Pilot Exercise Program

A Pilot-Friendly® Manual

2. Fly Right Traffic Runway 8

WIND

3. Repeat
1. Fly Left Traffic Runway 17

Fifteen skill-building challenges to improve your flying!

Copyright © 2024 PilotWorkshops. All Rights Reserved. v 1.4
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 Table of Contents

Introduction
How To Use This Manual..............................................1

Hone Takeoffs and Landings

Figure 8s on Crossing Runways....................................6
Dragging the Runway................................................. 10
Fly a Perfect Pattern.................................................... 14

Master the Use of Rudder

Rolls On A Heading.................................................... 18
Fixed-Wing Hover....................................................... 22

Maintain Control at the Edges

Shifting the Balance..................................................... 26
Back-to-Back Wingovers............................................ 30

Sharpen that Airmanship

Finding the “Numbers”............................................... 34 “Didn’t Know I was going that fast.”
Triangle of (Lost) Navigation Arts............................ 38
Normal touchdown
Thwart the Emergencies
Ceiling (un)Limited.................................................... 42
Mission: Impossible?................................................... 46
No-Panel Landing....................................................... 50
Gliding Spiral to Landing........................................... 54

Bonus Exercises
Handling Rejection..................................................... 58
Aerial Triathlon........................................................... 62

Resources
Extra Scorecards.......................................................... 66
Profiles for Single-Engine........................................... 80
Profiles for High-Performance & Multi-Engine...... 81

WIND
“Let’s get one thing straight. There’s a big difference between a pilot and an
aviator. One is a technician; the other is an artist in love with flight..”

— Elrey Borge Jeppesen

 How To Use This Manual

What is a “Pilot Exercise Program”?

Everybody needs exercise. We need physical exer-
cise. We need mental exercise. And, if we’re pilots, we
need flying exercise. Yet despite knowing we need it,
we don’t do enough of it. You could say it’s because of
the expense, or the hassle, or just not finding the time.
However, those are more excuses than reasons. We fly
airplanes because we want to fly—or at least we did
when we first started.
The real enemy to exercise isn’t hassle, money, or
time. The real enemy to exercise is … boredom.
That’s why this program is different. Anyone can
tell you to practice some slow flight and steep turns.
But you’ve been there and done that. However, by in-
tegrating basic skills into a challenge requiring some
forethought, divided attention, and GPS operation, are purposefully designed to make you a better pilot,
all while requiring precise stick-and-rudder skills, just like all the old standards.
now you have something interesting. Now you have They’re just a more enjoyable way to get there.
something repeatable. In fact, you’ll need to—you’ll
want to—fly it again and again to earn a high score. Starting Your “Pilot Exercise Program”
Yes, your performance is scored. Why? Scores We suggest you pick one of these exercises each
support a relentless pursuit of perfection—everyone month and make a goal of flying it enough to im-
wants that coveted high score—which is critical to prove your score. The real objectives are to experi-
motivation. The system is easy to use, however, so the ence something new, and then use that experience
person-not-flying in the cockpit can record the score to improve your overall flying skills. Some of these
easily. There are five pass/fail criteria worth a point exercises require instructors, or even experience in
each. A five is a perfect score. specific areas, so plan accordingly.
We’ll warn you now: Scoring high on these ex- These exercises fall broadly into two categories:
ercises isn’t a cake walk. But as it was once famously “Things to do during a longer flight” and “Things to
said in aerospace, sometimes we do things because do specifically for practice.” Continuing the exercise
they’re hard. A real challenge is motivating, and that’s
key to banishing boredom.
We’re not saying that flying is a game. In fact, 3
woven into each one of these exercises, you’ll find 2
an antidote to some common causes of avia-
tion accidents. You’ll also find remedies 4
for weak spots that show up in re-
current training and check-
rides. These exercises

INTRODUCTION 1
analogy, the first resembles, “Taking the stairs rather the area around you for hazards, airspace, and other
than the elevator,” and the second is “Going to the traffic. And, always yield to other pilots going about
gym.” The majority are “Going to the gym,” but once their day just flying. Several of these exercises have
you get some experience, you can incorporate some you flying legal, but unusual, approaches or patterns.
into almost any flight you want. Don’t be “that guy” who blusters into the airport area,
That said, all of these require some pre-flight putting his needs above everyone else’s. It’s not only
planning. Even the best airshow pilots don’t just ran- rude, it’s dangerous.
domly practice a roll or two while flying along. Even None of these exercises are inherently more
the exercises you can do on any flight should first be dangerous than any other kinds of flying, but you can
done on a short flight conducted specifically for prac- make them a hazard to yourself and others through
tice. That’s one of the reasons you won’t find a sim- lack of preparation, ignorance of suggested safe-
ple “score the landing” exercise; no exercise should ty protocols, inattention during the exercise, or just
be tossed into a flight casually at the end. Prepare as plain carelessness. For safety, we recommend you al-
appropriate, and then fly with a purpose. ways have a crew member with the appropriate skills
These exercises can be done in any order. Many beside you at all times.
have multiple benefits, but they’re organized into
five general categories: Hone Takeoffs and Landings, Interpreting “Difficulty” and “Crew”
Master the Use of Rudder, Maintain Control at the These ratings answer two questions: “How hard is
Edges, Sharpen that Airmanship, and Thwart the this exercise?”, and “Should I try it with a friend or
Emergencies. have an instructor with me?”
Visible progress is essential to motivation, so The term, Difficulty, in the context of this man-
track your score. There’s little more satisfying than ual means how hard it is to get a perfect score. Is this
seeing your abilities improve over time. You’ll also something you could do with focus and a flight or
see a way to “Pump Up” your practice with a tough- two of trying, or is it a holy grail one might strive for
er exercise related to the primary. Most of these have throughout a career in the hopes of achieving once?
higher requirements for the crew (see below). Many The term, Crew, creates a spectrum from some-
should only be done in a simulator. Some of these thing you can do with just a trusted friend who can
Pump Up exercises can be scored like the main exer- look for traffic, to something that requires specific
cise. For some of the Sim Only ones, there’s no score; expertise, and to something we wouldn’t ever attempt
it’s simply a matter of surviving. outside of a simulator.
We may not say it in every exercise (because it All flying involves some risk, and even having
gets a bit repetitive) so we’ll state here: Always clear an expert with you doesn’t exempt you from Mur-

2 INTRODUCTION
phy’s Law. If you have any doubts about the difficulty Crew: Safety Pilot
of an exercise, or who you should have fly with you, All exercises in this book require a
consider restricting the exercise to a simulator. The second person with you in the air-
example videos that accompany this manual were all plane. For this category, that could Safety
performed on a basic home simulator. be another rated and current pilot.
Flying is often more fun and safer as a team sport.
Difficulty: Normal You’ll be distracted by the exercise and want to write
Flying isn’t easy. There’s always down your score afterwards. You’d benefit from some-
something you could be doing. one to help you debrief. And it’s always helpful to
There are real consequences to your Normal have extra eyes looking for traffic. This person doesn’t
actions. There’s never a time to let have to be an instructor or PIC, but they should have
your guard down. That’s the normal difficulty of fly- also read through the entire exercise, help ensure any
ing, and that’s this category of exercises. They’re no Safety Net recommendations are complied with, and
harder—or easier—than what you accomplish as a ensure you’re within all applicable FARs as well as
pilot on a normal flight. your own limits or minimums.

Difficulty: Elevated Crew: Instructor

Excellence doesn’t happen by ac- This exercise requires a second set
cident. It takes work, which these of eyeballs for safety and some ex-
exercises will also require. That Elevated perienced perspective. Don’t try it Instructor
work will be rewarded with increas- alone or with just a friend unless
ing scores and a perfect run is an attainable goal. If you’re in a simulator. Even if you’re in a simulator,
you master this one, you’re upping your game. You you may want an experienced perspective to help
stand with a group of pilots who, rightfully, consider debrief your performance. You could argue there are
themselves above average. Pilots content with “good pilots without instructor certificates who have far
enough” need not apply. more skill and perspective than a green CFI. That’s a
valid point. The instructor certificate, however, offers
Difficulty: High an objective standard. Ensure whoever is in the other
Exercises in this category are hard. seat at least meets that standard.
Some pilots work for years to refine
the skills needed; others give up and High Crew: Expert
move on. But that’s not you. You This one requires more than the
persevered and made the leader board. Revel in the average teacher and can’t be done
moment. Drop an enigmatic hint about it on social safely in many GA airplanes. An Expert
media. Buy yourself a treat, because you earned it. expert in the context of this manual
is an instructor (usually an aerobatic one) who will
Difficulty: Stunning teach you in his or her airplane (usually an aerobatic
The room falls to a hush when you one). Note the two-part requirement. Experts pro-
enter the FBO. Reno Air Rac- vide both the airplane and the instruction. It may take
ers stare in awe. The spirit of Bob Stunning some searching and some travel, but it will be worth
Hoover and his angel groupies nod it. You’ll only see this in Pump-Ups in this manual.
and smile as they gaze down upon you. Sure, maybe
you only nailed it for a high score once, but you did Crew: Sim Only
it. Consider retiring from flying so you can end on There is no human on earth who
this moment … and then discard that notion before can guarantee your safety and/or
trying a different exercise and rejoining us mere mor- prevent the wrath of the FAA, if you Sim Only
tals. try this exercise in a real airplane.
Just don’t. It’s not that pulling off this stunt in a real
INTRODUCTION 3
 4: Minimum airspeed, nose on horizon, 090°

Allow nose to fall naturally Allow nose to keep falling

5: Roll back to wings level

3: Freeze pitch, Roll right to 50°
6: Pitch level
2: Pitch up
7: 100 kts, 3000', 180°

1: 100 kts, 3000', 360°

Reverse maneuver to climb, bank, descend, and
level off to match the start: 100 kts, 3000', 360°

airplane is impossible (almost anything is pos-

BACK-TO-BACK WINGOVERS
sible). It’s just too dangerous or stupid to do
outside of simulation. The exercise will still pay
Difference in airspeed at start, middle, and end: off for your real-world skills. It’s still fun. It’s
1: ±5 knots just not worth the risk to try it with real metal.
0: >5 knots
Using the Assessment Tools
Difference in altitude at start, middle, and end: One of the reasons we suggest having a second
1: Difference ±100' person is to record your score. You should be
0: Difference >100' entirely focused on your flying. There are, how-
ever, great tools for recording flights and play-
Difference in heading at start, middle, and end: ing them back later. This is especially useful if
1: Difference ±5° the crew for the exercise is Safety Pilot—And,
0: Difference >5° you and a flying buddy are both trying them.
Objective recording eliminates any opinion as
Difference in altitude at two high points: to how far off altitude you got.
1: Difference ±100' The scores for each of the 13 core exercis-
0: Difference >100' es are based on five, pass/fail criteria. You earn
one point for each pass for a perfect score of
Roll to wings level at completion: five. There are two bonus exercises that didn’t
1: No pause in rolling back to level on original lend themselves to scoring but are valuable to
heading. do. They make the last section for a total of 15.
0: Pauses or increases bank at end to reach original You’ll also find extra scoresheets in the
heading back of this manual. If you use an app that sup-
ports documents, such as ForeFlight, you can
Total Score for Back-to-Back Wingovers: load the manual into the app as a custom doc-
ument and then annotate it with the pen tool
to fill in the scores. You could also load a PDF
4 INTRODUCTION
app, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader or GoodReader, Disclaimer of Liability
on your iPad and fill them out as a form. Or, you can Please read this carefully.
go old school and simply print them out. Paper al- Flight activities, including flight training, in-
ways works. volve inherent dangers, hazards and risks, both fore-
Flight recording tools are a terrific addition to seen and unforeseen, some of which cannot be en-
your right-seater’s eyes and memory. CloudAhoy is tirely eliminated regardless of the degree of care used
a complete flight recording and debriefing tool we to avoid them. As pilots, we understand this and that
highly recommend. CloudAhoy even has a virtual these dangers, hazards and risks can result in death,
CFI and automated scoring of common items, such disability, physical and emotional injury, and other
as approaches and landings. Many aviation apps, damage.
such as ForeFlight or FlyQ, have recording and de- The exercises and maneuvers in this manual are
briefing tools. not intended to be easy. Rather, they are intended
to challenge you. This manual is not a substitute for
Maintaining Your Role as Pilot In Command flight instruction from a qualified and knowledgeable
Every airplane is different. Stalling at altitude in a flight instructor. The exercises in this manual are to
Cessna 172 is fun and simple. Doing it in a Decathlon be used at your own risk. You are solely responsible
with a qualified instructor adds the option of doing it for knowing your limitations and the limitations of
inverted. Stalling a Lancair IV … maybe not such a your aircraft. It is your responsibility to evaluate your
great idea. The addition of gear, or changes in gross own knowledge, skills, and experience; and make
weight, can restrict the capabilities of an airplane your own determination whether you are able to per-
even further. Each pilot must determine if it is safe form any of the exercises in this manual in a safe and
to accomplish each of these exercises in his or her legal manner.
airplane. Accordingly, to the fullest extent permitted by
What if you can’t find the right instructor? What applicable law, PilotWorkshops disclaims all respon-
if something makes you uncomfortable? sibility for any injury, death, or other claim resulting
Any lower level crew requirement could be met from your decision to engage in any of the exercis-
by doing the exercise in a simulator instead. That’s es in this manual. Neither the publisher nor the au-
another great reason to buy that sim you saw at Osh- thor(s) of any individual exercise shall be liable for
kosh last year. Or you can go down to your local flight any physical, psychological, emotional, financial, or
school and rent a sim with the instructor. other damages.

