radio Frequency Identification.
Since then, numerous technologies have come into existence to support the
growth of the IoT. Table 1.1 summarizes the milestones achieved during this
evolutionary process.
4 Internet of Things Security

TABLE 1.1 Events associated with the evolution of IoT

YEAR EVENTS
1999 Kevin Ashton, executive director and co-founder of Auto-ID
Center, coined the term Internet of Things (IoT); First
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) protocol Message Queuing
Telemetry Transport (MQTT) was developed.
2000 LG, a South Korean multi-national electronics company, announced
its first Internet-connected refrigerator plan named Internet Digital
DIOS, which used Local Area Network (LAN) port for Internet
connectivity; idea of cloud computing came into existence.
2001 United States-based National Science Foundation established an
Industry-University Cooperative Research Centre (IUCRC) for
using IoT-based predictive analytics technology.
2002 Collaborative development of Near Field Communication
Technology (NFCT) was announced by Philips and Sony.
2003–2004 Mainstream publications including the Guardian, the Boston
Globe, and Scientific American mentioned the term the IoT.
2005 International Telecommunications Union (ITU) published its first
report on the IoT.
2006 A Bluetooth smart technology wire was introduced by Nokia.
2007 European Research Cluster on IoT (IERC), a European Union based
organization, was founded.
2008 First European IoT conference was organized; Internet-connected
devices exceeded the number of people worldwide.
2009 Google started self-driving cars tests.
2010 ioBridge, an IoT company, developed the first online tide
monitoring system.
2011 IoT Global Standards Initiative (GSI) was created; the term Industry
4.0 was revived.
2012 IPv6 was launched worldwide.
2013 Internet.org, a partnership between Nokia, Samsung, Ericsson,
MediaTek, Opera Software, Qualcomm, and social networking
service provider Facebook, was launched.
2014 IoT Incubation Council was launched.
2015 Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched.
2016 DDoS attacks powered by IoT devices were conducted using Mirai
malware.
2017 IoT Terms Database was created by IoT One, which is a reliable source
containing information about the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT).
2018 California became the first state to pass IoT cybersecurity law.
2019 Year for the 4th annual IoT Global Innovation Forum.
 1 • Internet of Things – Evolution, Statistics, and Forecasts 5

1.4 RELATED STATISTICS

At present, there are 26.66 billion connected IoT devices in the market for
the year 2019, and every second 127 new devices are being connected to the
Internet [14]. 40.2% of these devices are in use for business and manufactur-
ing. Key areas include delivering real-time analytics of supply chains, providing
diagnostic information about the equipment, and controlling the robotic machin-
ery. Thirty and three tenths percent of IoT devices are a part of the healthcare
industry for health monitoring and storing personal records safely. Eight and
three tenths percent are a part of retail services including inventory tracking,
providing online services to the clients, and consumer analytics. Seven and seven
tenths percent are used in the security domain including remote sensing, bio-
metric locks, and facial recognition. Four and one tenths percent are a part of
the transportation industry including Global Positioning System (GPS) locators
and performance tracking. Statistics also show that around 75% of the business-
related IoT projects are facing failure due to limited internal expertise, time to
completion, exceeding budget, and quality of data as some of the key reasons.
Considering the global machine-to-machine (M2M) connections that are most
commonly used in the commercial sector, 27% are in China, 29% are in Europe,
40% are in Asia, and 19% are in the United States.
Apart from delivering substantial benefits to the users, the IoT is facing
unprecedented security challenges as well. The average financial damages
caused by cyber attacks to businesses across the globe as of the year 2018 are
shown in Figure 1.1 [15]. A survey showed that as of 2018, 38% of the organi-
zations across the globe have adopted a set of security standards and constant
monitoring techniques [16].

35
30
Share of Attacks (in %)

30
25
20 19
17
15
15
11
10 8
5
0
$5m+ $2.5m–$4.9m $1m–$2.9m $500k–$999k $100k–$499k Less than $100k
Amount (in US dollars)

FIGURE 1.1 Global financial damages to businesses due to cyber attacks (as of
April 2018).
6 Internet of Things Security

1.5 INDUSTRIAL FORECASTS

In this section, we discuss some of the industrial forecasts for the IoT.
Beginning with general anticipations, we will switch our attention to security-
related predictions.