Power reduction by ear

Cover instruments
before pattern altitude
Descent by
sight picture
alone
Full panel for
takeoff through
turning crosswind

Normal Uncover
landing instruments

INTRODUCTION 5
Figure 8s on Crossing Runways

WIND

An alternating pattern of right and left traf- a headwind for one runway and
fic means constantly changing turn direc- hefty crosswind for the other. This
exercise is best done at a towered
tions and crosswind corrections. Normal
airport where both right and left

C onsistent landings come from consistent ap-

proaches. That’s why every student practices
circuits around the airport traffic area seeking that
traffic are available for any runway.
You’ll have to be crystal clear
about what you want. This is usu-
Difficulty

elusive “perfect pattern” (page 14). Landings in the ally best done by first telling Tow-
real world, however, can start from almost any posi- er you have, “an unusual request.”
tion and only give you one shot to correct for winds, Then explain it in plain English: Safety
timing, visual illusions, and last-minute demands “Request closed pattern, departing Crew
from Tower. Figure 8s bring that variability into pat- Runway 36, turning right down-
tern practice. wind for Runway 29 for a touch-and-go Runway 29,
and then turning left downwind for Runway 36 for
Find the Right Airport and Ask Nicely a touch-and-go Runway 36. We’d like to keep doing
Find an airport with “X”- or “V”-shaped crossing that figure 8 pattern in closed traffic.”
runways on a day with some decent winds. Ideal- Clearly, you wouldn’t try this at some busy Class
ly, the winds will create a quartering headwind for C airport during the morning commuter push, but
two of the runways, but this exercise will work with you absolutely can request this during quiet times.

SAFETY NET

· A towered airport may be required for right traffic · Consider leaving landing gear extended in retract-
and ensuring aircraft separation. able-gear airplane.
· Conducting at a non-towered airport should be · Airplane may not reach pattern altitude on down-
considered elevated risk. wind leg; be on guard for obstructions and traffic.

6 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS

Controllers relish a challenge just as much as you SCORECARD
do. After a moment for them to visualize what
you’re asking, it’s likely to be approved if airport Because normalization is the goal, you must visualize
traffic is light. where you want to be in next few minutes. Scoring for
It’s possible to do this at a non-towered air- Figure 8s centers on how well you hit those targets
port if no one else is around and one of the run- without after-the-fact corrections.
ways just happens to have right traffic. You can also If your runway configuration allows, you can also
modify the 8s for left traffic on both truncated pat- try to reach pattern altitude exactly at the abeam
terns. Right traffic for one of them is just more fun point. If you can’t climb that high, see how high you
and challenging. If you’re at a non-towered airport, can before reaching abeam.
pause the 8s if someone enters the pattern—unless Score each circuit you make.
they’re friends of yours flying the same challenge.
Join downwind without overshoot or
Start with a Normal Takeoff undershoot:
Depart from one runway with a normal takeoff 1: No corrections
and climb. This means you’re climbing toward the 0: Must correct alignment
downwind leg of the crossing runway. Visualize
where that downwind leg would be, and time a Maintain constant distance from landing
turn so that instead of turning crosswind for the runway on downwind:
runway you departed, you join a downwind for 1: Straight track over the ground
the crossing runway. You’ll almost certainly still be 0: Weaving track over the ground
climbing for pattern altitude, so keep climbing.
Approaching the abeam position, pick a spot Join final without overshoot or undershoot:
on that landing runway where your wheels will 1: Roll out exactly aligned with final
touch the ground. Pick an appropriate aiming tar- 0: Must correct to align with final
get to achieve that touchdown point.
If you reach pattern altitude before you reach Have wheels contact on touchdown target:
the abeam position for your new landing runway, 1: 0–100' beyond
level off and continue to fly a normal downwind, 0: >100', or -0' short
base, and final for the new landing runway. If you
reach the abeam position before you reach pattern Touch down gently:
altitude, level off to hold that altitude as you recon- 1: No shock
figure your combination of power, flaps, and gear 0: Bounce or jolt of any kind
for landing. Hold altitude as you follow the land-
ing pattern until rejoining what would be a normal Total Score for Figure 8s:
pattern altitude so you can descend on a normal
base and final.

Make a touch-and-go (or stop-and-go) before

climbing and visualizing the downwind for your
original runway. Turn to what’s now an opposite-di-
rection pattern and intercept the downwind leg for
that runway as you continue to climb. This side of the

Depending on the climb rate of your airplane, you

might still be climbing at the abeam position. If so,
hold that altitude until you reach the point where
you’d normally be that high descending to land.
HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 7
 SEE IT IN THE SIM Depending on the runway configuration and
the winds, you may want to make your climbs at Vx
Location: Portland Jetport, Portland, ME (KPWM),
instead of Vy to get higher before you have to switch
right traffic Runway 29 and left traffic Runway 36.
gears and start your descent to landing. We rarely do
Conditions: Fair skies, winds 330 @ 15 at the sur-
extended Vx climbs, so that’s a bonus challenge with
face and 330 @ 30 by 2000 feet AGL.
this exercise. Each combination of runway configu-
ration and wind makes for a different pattern. You
might try this at an airport with a southeast wind one
day and find it a no-brainer, then try it at the same
airport with a northwest wind on opposite runways
and suddenly have your hands full.
You can make any Figure 8 practice more chal-
lenging by making all landings power off as soon as
you are abeam the numbers, or doing it at night. Note
that these will elevate the risk. Try this in daylight
with as normal a pattern as practical first. Modifi-
figure is just like the first one except the pattern is in cations of this exercise can work with other runway
the opposite direction and different wind corrections configurations, so use your creativity. You can even
are required. Land on the original runway. Repeat at fly cloverleafs in some situations (“Pump It Up: Clo-
will. verleafs with Crosswinds,” page 9).

An Antidote for Complacency

Figure 8s create a constantly changing
environment for pattern direction and
crosswind correction. It’s much hard-
er to get into a routine set of actions,
performed at certain positions with-
out thinking. Figure 8s are best when
you strive to fly each leg tracking pre-
cisely over the ground as appropriate.
Unless the runways are at right angles,
you have turns of greater and less than
the normal 90-degrees whenever you
switch patterns. This works your visu-
alization skills picturing your next po-
sition over the ground and vertically in
the pattern.

Visualization is essential. Picture the

oncoming wind and adjust to main-
tain ground tracks parallel or per-
pendicular to the runways. Also think
about how that wind will affect your
turn radius as you transition from the
upwind of one runway directly into
the downwind of the other. That ra-
dius increases as your ground speed
increases.
8 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS
 PUMP IT UP: CLOVERLEAFS WITH CROSSWINDS
Another pattern on crossing runways would be a Doing it in a sim allows for
cloverleaf. It this case, you’re flying four different a bit more flexibility and chal-
truncated patterns, each one with a new crosswind lenge. The tailwind landing is one
component and total distance from rotation to the factor. Another comes from mak-
Elevated
abeam position. ing your touchdown point right
This is certainly possible in the real world with at the nexus of the two runways. Difficulty
light winds, but you’d be harder pressed to convince After each touch-and-go with the
a tower and even more of a rogue agent trying to wheels contacting ground right
explain it on CTAF. If there are real winds, two of the where the runways cross, climb
landings will have quartering tailwinds (unless one at Vx to 400 feet AGL, then turn
90 degrees left and climb at Vy Sim Only
has a direct tailwind). For these reasons, this exercise
is best done in a simulator only. to 800 feet AGL. Crew
Regardless of where you are relative
to the actual end of the runway when
WIND
you reach 800 feet, pull the power to
idle and make a 180-degree turn for
a power-off touchdown as close to the
crossing point of the runways as you
can. It’s sort of like Chandelles crossed
with Power-Off 180s, capped by touch-
and-goes.
The moment you touch down, add
full power, pitch up, adjust flaps, and
climb at Vx again for the next one. Be-
cause it’s the sim and it’s a cheap repair
if you land gear-up, try it in a retract-
able-gear airplane just to increase the
task load.
Unless you found an airport with run-
ways exactly 90 degrees to each other,
some turns will be steep and others shal-
low. The changing crosswind component
for each loop requires heading adjust-
ments and messing with your ground
speed. It may take several circuits to get
something you’re proud of.

Flight from unusual positions, such as low on in and fly faster than normal. But at some point, you
the downwind, works your ability to normalize. Nor- must slow down. A good target is slowing just early
malizing means adjusting your procedures to transi- enough so the last 500 feet of the approach is at your
tion from a non-standard position to one where the normal final approach speed in a normal configura-
remainder of the task is simply normal procedure. tion.
An example might be a straight-in landing to a Figure 8s are fun any time, but they’re a terrific
towered airport where ATC asks you to, “maintain exercise when preparing for a VFR checkride, or for
best forward speed on final.” You’ll fly a long straight a Flight Review.
HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 9
Dragging the Runway

Elevated Instructor
Difficulty Crew

Crosswind

Less bank More bank

This low pass at landing speeds hones your and slow to evaluate an area before committing to a
crosswind control and landing agility like landing. A variation on this lets you extend the land-
ing flare and perfect your crosswind control, as well
nothing else.
as fine tune your landing speed and altitude acumen.

C rosswind control in the landing flare confounds

many students and experienced pilots, partly be-
cause they only get a few seconds to practice it during
Length is Essential, Width is a Plus
You’ll want a runway at least 5000 feet long, and pref-
a normal landing. There’s a time-honored technique erably at least 75 feet wide. Luckily, long runways tend
called “dragging the runway,” which means flying low to be wide. Also ensure it’s well marked. Painted run-
way edges are best, as well as some distance markers
SEE IT IN THE SIM (paint or distance-remaining signs) along the runway
from both directions.
Location: Wittman Regional, Oshkosh, WI (KOSH),
To complete the exercise, seek a day with signif-
Low pass full length of Runway 36.
icant crosswind. This exercise is most illustrative for
Conditions: Clear skies. Winds 090 @ 10.
GA airplanes with a crosswind component of at least
10 knots. However, you may want to practice the first
time with light winds to get the procedure down be-
fore doing it with the wind component.
You should also evaluate the area before starting
the maneuver. First, note elements such as buildings
or trees to either side of the runway. Wind passing
over those objects could cause turbulence or changes
in your crosswind component. They may also pose a
collision hazard, if the maneuver goes poorly and you
drift too far. Plan accordingly.
10 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS
 Next, set an end-point where you’ll tran- SCORECARD
sition from your low pass to a go-around-style
climb out. If you’re not sure where that should The first part of your score comes from the short final
be, choose a point 1000 feet before the depar- position where you should have five criteria on target:
ture end of the runway. You can refine the loca- speed (±5 knots), configuration, runway alignment, drift
tion of that point a bit better by evaluating the correction, and glide angle.
obstacles you’ll need to clear as you climb. If The next two have you leveling off and slowing down
the runway is completely unobstructed and you to targets you must maintain throughout the “dragging”
have 1000 feet of welcoming grass for an emer- section of the maneuver. You can adjust the scoring for
gency past the end of the pavement, you could either if you choose to fly a different speed or target al-
use the whole runway length for the maneuver. titude. Contacting the runway is an instant zero for the
If obstacles or conditions (such as turbulence whole exercise, and should be a go-around.
over buildings) require, you might need to start Lateral accuracy is by wingspan. Ideally keep the
the climb sooner than 1000 feet before the end target position left or right of centerline directly below
of the runway. your seat, but you’re allowed up to half way out to the
Whatever you decide is safe for the airport wingtip.
and that day, pick a landmark for that transition Finally, from the point where you begin the go-
point. You’ll end the low pass no later than that around, you should be climbing and reconfigured before
landmark. traveling 1000 feet further along the runway.
If the airport has a tower, request a “...
low pass, full length and then remaining in the Meet targets on short final (see above):
pattern.” If non-towered, you’ll self announce 1: Meet at least 4 criteria
the exact same thing when you’re on final. For 0: Meet 3 or fewer criteria
example, “Brunswick Traffic, Cessna Six Papa
Whiskey, final Runway One, low pass, full Maintain target altitude in low pass:
length, remaining in the pattern.” If the traf- 1: Always 15-30' AGL
fic pattern is busy, you should go elsewhere to 0: Ever 1-15' or >30' AGL
practice.
Maintain target airspeed in low pass:
Start with a Normal Approach 1: ± 5 knots throughout
As with an actual landing, the key to a good ar- 0: >5 knots fast or slow at any time
rival is a good approach. Fly a standard down-
wind, base, and final approach. Use power, flaps, Fly right, left, or on centerline:
and landing gear position (in retractable gear 1: Within half a wing left or right
airplanes) as you do during a normal landing. 0: More than half a wing left or right
Enter a stable final approach at 1.3 Vso by 400
feet AGL. At that point, you should be aligned Complete the transition from low pass to
with the runway centerline with whatever crab climbing, clean, go-around:
angle is required to maintain centerline. 1: Within 1000' of initiation
You should also be holding a constant 0: Late start, or >1000'.
glidepath to your landing target. That’s com-
monly 1000 feet beyond the runway threshold, Total Score for Dragging the Runway:
but could be closer to the threshold if appropri-
ate for your specific runway. You’re simulating
a normal, precise approach.
As you approach your normal round out height, number is approximately 15 feet above the runway.
advance the power just enough to level off a bit high- Your airspeed should be about five knots above the
er than a normal landing flare height. A good starting speed that activates the stall warning.
HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 11
 SAFETY NET While maintaining airspeed and altitude, lower
the upwind wing further. (If there is no wind, just pick
· Evaluate the departure end of the runway for ob- a side.) Apply additional opposite rudder to prevent
stacles and emergency landing sites before the the nose from turning. You’ll need a bit more back
maneuver. pressure to maintain altitude with the increased slip
· Go-around any time your wingtip moves beyond and a bit more power to prevent loss of airspeed. If you
the sides of the runway, directional control is in apply too much power you’ll climb, so it’s a balance.
doubt, you climb more than 60 feet above the
runway, any stall indication is felt, or your wheels Sashay Left, Sashay Right ...
touch the ground. Allow the airplane to drift toward the upwind side
· Discontinue for any potential traffic conflicts. until your seat is exactly halfway between the run-
way centerline and runway edge. Then raise the wing
just enough to stop movement. You’ll have to readjust
For your first pass, just maintain a crab angle rudder, pitch and power just a bit in reverse of how
that keeps your seat directly above the centerline in you added them before.
a wings-level attitude. If you drift toward the down- Track along the runway at this off-center posi-
wind side of the runway, make a small coordinated tion for another two or three seconds. Then, lift up-
turn into the wind to regain your position over cen- wind wing just enough that you drift downwind past
terline. Then, make a tiny coordinated correction the centerline to a position exactly between center-
back to hold centerline. If you move toward the up- line and the downwind side of the runway. (If there’s
wind side of the runway, do the opposite. Remember no wind, you’ll lift one wing enough that you dip the
that some runways have a slope. You’re close enough other one.) Use rudder to maintain the nose point-
to the runway that you may need a slight power ad- ed directly down the runway, and power and pitch to
justment just to maintain your exact height above hold altitude and airspeed. Stop the sideways move-
ground. You’re in a crab; you don’t want to acciden- ment and hold it for two or three seconds.
tally touchdown with a side load. If remaining runway permits, translate back to
As you reach your end-point, apply go-around the centerline. If you’re practicing on a space shuttle
power and transition into a go-around attitude and landing strip, keep moving right, left, and center un-
airspeed without changing your heading. Once til you reach your predetermined end point. As you
you’re reconfigured and climbing, adjust heading as reach that point, go-around and fly another pattern.
needed for the departure leg and the next trip around Repeat until you can reposition the airplane from any
the pattern. position over the runway to any other position with
the nose always pointed directly down the runway, as
Fly a Whole-Length Sideslip well as at a constant airspeed and altitude.
As you descend below 400 feet AGL on your next ap- Try this exercise at different airports with differ-
proach, establish a wing-low slip to maintain the cen- ent crosswinds. It could even be a crosswind great-
terline for the crosswind. It’ll be a significant wing- er than one you would land in, so long as you have
low slip for a strong crosswind, or a slight (or no) slip an alternate airport or crossing runway for an actual
for light winds. That’s OK, the exercise works either landing.
way. Maintain the longitudinal axis of the airplane You can vary the exercise by dragging the run-
aligned with the runway centerline using the rudder. way at varying flap settings, adjusting airspeed as
Continue holding that longitudinal alignment appropriate for the amount of flap selected. This ex-
as you add power to fly in a flare attitude (nose wheel ercise can be done at night on a well-lit runway, if
higher than the mains) above the runway. You can you’re certain there are no obstacles you might hit in
make a full pass in this position—wing low, cancel- the dark. Runways with centerline lights are best. It’s
ing crosswind drift to hold centerline—for practice. actually easier to see your position left or right with
Or, after about two seconds of holding centerline, add lights—but harder to gauge your height above the
this next step: ground at night.
12 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS
Confidence in the Crosswind Mastering these precise control inputs is the
Loss of directional control during landing continues key takeaway from this exercise. A competent pilot
to be one of the most common accident scenarios. It should have no problem positioning the airplane pre-
requires real control of the airplane to touch down cisely over the centerline—or any other position on
on the runway centerline with zero sideslip in any the runway—while maintaining a desired airspeed,
given wind condition. Crosswinds are rarely constant height, and longitudinal alignment at the same time.
throughout the landing, and changes require prompt, Not only can you use your command of preci-
instinctive reactions to cancel out drift. sion landing flare control to touch down precisely on
There’s also a pervasive bad habit in many pilots the runway centerline every time, even in crosswinds,
of putting the airplane into a landing attitude, and you’ll be better prepared for any upset in your land-
then … just waiting for the airplane to land. Some pi- ing flare. This includes the vertical component. If you
lots are even afraid of making significant control in- can hold altitude precisely above the runway even
puts close to the ground. Perhaps that’s because con- with the changing drag, you can also adjust your ver-
trol inputs appear much more significant when close tical speed down to the runway as needed for chang-
to a visual reference, such as the runway. ing conditions.

PUMP IT UP: RUNWAY MAYHEM AT LAX

Start on the ramp on the south
side of Los Angeles Internation-
al (KLAX). Set the winds to ei-
ther 160 or 340 at 15 knots. This Elevated
creates a direct crosswind for all
Difficulty
four of KLAX’s runways. Taxi to
Runway 7R and begin your take-
off roll. When you rotate, don’t
climb. Instead, pitch forward to
hold the airplane in ground ef- Sim Only
Crosswind fect for the entire 11,000-foot Crew
runway. When you reach the
end, pitch up and begin a 180-degree turn timed so
you roll out aligned with Runway 24L. You’ll climb
for the first half of this turn and then descend in the
second half, reconfiguring for landing as you do.
KLAX’s runway thresholds are offset, so you’ll have a
straight section for a final approach.
Descend and “drag the runway” just above the
pavement for the first third. On the second third of the
runway, transition to a slip and touch a wheel (or do
a full touch-and-go). After rolling for a bit, lift off and
drag the runway in a crab for the last third.
Then climb, turn, descend, and align with Run-
way 7L. Repeat the exercise as many times as you
want, switching up runways with every pass.
Flying the pattern clockwise at KLAX doesn’t
work as well, but a similar thing can be flown clock-
wise at Atlanta Hartsfield (KATL) and other airports.

HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 13

Fly a Perfect Pattern
Fully Configured
Pre-Landing Complete
Stable to Touchdown

Normal
Difficulty

Safety
Crew

Sometimes an exercise is just about the endless pursuit of perfection in the most mundane
things. Can you fly a “perfect” pattern? (And we really do mean, “perfect.”)

P assengers judge your ability as a pilot by the qual-

ity of your landings. And, be honest, so do you.
What passengers never notice is how precisely
tures, oil temperature(s), oil pressure(s), and fuel
flow(s) should all be as expected for your equipment.
A properly executed takeoff is one component of the
you fly the departure, crosswind, downwind, base, perfect pattern.
and final approach. But you notice, and you can strive
for as close to perfect as possible. Prove to yourself Maintain that Track on Departure
that you’re a master. Fly the perfect pattern. Scoring your departure should start with the roll on
the runway itself. As you accelerate toward liftoff, the
Before Takeoff nose should precisely track along the runway cen-
Start with a good pre-takeoff briefing. This includes terline. If there’s a crosswind, account for it. There
normal items such as discussing what will happen should be no side loading or weather vaning while
in an emergency, but should also include what your any wheels are still on the ground.
safety pilot will look for as Lift off at the proper liftoff
you depart. SAFETY NET speed and establish an attitude
When takeoff power · Sacrifice the perfect pattern if needed for to fly your target climb speed,
is applied, ensure you have separation or safety. most likely Vx or Vy. Now you
maximum available pow- must account for crosswind, so
· ...that, and all the normal cautions when
er. Propeller RPM, manifold adjust your heading as needed
airplanes converge in a single place.
pressure(s), engine tempera- to track the extended runway
14 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS
 Crosswind

Downwind

Base

Mundane, you say? That’s exactly why it’s a great exercise. A pattern is good enough when flown within 100
feet and 10 knots, but it’s better to 20 feet and two knots. And the rest of your flying will be better as well.

centerline. Your score for alignment on departure in- as you continue to fly airspeed precisely. Keep the
cludes both the nose alignment on the runway before slip/skid ball centered throughout your climb. Aim
rotation, and ground track along the extended cen- for precision—nay, perfection—on this departure leg
terline until you turn crosswind. and the ones yet to come.
On crosswind, adjust your heading to fly a
Mind the Speeds on Crosswind ground track exactly perpendicular to the runway.
The AIM recommends turning to crosswind at 700 Maintain your target speed. That might mean a tran-
feet AGL, so use that unless local procedures dictate sition from Vx to Vy somewhere in this climb. It
otherwise. Make this coordinated turn to crosswind might mean transitioning to your downwind speed
HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 15
 Not sure if you’re flying exactly half a mile from the
runway? If you have an EFB tool such as ForeFlight
on board, have your right-seater measure it.

It’s about half a mile for most light GA airplanes. This

is closer than most pilots fly, but it’s the standard. At
least have a number in mind because it’s part of your
score. Whatever that number is, continuously moni-
tor the turn, adjusting bank angle (and therefore turn
rate) as needed to establish that distance, and main-
tain a track parallel to the runway. Adjusting the bank
angle to seamlessly join the downwind leg isn’t cheat-
ing. It’s good airmanship. Fixing an overshoot or un-
dershoot after the fact is what you’re trying to avoid.
On downwind, level the airplane at pattern al-
titude (probably 800 or 1000 feet AGL) without an
overshoot or early level-off. Maintain the downwind
ground track and speed appropriate for your airplane.
before actually turning downwind if your airplane You get a bonus nod toward perfection for conduct-
has a strong climb rate. Do what’s needed to draw ing a flow or pre-landing checklist on the downwind.
crisp, perfect lines in the sky. The standard touchdown zone or target is a point
1000 feet beyond the threshold or one third of the
Nail the Distances on Downwind way down the runway, whichever is shorter. Abeam
When it’s time to turn downwind, do it so you roll this point, transition to descent with flaps and gear
out exactly at the desired distance from the runway. as applicable.

PUMP IT UP: DO IT STEEP AND BLIND

Some aviation pundits feel that loss of control in the and ready to put the flaps into
pattern, especially in the turn from base to final, can the landing configuration.
be eliminated by replacing the squared-off turns with It’s critical you watch for
a continuous turn from downwind to final approach. obstacles—don’t try this at night
Normal
Give it a try by flying the perfect pattern until the or in low visibility. It helps to fly
abeam position. From there, make a continuous turn a steeper, low-power descent, Difficulty
at a constant rate of descent from downwind to final closer to the airport when you
approach, so that you roll out on short final in time fly this pattern. Also know when
to make the decision to land or go-around—but this you’re inside the protected width
time you’ll be about 150 feet AGL. Your decision is of any PAPI or VASI. It’s usually
still based on being on speed, in configuration, on 10 degrees right and left of run- Safety
glidepath, and aligned with the runway centerline. way centerline. Remember that Crew
It just happens much lower as a result of the continu- you’ll have a constantly changing headwind and
ous turn. At this altitude, it’s even more critical to go crosswind component, so adjust your bank angle to
around if anything is out of spec. maintain a constant radius turn over the ground.
To hit that decision point, evaluate your prog- Is a continuously turning approach less vulnera-
ress at 90 degrees through this 180-degree turn. ble to a stall-spin accident? Can you still see traffic
You should be about 600 feet AGL with airspeed coming straight in? Is obstacle clearance compro-
slowing on a trend toward your short-final speed, mised? Decide for yourself.