1.5.1 General Forecasts

According to Gartner’s forecasts, usage of 14.2 billion connected things will
be seen in the year 2019, and this will reach to 25 billion by the year 2021 [17].
Worldwide technology-wise spending on the IoT is estimated to reach
$1.2 trillion by the year 2022, with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
growth of 13.6% from 2017 to 2022 [18]. The sensor market is expected to progress
through the year 2023, with newer applications, algorithms, and reduced prices.
DBS Asian forecasts predict that the IoT installed base will experience a growth
from 6.3 million units to 1.25 billion from the year 2016 to 2030 [19].
IoT Analytics predicts that the global market for the IoT will reach
$1.56 trillion by the year 2025, and the market for industry 4.0 services and
products will reach $310 billion by the year 2023 [20,21]. Statista predicted
that by the year 2020, transportation and logistics, discrete manufacturing and
utilities industries are expected to spend $40 billion on IoT systems, platforms,
and services [22]. In addition, usage of 12.86 billion IoT devices and sensors
in the consumer segment is expected by the year 2020, with a CAGR growth
of 24.57% from the year 2017 [23]. The number of IoT devices are expected to
reach 75.44 billion by the year 2025 [24]. Ericsson’s forecast expects the num­
ber of cellular IoT connections to reach 3.5 billion by the year 2023 accompa­
nied with a CAGR growth of 30% [25].
According the Gartner, the top ten strategic IoT technologies and trends
would include artificial intelligence, social, legal, and ethical IoT, infonomics
and data broking, intelligent mesh, IoT governance, sensor innovation, trusted
hardware and operating systems, user experiences, silicon chip innovation,
and wireless networking technologies [26].

1.5.2 Security-Related Forecasts

Security has become an inherent part of the IoT vision and architecture, and
it is expected that security breaches will promote industries to come up with
 1 • Internet of Things – Evolution, Statistics, and Forecasts 7

2500

2000
Amount (in $ million)

1500

1000

500

0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Year
Endpoint Security Gateway Security Professional Services

FIGURE 1.2 Global IoT security spending forecast.

more and enhanced security solutions. Although the exact influence of these
predictions is accompanied with several questions, it will certainly help in
shaping the industrial evolutionary process in the domain [27].
Gartner predicted that newer threats would come into the picture by the
year 2021 with hackers finding novel ways for attacking IoT systems and
protocols raising a requirement of hardware and software amendments [28].
It is also predicted that the investment in IoT endpoint security solutions
would rise from $240 in the year 2016 to $631 million in the year 2021,
accompanied with a CAGR growth of 21.38% [29]. Gateway security spend-
ing will reach from $102 in 2016 to $415 in 2021. Similarly, professional
service securities will see an investment growth from $570 in 2016 to $2071
in 2021. Figure 1.2 shows the IoT security-spending forecast. Worldwide
IoT security spending will reach $3.1 billion in the year 2021, with a CAGR
growth of 27.87% from the year 2016 [30]. Size of the IoT security market
from the year 2016 to 2025 across the globe is expected to reach $30.9 bil-
lion from $7.28 billion [31].
The smart home security segment is expected to achieve a revenue of
$28.19 billion by the year 2023 across the globe [32]. Many hardware manu-
facturers including Dell, Cisco, and HPE, are developing specialized infra-
structure for end-point security for preventing loss of data, ensuring threat
protection and access control, enforcing right privileges, and so forth.
8 Internet of Things Security

1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Ubiquitous sensing, computing, and communication facilities provided by IoT
are seeking attention of industries at various levels and in different sectors
due to their significant impact on various aspects of our everyday lives. To
understand its current state of being, it becomes necessary to outline the events
associated with the journey of the IoT so far. This chapter began with a brief
introduction to the IoT paradigm through various definitions and progressed
toward highlighting the historical events associated with the development of
this ground-breaking idea. Further sections presented the industrial statistics
and forecasts related to the domain. In the next chapter, we will discuss the
existing architectural concepts and business models associated with the IoT
that would enlighten its workflow concepts.
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