16 HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS

 The perfect pattern means flying exact SCORECARD
airspeeds throughout the descent. Some pi-
lots like different airspeeds on the last part Scoring for the perfect pattern is based on the five parts:
of downwind, then base, and then final. Of- Departure, Crosswind, Downwind, Base, and Final. There’s
ten these accompany changes in flap settings. no score for the landing, but you can score that as well. It’s
Some pilots fly a single speed and flap setting said that a perfect landing comes from a perfect approach,
until landing is assured on final. so a high score here should yield some good results.
Whatever you do, your score depends on
hitting the targets smoothly and maintaining Departure—Climb at Vx or Vy, turn at 700'
them precisely until the next change. Ideally, AGL, track extended runway centerline:
you’ll fly a constant rate of descent all the way 1: -0/+5 knots, ±5° track, turn ±20'
from downwind to the landing flare. 0: Exceed any of the above

Set Up the Big Score on Base Crosswind—Vy to pattern altitude, track

When the touchdown zone is 45 degrees be- perpendicular to runway:
hind you, turn to base leg, adjusting heading 1: ±5 knots, ±5° track
as needed to fly precisely perpendicular to the 0: Exceed any of the above
runway as you descend.
It’s important to scan for traffic through- Downwind—Pattern airspeed & altitude, desired
out the entire pattern, but it’s especially im- distance from runway:
portant while you’re on base leg. The majority 1: ±5 knots, ±20', ± ¹/8 mile
of midair collisions occur on final approach 0: Exceed any of the above
below 400 feet AGL, with one airplane on
final overtaking another. On base leg, it’s Base—Descent airspeed, vertical speed, track
natural for your attention to be focused on perpendicular to runway:
the runway. Look away from the airport for 1: ±5 knots, ±100 fpm, ±5° track
airplanes on an extended downwind. Look 0: Exceed any of the above
across the final approach course for anyone
coming in from the wrong direction on the Final—Join final, then from 400' AGL to flare on
opposite base leg from you. It happens. airspeed, alignment, vertical path:
1: -0/+5 knots, ±5°, on glidepath
Allow No Latitude on Final 0: Exceed any of the above, or overshoot final
Time your turn to final approach to roll out
precisely aligned with the centerline. Again, Total Score for Fly a Perfect Pattern:
adjusting your rate of turn is fair game. Over-
shoots or undershoots are poor work, and
thus they ding your score.
After completing the turn to final, you’re in the proach and going around before entering the flare are
only part of the pattern where it’s acceptable to have the most important takeaways from this exercise. Use
the slip/skid ball out of center to compensate for this philosophy on every landing.
crosswinds. It’s up to you when this transition should If they’re on track, have your safety pilot note
occur. them for scoring (just as that person should have
On final, you should be on speed, in configura- been scoring all previous sections) and continue for a
tion (landing flaps and gear down), on glide path to landing. Your safety pilot may score the landing sep-
your touchdown zone with a steady rate of descent, arately if you wish.
and aligned with the runway centerline. At 400 feet A flight tracking program, like ForeFlight or
AGL, evaluate these criteria. If you don’t meet all of CloudAhoy, that can record these patterns helps scor-
these, go around. Attaining all targets on final ap- ing and, more importantly, debriefing your patterns.
HONE TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS 17
Rolls On A Heading

Nose
Wingtip

This deceptively simple maneuver is devilishly difficult to perfect. Yet, mastering it builds an
expert feel for coordination ... and the envy of other pilots.

S ince the 1980s, the FAA has unveiled a “back to

basics” campaign at least four times. It’s easy to
think that new technologies and designs make it
turn, you return the ailerons neutral
to maintain the selected bank angle
and adverse yaw decreases.
easier to fly an airplane, or even let the airplane fly But what if you want to hold High
for us. But history shows again and again that when a bank angle while keeping the air-
technology is misused or fails, the safe outcome of plane aligned on a point straight
Difficulty
a flight ultimately depends on the pilot’s mastery of ahead? You’ll initially apply rudder
stick-and-rudder flying skills. in the direction of turn, but imme-
Understanding the need for, and use of, rudder is diately after you’ll need rudder op-
probably the most important revelation in the Wright posite the direction of the turn. Instructor
Brothers’ success. In a turn to the left, the downward This maneuver is often (and
Crew
bend or aileron on the right wing creates additional incorrectly) called a “Dutch Roll.”
lift, which results in additional drag. This drag on the A better name is “Rolls on a Heading.” You’ll roll the
right (upward moving) wing resists the turn to the airplane with the nose pinned on a heading while
left. Thus, it yaws the nose of the airplane, opposite holding constant altitude and airspeed.
the direction of turn, for as long as the ailerons are
deflected, unless you apply rudder to counteract it. Find a Straight Line or Clear Landmark
The amount of rudder depends on rate of roll, On a clear day with good visibility and a distinct
airspeed, and airplane design. Once established in a horizon, establish level flight in a flaps-up configura-
18 MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER
tion and 10 knots below Va (adjusted for the weight pressures, hold these inputs for a minute to get a feel
of the airplane). Make clearing turns, and then point for them. This creates a slip, so the slip/skid ball will
the nose directly at a prominent landmark out on the slide out to one side.
horizon. Rolling the wings back level also creates adverse
Roll into a 30-degree bank in either direction. yaw, so—initially—rudder is required in the direction
As you roll into the bank, apply normal rudder. The of the rollout. A moment later, you’ll need less rudder
nose will initially remain in place as you roll, but then pressure, or even opposite rudder, to keep the nose
begin to move in the direction of the bank because pointed straight ahead. Return to straight-and-level
you’re in a coordinated turn. while keeping the nose aligned with your landmark.
The moment the nose begins to move in the di- Repeat the exercise with a bank in the other di-
rection of the turn, apply opposite rudder to maintain rection. Pause at a 30-degree bank once again to get
heading. Just for the purposes
of understanding the control

The initial roll-in is coordi-

nated (top), but only until the
nose begins to move. Then
you’ll apply opposite rudder
while continuing to roll (bot-
tom). The ball might not even
have time to fully swing out
before you start rolling back
toward level.

MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER 19

 SAFETY NET

· Clear the area of traffic, and abandon the maneu- · Enter each roll at a speed so you remain below ma-
ver if there is any conflict. neuvering speed adjusted for weight.
· Fly the exercise with nearly full fuel tanks to avoid · Fly the exercise only a couple of times, and then
sloshing fuel away from the fuselage and unporting move on to another exercise. (It can be disorienting
the fuel, interrupting engine power. and induce airsickness.)

a feel for the control pressures at its maximum, then No Stopping, More Bank
return to wings-level flight while holding your nose Now, execute the maneuver in one direction and then
on its target the entire time. the other with only a slight pause at each 30-degree
bank, and no pause as you roll through wings lev-
SCORECARD el. All the while, apply rudder pressure as needed to
keep the nose aligned with your landmark. Try that
The first three factors in your score are ones you’re until you can do it both smoothly and with minimal
used to as a pilot: speed, altitude, and heading. change in heading.
They remain fixed as if you were flying straight Do the maneuver with no pause at all: Roll left,
and level. upon reaching the 30-degree bank angle, immediate-
The next two rely on precision and symme- ly roll right, and upon reaching that 30-degree bank
try. Can you hold that speed, altitude, and—most angle, roll the wings level. Once you’ve graduated to
frustratingly—heading still, while making the air- flying the exercise without pausing at the maximum
plane roll left and right in rapid succession? How bank angle, you may not need rudder changes until
much bank is up to you. We suggest 30°, then after you reverse the direction of banking. It depends
45°, then 60°, but less bank isn’t always easier. on the type of airplane you’re flying. It will be a dance
on the rudder, akin to the finesse of landing a tail-
Maintain target airspeed: wheel airplane.
1: Within ±5 knots Once you have 30 degrees down, increase bank
0: Deviations >5 knots angle to 45 degrees. You may want to do this in stages
first, a left bank and hold, then a right bank and hold, to
Maintain target altitude: get a feel not only for the greater rudder requirement
1: Within ±20' but also the back pressure needed to hold altitude.
0: Deviations >20' If you pause while banked, airspeed will decrease.

Maintain heading:
1: Within ±4°(Less than a tick mark) SEE IT IN THE SIM
0: Deviations >4° Location: High over U.S. Route 10, south of St.
Cloud, MN.
Attain roll symmetry left and right: Conditions: Clear skies, calm winds.
1: Maximum banks ±5° of each other
0: Maximum banks differ by >5°

Roll rate:
1: Consistent rate throughout
0: Inconsistent rate throughout

Total Score for Rolls On A Heading:

20 MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER

 PUMP IT UP: THE STOP MOTION EXERCISE
Once you’ve mastered rolls on a heading, you can heading and do rolls on a head-
put them together in one master exercise. In a nut- ing pointing south.
shell, you’ll do a roll on heading on each cardinal 6. You probably get the
direction, North, West, South, and East. You’ll con- idea now: After as many rolls on Stunning
nect them with 90-degree turns. The tough part is that heading pointed south as you
you don’t pause through the entire maneuver. There’s want, allow the airplane to turn Difficulty
never a time you simply fly wings level. Here’s the left to an east heading at 30 de-
sequence of events. You can do this with the same grees of bank.
bank angle throughout. 7. Do rolls on heading at 30
1. Set up flying northbound, hopefully with a degrees of bank facing east. Instructor
landmark to help you stay oriented. Do a roll on a 8. When you’re ready, allow Crew
heading with 30 degrees of bank. How many rolls the airplane to turn back to the
each way is up to you. We suggest three. north and roll out on a north heading. You’re done.
2. On one of your rolls to the left don’t stop the Hopefully you’re still at the same altitude and at your
turn. Instead, let the airplane turn while banked 30 original airspeed.
degrees. This is a normal, coordinated turn to the Now try it to the right. If that’s too easy, you
west. Apply back pressure and a bit of power to could try 45 degrees of bank.
hold altitude, as need-
ed. Finish
3. Now the hard-
est part: As you reach Change heading
@ 30°bank
a heading of west, roll 2 Roll on heading
@ 30°bank
Change heading 8
right but hold the nose @ 30°bank
on this west heading 1
with rudder—and do a
roll on heading with 30 7
degrees of bank. Roll on heading Start Roll on heading
@ 30°bank @ 30°bank
4. After however
many rolls on heading
3
you choose, on one of
your left-hand banks al-
low the airplane to turn
Change heading Change heading
left at 30 degrees of @ 30°bank @ 30°bank

bank until facing south. 5

4 Roll on heading
6
5. Stop the nose’s @ 30°bank

motion on a south

That’s OK. Once you can do it without pausing, the When you can do the left/right/level maneuver
impact on airspeed is usually minimal. Less bank isn’t in a single, fluid motion, keeping the airplane’s nose
always easier to do because you have less time in the on a single spot on the horizon, while maintaining
roll. altitude and airspeed, you’ll instinctively compensate
It’s easy to get out of phase with the rudder, for crosswinds during landing and immediately after
causing some wild yawing of the nose. This can upset takeoff.
even a veteran pilot’s senses—and stomach. Try the More importantly, you’ll command the level of
maneuver two or three times and then move on to stick-and-rudder skill that even professional pilots
something else. Success will come, but it takes time. envy.
MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER 21
Fixed-Wing Hover

Can you hover over a spot in a fixed-wing airplane? Sure you can. Here’s how.

T he old maneuver called Flight at Minimum Con-

trollable Airspeed (MCA) taught AOA awareness
and rudder coordination at slow airspeed. Flight in-
to get the speed as low as possible. In this condition,
the stall horn should be blaring—stall horns are usu-
ally set to sound at five to seven knots above the stall
structors generally agreed that if they had to pick one speed.
maneuver to reveal a pilot’s stick-and-rudder skills, Holding altitude at MCA requires a fair amount
flight at MCA would be it. You experience MCA (al- of power, and a lot of right rudder to compensate for
beit briefly) at the beginning of a maximum perfor- propeller forces. Elevator and aileron inputs have
mance takeoff or almost every landing flare. limited effectiveness at this speed. Tiny inputs may
The task is no longer part of FAA checkrides, be insufficient, yet over-controlling leads to pilot-in-
but the lessons it taught are as valid today as ever. duced oscillation. Smooth, controlled flight at MCA
MCA is the speed in level flight at which any requires a deft touch.
decrease in indicated airspeed or increase in wing This exercise adds one more
loading would cause the wing to stall. It’s usually per- factor to the traditional MCA ex-
formed in the landing configuration, with full flaps, ercise. You’ll hunt for winds aloft
such that MCA achieves zero Elevated
SAFETY NET groundspeed—a fixed-wing hover.
Difficulty
· Be comfortable with stall recoveries before flying
Find Some High Winds
this exercise.
You’ll want steady winds aloft, a
· Fly the exercise in smooth air for maximum effect. forecast for 10 knots faster than
· Recover if cylinder or oil temperatures get too hot. your airplane’s stall speed in the Safety
landing configuration. Ideally, Crew
22 MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER
 SCORECARD
The scoring happens once you’re established at
MCA, heading into the wind that you need. You
can tally your score for a fixed-wing hover while
holding a constant altitude or while making a
1000-foot change in altitude (while at MCA).

Stall warning throughout exercise:

1: Constant stall warning
0: Intermittent stall warning or stall

Altitude (or descent rate) at MCA:

1: ±50' (or ±100 fpm)
0: Deviation >50' (or >100 fpm)

Coordinated flight while at MCA:

1: ±½ ball width or PFD “line”
0: >½ ball width or PFD “line”

Desired heading while at MCA:

1: ±5°
0: >5°

Achieve hover for one minute:

1: Groundspeed <5 knots
0: Groundspeed ≥5 knots

Total Score for Fixed Wing Hover:

those winds should be at an altitude between 1500

and 5000 feet AGL. Clear skies in uncongested Class
E or G airspace is also a big plus, so you can maneu-
ver in any direction.
Climb to that altitude, and clear the area above
and below for traffic. Fly directly into the wind. This
is trivial if you have a display with a wind vector. If

Maintaining a steady MCA requires finesse at high

angles of attack and relatively high power. The
flight controls don’t have the authority they do at
cruise speeds and it’s easy to over control. Note the
lift lines at cruise speed (upper) and MCA (lower).
The green lines going up show lift—just enough
to counter gravity in both cases. But the red lines
pointing aft show drag due to lift, which is much
higher at MCA. (The lines on the prop are thrust.)
MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER 23
 SEE IT IN THE SIM or reducing power to descend. You’re hunting for just
the right spot to sustain zero groundspeed.
Location: Palm Springs Intl., Palm Springs, CA
Keep an eye on those engine temps and take
(KPSP). Runway 31L.
a break every few minutes to let the engine cool as
Conditions: Surface winds 310 @ 50.
necessary. It also helps just to take a break from the
blaring stall horn.
When you nail that coveted “GS 0,” take a photo
of your panel showing altitude, power setting, indi-
cated airspeed, and ground speed at zero. Challenge
your social media friends to match that.
If you can’t reach zero groundspeed, you may
need to find another altitude, or even try a differ-
ent day. Technically, it’s no harder to fly at 5 knots
groundspeed than zero, but it looks better on camera.
However, if you just need a couple knots, or to
add another layer of complexity, you can try climbing
not, experiment to find the heading that provides the or descending while you’re maintaining a fixed-wing
lowest ground speed. hover. Add (or reduce) power to move vertically ex-
actly 1000 feet. That’s harder to capture for posting
Get Slow, Really Slow online, but it shows mastery of flight at MCA.
On that heading, gradually slow the airplane while
maintaining level flight. It’s your choice whether or It's Worth Flying Some Real MCA
not to extend flaps, but that’s generally a better choice After decades of pilots practicing MCA for their
for speed, visibility, and (in some cases) engine cool- checkrides, the FAA decided continued flight with
ing. Retractable gear can be up or down. However, the stall horn blaring would breed complacency. Pi-
if there’s a warning horn that sounds when flaps are lots would feel comfortable with the stall warning
fully extended but the gear is up, you’ll probably want horn and delay recovery from near-stall conditions.
to fly MCA with the gear down. Real-world data supporting this notion is thin, at
Once in configuration, adjust power as needed best. However, this exercise does have you intention-
to slow to just above stall speed while maintaining al- ally cause a warning system to activate and stay on.
titude. You’ll hear the stall warning horn—and that’s We’ll say it here even though it should go without
OK during this exercise. saying: If you hear a stall warning when you don’t ex-
Flying at MCA is a bit of a balancing act: man- pect it, reduce your AOA.
age power and pitch to fly level at just above stall Regardless of the current checkride standards,
speed in this configuration at the airplane’s current the training value of flight at MCA is as valid today
weight. Do this while maintaining altitude and head- as ever. MCA teaches airplane handling and control
ing. Maintain wings level and heading primarily with at high AOAs. High AOA occurs in certain critical
rudder. Deflecting ailerons at a high angle of attack phases of flight, but it’s brief. That means it takes a lot
can cause one wing to stall before the other and create of takeoffs and landings to develop these skills with-
an incipient spin. Lower the angle of attack at the first out some other way to explore it.
aerodynamic indication of a stall. Flight at MCA at altitude extends the time you
have to practice these skills, so you can apply them
Maneuver for a “Ground Stop” when you need them most, close to the runway. Add-
Look at your groundspeed. While holding altitude ing an extra dimension of heading into the wind so
and heading at MCA, see if you can get the ground- your MCA results in a zero groundspeed makes it
speed to tick down to zero without stalling. Heading more challenging and fun.
adjustments to find a zero groundspeed are allowed, It also looks unusual and cool from the ground
as is adding power to climb a bit, while still at MCA, if anyone else is watching.
24 MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER
 PUMP IT UP: THE CONSTANT-HEADING PATTERN
Start with your airplane on the numbers for a run- power to maintain altitude. Drift
way of your choice. It can be short, as you won’t left on the crosswind leg as fast as
need much of it. Center your heading bug, if you you can manage without drifting
have one, on the runway heading. backwards or losing altitude. Elevated
Now, add some winds at the surface—monster When you reach a position
Difficulty
winds. Start with a steady wind at least 1.5 times to join the downwind leg, pitch
the flaps-up stall speed. So if you’re flying a Cessna up and slow the airplane to just
172 with a Vs of 41 knots, that’s a 63-knot wind. You above stall speed. Extend flaps
can dial that down for more of a challenge. Be sure to fly even slower. Adjust pow-
that the wind is blowing straight down the runway. er as necessary to hold altitude Sim Only
Apply power and take off. You’ll be airborne al- as you drift backwards on the Crew
most instantly and could climb vertically, if you flew downwind leg.
slow enough. Pitch forward and make progress into On a typical pattern, you descend when you
that wind at perhaps 30 or 40 knots over the ground reach a position abeam your landing target, so
as you climb. That’s your departure leg. you’ll do that on this pattern. As you come abeam
When you reach pattern altitude, hold your head- the numbers, reduce power so that you descend
ing and pitch up to an airspeed equal to the headwind while drifting backwards in this nearly stalled at-
you set for the sim. You’ll be essentially stationary over titude. When you’re ready to fly the base leg, dip
the ground. Nudge the left wing down so you begin your right wing to drift sideways and use opposite
to drift left for the crosswind leg, but add enough right rudder to maintain the same heading you’ve main-
rudder to hold your heading and enough back pres- tained since takeoff. Pitch down to increase airspeed
sure to hold altitude. Most sims will require a bit of to match the wind. (You may need to retract flaps.)
Adjust power as necessary.
Final approach will require
pitching forward and driving into
the wind as you descend. The
flare involves pitching up to stop
all forward motion, as you adjust
power to descend vertically those
last couple feet and touch down
exactly where you started.
Ideally, the heading bug nev-
er moved for the entire pattern.
In theory, you could do this
in the real world with something
like a STOL Supercub flying in a
constant 45-knot wind at the sur-
face at a runway with no nearby
buildings or trees that would cre-
ate hazardous mechanical turbu-
lence.
Or, maybe not.

MASTER THE USE OF RUDDER 25

Shifting the Balance

If the aircraft looks like this on the ramp, there’s

Normal Instructor definitely an issue with the current loading. Per-
Difficulty Crew haps move the anvils out of the back?

Stalls with real-world aircraft loadings can This exercise is best done in an airplane with a
be a completely different experience than wide range of loadings so you can create a light, for-
what you did in training. ward C.G. condition, and a heavy, aft C.G. condition.
Some two-place, side-by-side trainers can do this as

R eal-world takeoff, landing, and stall-related mis-

haps happen with all possible aircraft loadings.
Our training for takeoffs, landings, and stall recovery,
well, particularly if they have a fuselage fuel tank aft
of the wings or a generously sized cargo hold.

however, usually happens well below gross weight Plan a Light Load, Then a Heavy One
and in the forward half of the C.G. envelope. Heavy Start by computing these two loading conditions for
airplanes loaded so the C.G. is in the aft part of the your airplane. It’s best to work backwards.
envelope feel different in all those situations. Compute the weight and balance for you and the
We emphasize stall recovery in all levels of pilot instructor and your desired fuel reserve that you’ll
certification and training. One reason is developing have when the flight is completely over. Remove all
the muscle memory for an instinctive response to other weight from the airplane that's not required,
signs of a stall. But if the cues and control feel change such as those two quarts of oil you carry around, the
with weight and C.G., the required control inputs tow bar, chart supplements that expired three years
may vary significantly. The wider the loading enve- ago, etc.
lope, such as having four or more seats or a high gross Check that this load is within C.G. If not, make
weight, exacerbate those differences. only the required ballast weight adjustments. If pos-
The skills and muscle memory you developed in sible, move weight to the forward seating position by
traditional stall training may not be what you need securing heavy objects under those seats (ensure this
to recover from a heavy weight, rearward C.G. stall. won’t create a safety hazard) to get the loading as for-
Practice in this area will also benefit your heavy- ward as practical but within the envelope. Call this
weight takeoffs and landings. your “forward loading for landing.”
26 MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES
 Now add enough fuel for a flight into the prac- SCORECARD
tice area, a series of stalls, and then back for some
takeoffs and landings (plus adequate reserve). Check This scoring happens after two flights in two
that this is still a legal loading and call it your “for- different conditions. High scores come from
ward loading for takeoff.” consistency in your performance when the airplane
Tip: Many flight apps and even online resources is light and forward in C.G. compared to when it’s
let you see the loading envelope with a line showing heavy and loaded more aft. The less the difference
how the C.G. moves as fuel is burned in flight. The between doing a task in both conditions, the high-
chart also shows takeoff weight and landing weight. er the score.
These are perfect to streamline this exercise. It’s about
good data rather than proving you can calculate Difference in average altitude lost in
weight and balance by hand. recovery from takeoff stall:
For the aft-loaded scenario, start by assuming 1: <100'
you get the maximum allowable weight in the bag- 0: 100' or greater
gage compartment, and just you and your instructor
in the front seats. Ensure that’s within C.G. Now add Difference in average altitude lost in
the same fuel load you did before: Enough for a land- recovery from landing stall:
ing with a safe reserve, plus fuel for about an hour of 1: <100'
stall practice and some pattern work. 0: 100' or greater
If that puts you over gross, subtract some bag-
gage weight. If it’s under-gross, experiment with Difference in greatest altitude lost in
adding more fuel or weight in the rear seats to get a recovery from either kind of stall:
1: <100'
As you work through this exercise, it’s crucial that 0: 100' or greater
you properly calculate weight and balance to re-
main in the envelope. Difference in touchdown points:
1: <100'
0: 100' or greater

Difference in total landing distance:

1: <15%
0: 15% or greater

Total Score for Shifting the Balance:

gross-weight, takeoff loading that’s as aft C.G. as you

can legally create. In the end, you should have an “aft
loading for landing” and a slightly heavier “aft load-
ing for takeoff.”
Just to be clear: This is all done on paper first (or
in an app) to find the right two conditions to create
in the real airplane.

Correct Your Approach Speed

Before you launch to go practice, you need one more
calculation. Most pilots use one approach speed re-
MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES 27
 SAFETY NET If you don’t have a system for this, the formula
for the landing speed correction factor is the square
· Establish a “hard deck” minimum altitude for re- root of the actual landing weight divided by the gross
covery that is at least 3500 feet AGL. weight. For example, if your aircraft gross weight is
· Clear the area visually in addition to ADS-B, TIS, 3000 pounds, and the light load is 2500 pounds, the
or other technology. difference is 2500/3000, or 0.83. The square root of
· Enter stalls smoothly and slowly. Recover 0.83 is 0.91. The correct final approach speed at 2500
promptly, but smoothly as well. pounds is 91-percent of the speed you would use at
3000 pounds.
Another system that works well for airplanes of
gardless of aircraft loading. Often this is the highest about this weight is to reduce the approach speed by
recommended speed in the aircraft manual, which one knot for every 100 pounds under gross. For an
is for gross weight. This usually means they land too approach speed of 80 knots at gross weight in the ex-
fast when lightly loaded. If you already account for ample above, the corrected 91-percent speed would
this, compute your final approach speed (sometimes be 73 knots. Using the simpler 100-pound method,
called Vref) for the light “forward loading for land- you’d get a final approach speed of 75 knots. If you ap-
ing” and the heavy “aft loading for landing.” proach for landing using an AOA indicator, you can
skip this step as AOA automatically
accounts for changes in weight.
Now you have takeoff and
landing conditions for two load-
ing scenarios, and a final approach
speed for each. It’s time to fly.

Go Fly Light
Do this with light winds, or winds
that'll be steady for a couple hours.
With the airplane fueled and
loaded per the light “forward load-
ing for takeoff ” configuration, take
off and climb to your practice area.
When you level off, let the air-
plane stabilize at cruise speed long
enough to get an airspeed and trim
setting for this loading. Write it
down.
At a safe altitude, practice

Weight influences just about ev-

erything in a light airplane. Here’s
our Cessna 172S at the stall break.
At a light weight of 1980 pounds
(top) and at 2558 pounds (bottom).
While a 6-knot difference in stall
speed doesn’t sound like much, it’s
more than 10 percent, and the re-
covery of the heavier airplane will
be more lethargic..
28 MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES
both approach (power off)
and takeoff/go-around (power PUMP IT UP: MAKE THE SIM TWITCHY
on) stalls. Record the altitude Simulators are arguably twitchy to begin with, and
lost in each recovery for both mis-loading the virtual airplane just makes that worse.
types of stalls. Make a mental However, amplification of the feel can be useful in prac-
note about how they felt to Elevated ticing your reactions.
you. On the sim, set up the airplane in a heavy, aft C.G.
Return to the airport for Difficulty condition and practice a few stall recoveries at a virtual
some takeoffs and landings. sea level to get the feel of the airplane. Next, try the
You’ll want stop-and-go or same stalls at 5000 feet density altitude, and again at
full-stop landings, as works 10,000 feet. You may see some differences.
for traffic, ATC, and available Sim Only Do that exercise again, but this time try some over-
runway. Use your corrected weight (10–30%) or with a C.G. slightly aft of the ap-
Crew
approach speed for a normal proved envelope. Enjoy the results.
landing to a complete stop.
Try to perform these as con-
sistently as possible. After a
few landings, you should have
an average touchdown point
and position where you’re ful-
ly stopped. Record those and
taxi back to reload the air-
plane.

Go Fly Heavy
Reload the airplane to the “aft
loading for takeoff ” configu-
ration. Get a drink of water,
stretch, or whatever you need to refresh and then ter prepare you for the real-world scenarios that con-
launch back to the practice area. Set a cruise speed tribute to most stall-related mishaps. It’ll also improve
and trim position as before. Note the differences. your flying on all those important trips, when you’ve
Practice your takeoff and landing stalls as be- got the airplane fully loaded with family and friends.
fore. Note the differences and record the altitude lost
for both kinds of stalls. Return to the airport for land- SEE IT IN THE SIM
ings. Use the correct approach speed for your weight,
Location: A safe altitude somewhere south of
and the same touchdown target. Record your actual
Newport, OR.
touchdown point and where you come to a complete
Conditions: Partly cloudy, Winds 220 @10G15.
stop. Repeat enough times to get an average.

Now You’re Prepared

You don’t want your first high-weight, aft-C.G. go
around to surprise you with an unexpected reaction
in the airplane. The shock value alone could delay the
correct action, and your well-practiced techniques
from a different loading might be insufficient—or
over-reactions—to the situation.
Practicing stalls, takeoffs, and landings across a
range of airplane weights and C.G. locations will bet-
MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES 29
Back-to-Back Wingovers
4: Minimum airspeed, nose on horizon, 090°

Allow nose to fall naturally Allow nose to keep falling

5: Roll back to wings level

3: Freeze pitch, Roll right to 50°
6: Pitch level
2: Pitch up
7: 100 kts, 3000', 180°

1: 100 kts, 3000', 360°

Reverse maneuver to climb, bank, descend, and
level off to match the start: 100 kts, 3000', 360°

Need something to spice up those long, cruise flights? Master back-to-back wingovers.

W e pilots spend most of our time cruising along

in the middle of the aircraft performance en-
velope. In fact, the more experienced you get, the
down before rolling back out and pulling back to lev-
el flight. This ends the first half of the maneuver on
your starting altitude and airspeed—but exactly 180
more likely a flight will contain long stretches of degrees off your original heading. Then, you repeat
straight-and-level flight, punctuated by the occasion- the maneuver in the other direction to end exactly
al standard-rate turn. on your original heading, altitude, and airspeed as if
Yet, accident investigations around the globe nothing had happened ... other than getting displaced
confirm that pilots, who have lost their comfort out laterally. Oh, and you should reach the same altitude
at the sticky sides of the performance envelope, are and airspeed at the tops of both turns just as the nose
ill equipped to handle many emergencies. Don’t you falls through the horizon.
wish there was an exercise you could do while cruis- These are really modified wingovers because
ing along that kept your precision you won’t bank more than 50 degrees. Real wingov-
sharp and your comfort with less- ers reach 90 degrees of bank (“knife-edge”) at the
than-normal flight intact?
High There is; now and then, toss in SAFETY NET
a few back-to-back wingovers.
Difficulty · Find an instructor with experience in this maneu-
This maneuver has you pitch
up into a climb (how much is at ver and your specific model of airplane.
pilot’s discretion) before easing off · Return to straight and level if you might exceed
back pressure as you roll, reaching 60° bank, 20° pitch up, or 15° pitch down.
Instructor up to 50 degrees bank as the nose · Do not exceed Va adjusted for airplane weight.
Crew falls past level. The nose continues
30 MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES
The sequence viewed and turn until reaching
from the cockpit. 1. Start a heading about 170°
with a stable airspeed, from the start and roll
altitude and heading. 2. wings level. 6. Pitch up
Pitch up 15–20°. 3. Roll to stop the descent at
up to 50°. 4. Allow the your original altitude.
nose to fall as the air- 7. At the completion,
plane turns such that the your airspeed and
nose falls through the altitude should match
horizon just as you’ve step 1 but your heading
turned 90°. 5. Descend should have reversed.
4

5
3

6
2

1 7

MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES 31

high points in the turn. The regulations don’t quantify ified wingovers should never require anything close
aerobatic flight by numbers, but FAR 91.307 requires to full control deflection. However, you might need
parachutes for flight exceeding 60 degrees of bank to make such an input during recovery from the ma-
and/or 30 degrees of pitch. That makes those 60-30 neuver gone wrong. Flying performance maneuvers
limits the de facto edges for non-aerobatic maneuvers. at or below the airplane’s Va is good practice.
Because Va is really an AOA limitation that’s
Get the Right Va approximated by airspeed, the maneuvering speed
There is also an airspeed limitation of Va. These mod- decreases with a reduction in airplane weight. The
same AOA creates more lifting force on a light-
SCORECARD er airplane. Use the Va range in your manual
to adjust Va for your current weight. If only
The scoring for wingovers requires noting your airspeed, a gross weight number is published, estimate
altitude, and heading before you start the maneuver and by reducing Va by two percent for every 100
when you’ve reversed course, so be sure to have these pounds below gross weight.
stabilized before you begin. The first time you try, you’ll
do one course reversal and just compare your airspeed, Beware the Rolling G
altitude, and heading between the start and finish. Another often overlooked aspect of Va is that
When you’re ready for back-to-back, note those three it’s only valid for abrupt control inputs in one
items at the start, after one course reversal (middle), and axis at a time. Mixing the controls can cause
when you’re back on the original heading (end). Also structural failure even at lower speeds, due to
note how high you climb in each turn and whether you a phenomenon called rolling Gs. You’ll make
need to “fix” your heading at the very end. large control inputs on one axis at a time. If you
doubt the importance of this, watch the pros.
Difference in airspeed at start, middle, and end: Even the Thunderbirds and Blue Angels pitch,
1: ±5 knots then roll; or roll, then pitch. They never initiate
0: >5 knots roll and pitch at the same time.
Your entire maneuver, therefore, needs to
Difference in altitude at start, middle, and end: stay within the limits of bank, pitch, speed, and
1: Difference ±100' sequence of control input.
0: Difference >100'
Set Airspeed, Altitude, and Heading
Difference in heading at start, middle, and end: Start by slowing to five knots under your calcu-
1: Difference ±5° lated Va. This should let you make a 360, or two
0: Difference >5° level 180s, to clear the area. Keep the airplane
in the clean configuration.
Difference in altitude at two high points: Set your heading bug, or align yourself
1: Difference ±100' with a reference along the ground, such as a
0: Difference >100' road. This isn’t a ground reference maneuver,
but a long, straight reference line makes it eas-
Roll to wings level at completion: ier to roll out on the proper headings parallel
1: No pause in rolling back to level on original to that line.
heading Smoothly pitch up, straight ahead, about
0: Pauses or increases bank at end to reach original 15 degrees. You’ll have to experiment to find
heading the right amount of pitch-up that results in
just above stall speed when you’ve turned 90
Total Score for Back-to-Back Wingovers: degrees. It may take a couple of tries to find it,
however you shouldn’t exceed 20 degrees.
As soon as you’ve established the pitch-up
32 MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES
 PUMP IT UP: BACK TO THE 90S
Fly the back-to-back wingover
in an aerobatic airplane with an
aerobatics instructor. Steepen
High the bank beyond the 60-degree
Difficulty point and/or the pitch beyond the
30-degree limits at the discretion
of your aerobatics instructor.
If you don’t have that option,
fly it yourself in a simulator, using
Expert 90 degrees of bank.
Crew

attitude, ease off back pressure as you roll smooth- sequence. It requires constant, tiny adjustments,
ly into a 50-degree bank. The airplane will probably which means you must understand what you’re see-
continue to climb (how much is a function of air- ing in airplane performance and how to nudge it in
plane weight, power and density altitude), and it will the direction you want.
definitely turn. As the heading change nears 90 de- And if your instructor is someone you fly with
grees and the airspeed is at its lowest, adjust the back often, you can always toss in a few back-to-backs
pressure so the nose “falls” through the horizon just when you both want a respite on a long, cruise flight,
as you reach the 90-degree point. just to stay sharp.
As you approach the 180-degree point, roll back How is this different from the Lazy 8 that ap-
to wings level, timing the roll so you’re exactly 180 pears on the Commercial Practical Test? A Lazy 8 is a
degrees off your original heading. You’re still pitched gradual pitch-and-turn maneuver, entered so slowly
down, so complete the maneuver by easing the nose that you can safely vary both axes at the same time.
back to level flight, ideally on your original airspeed The Lazy 8 is also limited to 30 degrees of bank maxi-
and altitude. mum. This is a much gentler, yet still tricky maneuver
Practice that a few times in one direction. Then, to master. Back-to-back wingovers, by contrast, is a
try it a few times in the other direction. higher energy maneuver much closer to the edges of
the approved envelope.
Do Them Back-to-Back
When you’re ready, put the two together. The only SEE IT IN THE SIM
difference is when you ease back to level flight at the
Location: Enjoy watching some wingovers high in
end of the first wingover, you continue without stop-
the central Minnesota skies.
ping to pitch up for the second wingover.
Conditions: CAVU, calm winds.
Of course, if you don’t hit the heading, airspeed,
and altitude targets at the end of the first half of the
maneuver, it’ll be that much more difficult to hit them
at the end of the second.

Explore the Envelope with Precision

Back-to-back wingovers are a fun, yet controlled, way
to play in the edges of the airplane’s approved enve-
lope. It’s not easy to master. In fact, it’s perhaps “stun-
ningly” difficult to do perfectly. But that’s the beauty
of it. You must fly with precision and in the correct
MAINTAIN CONTROL AT THE EDGES 33
Finding the “Numbers”

Normal
Difficulty

Safety
Crew

A secret of professional pilots is “flying by have this basic characteristic to some degree. Chang-
es in power, attitude, or configuration will cause the
the numbers.” This exercise lets you find airplane to climb, level, or descend at that general air-
the key numbers for any airplane you fly. speed. If any of those factors change, but you resist
the airplane’s natural tendencies toward the trimmed

F lying is a unique combination of art and science.

You need a feel and finesse to fly an airplane with
the precision to execute your will. That’s an art, and
airspeed, the airplane will accelerate or decelerate.
You can then trim for the new airspeed that results.
This exercise harnesses that tendency.
some pilots make it look easy. However, if you em-
ploy the science, an airplane will do most of the work. Start with a Chart
You can attain the precision you desire with a lot less To fly by the numbers, first define the critical phases
stress. It looks easy because you make it easy. of flight where you’ll use these numbers. Sometimes
For any given trim setting, an airplane general- the combination of a phase of flight and the power,
ly maintains the indicated airspeed (actually angle of attitude, and configuration associated with it is called
attack, but most of us use airspeed as a surrogate). a flight profile. We routinely fly flight profiles for
Some airplanes are more stable than others, but all takeoff and climb, as airplane manuals usually give
power settings and airspeeds for these. Cruise power
SAFETY NET often covers a wide range of profiles and altitudes that
are also usually spelled out in the manuals.
· Clear the entire area of traffic, including below,
It’s the descent, approach, landing, go-around,
before beginning the exercise.
and missed approach that most pilots need defined.
· Set a minimum altitude for experimenting of at
least 1500 feet AGL. Climb back up to a higher Do Some Experimentation
altitude whenever you get this low. For best results, fly the exercise in smooth air and at
· Ensure your safety pilot keeps watching for traffic least 2000 feet AGL. Higher can be better to allow
in addition to monitoring your flying, and writing more time in a descent as you experiment. Climb
down the results. to a cruising altitude and establish normal cruise
flight. Trim the airplane for hands-off level flight and
34 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP
a cruise power setting you’d normally use. Note the position, airspeed and pitch attitude. This is the air-
pitch attitude. This is your cruise flight and can be a plane’s approach level profile.
helpful baseline, although it’s not essential. The precision approach descent profile is for fly-
Reduce power by 300 RPM (fixed-pitch prop), ing a constant, three-degree glidepath from the FAF
or reduce manifold pressure by four inches (control- to the DA. Start with the airplane in the approach
lable-pitch prop). Let the airplane descend naturally level configuration. If the airplane is a retractable,
and record the rate of descent. extend the landing gear. If the airplane has fixed
Adjust the RPM or manifold pressure in small landing gear, reduce the power by 300 RPM or the
increments until you find a setting that results in a manifold pressure by four inches. Allow the airplane
500 fpm rate of descent. Record this power setting. to descend. This usually results in a 500 to 600 fpm
That is the “number” for a 500-fpm cruise descent. descent at the trimmed approach level speed. Adjust
You might want to record the pitch attitude as well. the RPM or manifold pressure if needed to obtain the
Unless you’re flying a turbocharged airplane desired rate of descent.
with an automatic wastegate, power will increase as Record the power setting, pitch attitude, flap and
you descend and the rate of descent will decrease. landing gear position (as appropriate), airspeed, and
Tweak the throttle as needed to maintain 500 fpm. vertical speed. Record the position of the pitch trim
It may take a few repetitions of stopping the de- indicator. As with the cruise descent profile, you’ll
scent and climbing back up for altitude before you need to tweak the throttle every minute or so during
find a repeatable power setting. Once you have the your descent to maintain the target RPM or manifold
descent profile, climb back to at least 2500 feet AGL, pressure. Otherwise, power will increase, the rate of
reestablish cruise flight, and then set the power for descent will become less, and you’ll find yourself high
your descent. Come down to 2000 feet and reapply on glidepath or glideslope. A slight adjustment of this
the RPM or manifold pressure you used at cruise alti-
tude. Remember that this is a specific power setting, SEE IT IN THE SIM
not an explicit throttle position. Location: Over the Mayacmas Mountains, west of
The next profile is approach level. This works for Clearlake, CA.
the level flight portion of intermediate segments of an Conditions: High cirrus clouds and light winds.
instrument approach as well as the downwind leg of
the traffic pattern.
Start by establishing cruise or enroute climb
speed and configuration. However, adjust the pro-
peller to the cruise climb position (if applicable) and
use partial or approach flaps (if airspeed permits). In
most light airplanes, partial flaps increases stability
and lowers the pitch attitude slightly, improving for-
ward visibility. Reduce airspeed incrementally and
maintain back pressure as necessary to Cessna 172S Sim
maintain level flight as the airplane de- Operation Power Pitch Configuration Airspeed VS Notes
celerates slowly. Trim the airplane and Vy Climb Full 10° Clean 74 1000
record the position of the pitch trim in- Cruise Climb Full 6° Clean 90 800
dicator. Record the power setting, flap Cruise 2500 0° Clean 110 0
Descent 2200 -3° Clean 110 -500
Here's a chart for a Cessna 172S. Approach Level 2100 1° Clean 90 0
High-performance singles and twins Precision
1800 -2° Clean 90 -500
Approach
will have extra rows for different cruise Non-Precision
1600 -4° Clean 90 -800
settings and single-engine flight. There Approach
Level at MDA 2100 1° Clean 90 0
are blank charts in the back of this
Missed Approach Full 7° Clean 85 800
manual.
SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 35
profile creates a faster descent for the non-precision flap position, landing gear position, and airspeed
approach descent profile. This profile creates a steep- should be the same as a precision approach descent.
er descent typically desired between fixes and to the The power setting is probably 200 RPM lower or two
MDA on a non-precision approach where you don’t inches less than you had for the precision approach
use vertical guidance. descent so that you see a vertical speed that’s 300 to
Start with the airplane in the precision approach 500 fpm higher. Record this power setting, pitch atti-
descent profile. Now, reduce RPM or manifold pres- tude, and pitch trim indicator position.
sure to obtain a descent rate of 800 to 1000 fpm. The The transition from the non-precision approach
descent profile to non-precision approach level—
leveling off at MDA heading for the MAP—should
SCORECARD
consist only of a power change that arrests the de-
After generating the numbers for your airplane, test scent but keeps the airplane flying at the trimmed
the results with this scorecard. Each transition has a speed. This power is usually applied 50 to 100 feet
score, and the smoother you can transition without prior to reaching the MDA.
oscillating around the new target values, the more In retractables, advance the power to the ap-
likely you’ll score a point. proach level profile plus 200 RPM or four inches of
Descending below MDA or failure to start a manifold pressure. In fixed gear airplanes, advance
missed approach at DA is a zero for the “Transition the power to approach level. Adjust power as neces-
to missed approach” score—and could be a penalty sary to maintain level flight at the trimmed speed.
punishable by death during a real approach. Record the new power setting and pitch attitude.
We fly the approach at the cruise or enroute
VS and IAS Cruise to Enroute Descent: climb airspeed in order to have the airplane already
1: 500 fpm, ±10 knots trimmed for an efficient airspeed for a missed ap-
0: Overshoot: >600 fpm or >10 knots proach. This dramatically reduces your workload
and compensates for possible distraction during
Enroute Descent to Approach Level on what is arguably the most workload-intense ma-
target altitude: neuver we can fly by reference to instruments.
1: +50' and ±5 knots Establish the airplane in the precision ap-
0: Overshoot >50' or >5 knots proach descent profile, on speed and rate of de-
scent. At a simulated DA, apply full throttle or the
Approach Level to Precision or Non- AFM/POH recommended cruise climb power set-
Precision Approach targets: ting. Allow the pitch to naturally rise until it comes
1: No altitude gain before descending, to the cruise climb attitude. Manually hold that atti-
then ±5 knots, ±100 fpm tude momentarily, as needed, without changing the
0: Alt gain or overshoot >5 knots, >100 fpm trim setting, and retract flaps and (if appropriate)
landing gear. Establish cruise climb speed. Trim if
Level off at MDA during a non-precision needed, but any trim change should be small. You
approach: should only need to record the pitch attitude and
1: MDA +50'/-0' and ±5 knots the new trim position.
0: >MDA +50', >5 knots, or below MDA Once you have these numbers, try scoring
this exercise by flying the following series of pro-
Transition to missed approach climb: files in succession: cruise, descent, approach level,
1: Single pitch change, ±5° heading precision descent, missed approach, approach lev-
0: “Hunt” for correct pitch or >5° heading el, non-precision descent, non-precision approach
level, missed approach, and finally back to cruise.
Total Score for Finding the Numbers:
Put It Into Practice
Pilot’s talk about “staying ahead of the airplane.” Fly-
36 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP
 PUMP IT UP: FASTER OR WITH STUFF MISSING
Aerodynamics don’t rely on flight instruments, so tractable-gear airplane, this may
using these profiles works just as well during par- be just below the gear extension
tial-panel flight. The predictable performance makes speed, so you can rapidly decel-
your task as a pilot that much easier. During par- erate by putting the landing gear
Normal
tial-panel flight, it’s especially helpful to know the down. Find and record the pow-
position of the trim indicator when in the approach er setting for this speed. Difficulty
configuration. Set the power, the flaps, and the When it’s time to slow down
landing gear, then set the trim to its known setting on final, reduce power to the usu-
to approximate hands-off flight. Practice this with an al precision approach descent
instructor covering different instruments to represent profile, extending landing gear
different failures. and flaps as soon as airspeed Instructor
The standard numbers also serve as a baseline permits. In some airplanes, you’ll Crew
for “best forward speed” numbers. With the gear need to reduce power below the normal setting to
and flaps up, adjust power to fly level at your fastest slow enough to deploy flaps and gear. The airplane
practical speed for an instrument approach. In a re- will be trimmed for the faster speed and tend to pitch
down when you reduce power and increase
drag. Hold the attitude constant as you make
these changes, then set the trim to its known
approach configuration setting.
You’re changing configurations while on
a glideslope, so practice this technique with
vertical guidance. You may want to begin de-
celeration when the glideslope is one dot high
so you’ll coast into the glideslope as you’re
making final adjustments. You can also try this
technique using a visual glideslope indicator,
such as a PAPI or VASI, by beginning deceler-
ation just as the VGSI is beginning to show that
you’re on glidepath.

ing the numbers is a perfect example of this in prac- tion—you lowered the gear handle, but the wheels
tice. Using these profiles allows you to set a condition actually didn’t come down.
and expect the airplane to respond with the predict- Simplification of high-workload times is even
ed performance. This increases your precision and more important in these days of high-tech cockpits,
significantly reduces workload. It makes flying like a which have the tendency to make the low-workload
pro look easy because you’re using the airplane’s nat- parts of a flight even easier but add technical tasks to
ural response to changes in power, attitude and drag the busy high-workload portions of flight.
to do most of the work. For that reason, try to make the transitions from
It also simplifies your flying by removing the one profile to another a one-action change where
guesswork. While the airplane is transitioning, you possible. That is, make the change by only lowering
can divert some attention to other tasks, checking the gear or only reducing power. If you can’t make
back to see if the results are as expected. If they’re the change with a single action, then consider an in-
only slightly off, a small correction is easily applied. termediate step, such as extending the flaps during a
If they’re significantly off, it’s a heads up that some- level section of an approach so the actual transition
thing is awry. It could be as simple as a configuration from level to descent, for example, can be accom-
error—you forgot to lower the gear—or a malfunc- plished with a single action.
SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 37
Triangle of (Lost) Navigation Arts
Fro
mA
irp
ort
C
From Airports A to B

Normal
Difficulty

Safety
Crew

C
Airport
To

Pilotage and dead reckoning are the original navigation skills. Stay engaged and safer
by keeping these in your toolkit.

W hen you first dreamed of flying, it was all

about the view out the window. By now, how-
Flying IFR used to mean ”I Follow Railroads.”
Today, we have more roads than railroads, but either
ever, it’s likely your GPS and moving map has your way it’s a matter of looking at a map (even a digital
attention to the point of dependence. GPS means we map), and following a progression of ground land-
always know where we are on marks from where you are to
a moving map, but too often SAFETY NET where you want to be. Com-
it leaves us disengaged with pensation for winds is auto-
· Set a minimum safe altitude for each leg.
the flight happening outside matic if you’re simply follow-
the airplane. You can reclaim · Observe the rules for right-of-way and ing the river.
the excitement that fed your enroute altitudes. When landmarks are
dream to fly, and improve · Keep your focus primarily outside. more sparse, pilotage is sup-
your preparedness for emer- · If you can’t positively identify landmarks, plemented by short stretches
gencies, by practicing a bit of climb for a better vantage point. where you fly a heading for
pilotage and dead reckoning. a period of time while look-
38 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP
ing ahead for the next landmark. Chances are you oning from C back to A. Half of this exercise is in the
probably last did this during your private pilot cross planning. Start with a sectional chart. Tablet or paper
countries where you looked for landmarks every 15 is best, but a computer screen can work.
minutes or so, and you certainly used some amount
of correction in the heading you flew to keep you on Find the Right Airports
course for the wind aloft. Select an airport that you don’t often use (Airport A)
True dead reckoning involves flying a precise that has some major landmark you can follow in the
heading until a calculated time elapses, or you can direction of a second airport (Airport B). This could
double-check your position with a fix. With that up- be a wide river, road, canyon, other terrain feature, or
date, you can fine-tune your heading and estimate of combination of those things. Powerlines and railways
groundspeed to the next fix—which could be hours can be tough to spot unless they’re accompanied by a
away. It sounds impractical but this procedure is ac- clearcut through a forest.
tually quite accurate if done meticulously. It’s unlikely this will be a straight course. In fact,
it’s better if it isn’t. Using a sequence of measure-
Put On Your Old-School ments or some other method of estimation, compute
In this three-leg course, you’ll do all three: Follow the distance you’ll fly following the progression of
close landmarks from A to B, use landmarks as check- ground features you’ve chosen. It should be at least
points from B to C, and then fly purely by dead reck- one hour of flight time at your regular cruise speed
without factoring in the wind. Also find a
couple of prominent landmarks about 10
miles from Airport B.
From Airport B, plot a straight course
to a third airport (Airport C) so that you
end up with two sides of a triangle in the
route from A to B to C. This B-C route

Based on the view out the window alone

(don’t match up your heading), which
iPad position below is correct? That’s the
only way to know if you're on course.

SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 39

 To get precise timing that can match your
predictions, without tempting you to
rush a landing, count your arrival as the
moment you enter the traffic pattern.

online E6B calculators). You can also use

flight planning software. That’s OK; this
isn’t a math test.
You can plan landings at either or
both of Airports B and C as your fuel and
biological capacity requires. You’ll use a
stopwatch for timing, so you don’t need
to factor in takeoffs and landings. Your
should have good checkpoints every 10-15 minutes time will be from 1000 feet AGL on departure to
of flight time. The faster your airplane, the less time entering the pattern or crossing overhead the air-
you want between checkpoints. Measure the distance port as a turn-point.
for this straight-line route. Combinations of items,
such as “a town by the dam at the south end of a bell- Place Your Bets ... and then Fly It
shaped lake” make the best landmarks. If you’re using a tablet for your sectional chart, dis-
Finally, draw a straight-line return from Airport able the “Ownship” or equivalent location feature
C back to Airport A, and measure the distance. and any auto-centering. This includes disabling
Now that you have your routes, select your al- any trend lines or range rings, and MFD maps.
titudes based on terrain, regulations, and forecast This is a contest using your eyes, the static map,
winds aloft. That last part—the winds—must now be and the world outside, so hold back the “Rise of the
figured in as you calculate the time for each segment, Robots.” Turn off or cover all wind vectors on your
and the headings you need to fly for the second and avionics as well. You’ll have to make corrections for
third leg. You can use an old-school E6B to get the non-forecast winds using the “big instruments”:
full retro experience (there are several apps and free the world and your brain.

PUMP IT UP: NOW DO IT LOWER

Repeat leg one or two with a twist: You’re restricted only 1500 feet AGL. Which lake is that? (Hint: It’s the
to a VFR flight by ice, equipment, currency, or some same position as the image on that page, just lower.)
other reason—and, the ceiling is 2000 feet over- Of course, do this on a day and in an airplane,
cast with excellent visibility beneath. Landmarks will when you can climb to safety if you get lost along
be harder to find from this low altitude, towers can the way.
be harder to pick out
against the background
scenery, and you may
need to deviate from
Elevated a direct course to meet
Difficulty minimum safe altitude
requirements.
The image to the
right is from one of the
Safety two positions shown on
page 39, but it’s from
Crew

40 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP

 Depart from Airport A and have your safety pi- SCORECARD
lot start the timer as you leave pattern altitude. Follow
the ground references to Airport B. You’ll notice how It’s all about prediction and precision for a high
accurate VFR charts are. Bends in highways are to score on this one. No matter what you score,
scale. The outline of cities and towns is pretty precise. you’ll probably feel more engaged in the flight
You can tell one lake from another by its shape, how a than you have been in years.
stream flows in or out, where a power line crosses the
water. Track your location and get a sense of how close Altitude control for all level sections:
your actual performance is to the estimate. 1: ±40' of desired in cruise
Keep your safety pilot scanning for traffic; you’ll 0: >40' of desired in cruise
be a bit distracted. Flying to the right of landmarks
keeps them visible and separates you from traffic us- Heading control on legs two and three:
ing the same landmark to fly the opposite direction. 2: Heading ±5° of expectation
With your head mostly out of the cockpit, you 0: Heading >5° from expectation
may need to re-learn how to hold altitude. Cross-
check the altimeter, of course, but see how well you Number of heading corrections on leg
can maintain altitude by outside visual reference. two:
As you enter the pattern or cross over Airport 1: No more than 2
B, stop the timer and note the time for leg one. Make 0: >2
any mental corrections you want to better predict the
time for leg two. Time to find airport and enter pattern
Start a fresh timer for leg two as you head out at the end of leg three:
on your calculated heading to Airport C. Try to cross 1: 5 minutes or less
over each waypoint, and note the time of the cross- 0: >5 minutes
ing. You can adjust your heading and estimated time
for the remaining distance as needed. When entering Difference in actual time of the three-
the pattern, stop the timer and write down that time. leg flight compared to estimate:
Make any final tweaks to your wind estimate and 1: ±15 minutes
apply them to the heading for the last leg. When the 0: >15 minutes
timer is started for this leg, don an IFR hood or other
view-limiting device, and fly your calculated heading. Total Score for Triangle of (Lost)
This is your only navigation source for an hour with Navigation Arts:
no correction, so take into account even the single
degree corrections of your compass card, if you don’t
have a slaved or digital HSI. Have your safety pilot weather, and helps you find an airport from farther
keep track of airspace and other traffic, and give them away. This exercise helps build a pervasive, consistent
radio responsibility as needed for this leg. awareness of what’s around you, including nearest
When you reach the expected time over Airport airports that’ll be useful in case of emergency.
A, remove the hood and look down. Hopefully it’ll be What’s more, looking outside is essential to see
right there. If there’s no airport there, have your safety and avoid traffic. Traffic displays tell you where to
pilot keep track of how long it takes from removing look for conflicting aircraft, but they don’t display ev-
the hood to finding that airport using nothing but the erything in the air. That will be true even after the
non-moving map. ADS-B mandate is complete.
Finally, this exercise immerses you in the flight
Why Abandon a Perfectly Good GPS? like little else can. Watching—really watching—the
Even when you have the amazing capability of GPS world unfold beneath your wings might put a little
and moving map to help you find your way, watch- shine back into flying that can get dull in the magenta
ing outside helps you avoid traffic, obstacles, adverse glow of using Direct-To GPS navigation.
SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 41
Ceiling (un)Limited

Your airplane has a service ceiling. But have you ever flown that high?

S ervice ceiling is the altitude at which the airplane

is capable of sustaining a 50 fpm rate of climb. It’s
not an altitude you’d fly for any purpose other than
Study the Symptoms, Hit the Books
If you climb high, you’ll be subject to hypoxia, so
get familiar with the signs and symptoms. How and
bragging rights. However, getting there re- when it manifests differs for everybody. Don’t
quires flight at precise airspeeds, meticulous assume the FAA regs on oxygen use keep you
engine management (mostly leaning), and safe. Everyone has a different altitude above
reveals truths about true airspeed and con- which they succumb. For some people, it’s be-
Elevated
trol authority which apply to lower altitudes low 10,000 feet. Take a free online course on
as well. Difficulty aviation hypoxia on the FAASafety.gov or the
This exercise assumes an unpressurized AOPA Air Safety Institute website.
airplane. If you fly a pressurized airplane, Verify any altitude limitations for your
there might still be a “high-ish” cabin alti- airplane. Unless you’re still within 2500 feet
tude near your service ceiling, but you’ll of the surface out in the western mountains,
want an instructor with high-altitude expe- Instructor a Mode-C, -S, or ADS-B transponder is re-
rience to assist in that exploration. Crew quired above 10,000 feet. BasicMed is limited
42 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP
 a maximum certificated altitude, frequently 25,000
feet. RSVM limitations apply to many airplanes at
27,000 feet, if they aren’t ADS-B compliant. Respect
any limitation that applies to you and your airplane.
Check your oxygen system before and during
flight to ensure proper operation. Just getting com-
fortable with oxygen is a side benefit to this exercise.
There are plenty of situations when oxygen is a huge
safety boon even for extended flights in the low teens.
If your airplane is capable of flying over 18,000 feet,
you’ll want masks for oxygen rather than nose can-
nulas.
For the challenge itself, you’ll make a guess as to
how high you can fly that day (but no higher than any

SCORECARD

That’s all she’s got (left). Note the diminished air- This exercise requires a bit of planning to make
speed, lack of climb rate, and low rpm. It’s still high- predictions and then testing them in flight. There
er than you’d guess from the manual alone (above). are many factors that might cause correct math to
yield lower scores on the first three criteria. Don’t
to below 18,000 feet, as is almost all VFR flight. So take that as a reflection on your air work—but do
the PIC must have an FAA medical certificate and an celebrate if you nail it.
Instrument Rating.
You’ll need an IFR clearance to climb above Reach the predicted service ceiling:
18,000 feet. Because you’re not flying anywhere in par- 1: Within 1500' or above
ticular, the best way to file is usually to a navaid some 0: >1500' below
distance from your airport. Once enroute, you can ex-
plain to the controller what you’re actually doing. Reach the predicted true airspeed:
Many airplanes’ altimeters are tested to 20,000 1: ±10 knots
feet maximum, making that altitude a limitation. 0: Off by >10 knots
Often turbocharged and pressurized airplanes have
Reach the predicted groundspeed:
1: ±20 knots
SAFETY NET 0: Off by >20 knots
· Find an instructor comfortable with this exercise,
Altitude control in thin-air 360° turn:
and knowledgeable with high-altitude opera-
1: ±100'
tions, including supplemental oxygen use.
0: >100'
· Complete an AOPA or FAA online course about
hypoxia before flying this exercise. Stall awareness in thin air:
· Bring a pulse oximeter and verify the operation 1: No sudden increase in descent rate
of your oxygen equipment before takeoff. 0: Rapid increase in descent rate or
· Adhere to airplane altitude limitations. stall
· Descend for any signs of hypoxia, or if cylinder
Total Score for Ceiling (un)Limited:
or oil temperatures approach limits and won’t
cool during level-off.

SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 43

 can extrapolate a bit to where the curve gets flat.
What altitude is that?
That altitude assumes a standard day. To correct,
reference the winds and temps aloft, and use a flight
calculator to find the pressure altitude you can actu-
ally reach this day. If you just want to estimate, den-
sity altitude increases or decreases about 120 feet for
each degree C from standard. Take your best guess
A long slog to altitude and put it on paper.
will tax cylinder-head You’ll climb at Vy but that also decreases with
and oil temps. Level altitude. As a general rule in many airplanes, reduce
off at intermediate al- Vy a knot or two for every 1000 feet of altitude until
titudes as needed. Also about 10,000 feet. Use that for the rest of the climb.
watch your remaining True airspeed also increases with altitude, so correct
oxygen. It’s easy to lose that indicated speed of Vy for the altitude you think
track of how long you've you’ll reach to get your estimated true airspeed up
been climbing. high. Write that down, too. Finally, use the forecast
winds to guess the groundspeed you’ll hit, if you fly
POH limit). Reference downwind. Put that on paper.
your aircraft manual for
guidance on leaning for maximum horsepower. That Climb, Climb, Climb
guidance rules. But if there is no guidance and you’re Take off and begin your climb. It’s best to do this in
flying a normally aspirated engine, find the altitude clear skies, but if there are clouds, remember that
where full throttle and prop control full forward VFR minimums increase above 10,000 feet. Lean the
yields 65-percent horsepower. Above this altitude, mixture as appropriate for your engine to maintain
leaning for max RPM (max power) is usually safe for maximum allowed power for the climb.
the engine because the power generated is low. Because you’re climbing a long way, watch the
Also, look for any data on time to climb, which engine temperatures. Not only will the engine be
should give you rate of climb. It’s not linear, but you working hard for much longer, the thinner air of-

Don’t forget to enjoy the

view from 16,000 feet.

44 SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP

fers less cooling. It’s likely you’ll need
PUMP IT UP: FIND YOUR CRITICAL ALTITUDE
to level off periodically and cruise at a
higher speed to cool the engine. There’s A terrific number for you to know is the pressure
no time challenge here. Do what’s safe altitude where your blood oxygenation drops to
and won’t lead to premature engine 91 percent. This is the altitude where you should
overhaul. start using oxygen even if it’s below the altitude Normal
Monitor your oxygen saturation where oxygen is required. Difficulty
using the pulse oximeter. A good rule It’s easy to determine. Fly with a pulse ox-
of thumb is to use supplemental oxy- imeter and climb to 3000 AGL. Level off for at
gen any time your blood saturation least five minutes and test your O2 saturation. So
drops below 92 percent (see “Find Your long as you’re healthy and didn’t depart Lead-
ville, CO for this exercise, it should be above 91 Instructor
Critical Altitude, right). If you climb
above 12,500 feet, put on oxygen re- percent. Write it down next to the altitude. Crew
gardless of your blood saturation. Even Climb in 2000-foot steps, leveling off at each one for five
though you don’t legally need oxygen minutes to write down your O2 saturation. As you get close to 91
for 30 minutes, it’s easy to forget and percent, make them 1000-foot climbs. If you reach 12,500 MSL,
lose track of time. Monitor each other you can keep going up toward 14,000 for 30 minutes to see. Just
for symptoms of hypoxia, and call off mind the regulatory limits, and
the exercise at the first sign of hypoxia. put your instructor on oxygen.
Climb until your airplane either When you find the altitude
reaches a published limit, or will only where your oxygenation reach-
climb at 50 fpm and no adjustment to es 91 percent, note it. If you
mixture or airspeed will get it to climb want better precision, temporar-
faster. Adjust the throttle so you have ily change your altimeter setting to 29.92 to see pressure altitude.
zero rate of climb. This is the altitude for you to use O2 in the daytime. You may
Note the altitude. Check your true want to start lower at night as vision degrades even earlier. The
airspeed by reading it off the PFD, using beauty of knowing this number is that you’ll use oxygen before
the conversion ring on your airspeed your abilities degrade or you feel the onset of hypoxia.
indicator, or doing the math. Experi- Doing this test on a few different days will get an average
ment with a couple headings in the di- figure, which may change things a bit. However, it’s a surprisingly
rection that should be downwind (with consistent number for most people. It also has little to do with how
ATC permission, if in Class A airspace) in shape you are. It’s usually higher for people who live at high
and find your best groundspeed. altitude.
Pitching up will slow the airplane Ideally, you can also schedule and complete aviation physi-
and cause climb rate to decrease. A ology training and an altitude chamber “ride.” Search online for
turn will do the same. Do a complete “FAA altitude chamber ride.”
360 (again with ATC permission, if in
Class A airspace) holding a constant al-
titude by using bank angle and any remaining power in AOA (pitch down)—and start a stabilized descent
you have. If the turn is so shallow it would take all back to terra firma.
day, hold the turn for one minute. Feel how light the
controls are compared to flight in thicker air Why Fly High?
Roll wings level—and take a selfie with the al- Flying to the airplane’s service ceiling is not only for
timeter. Check those engine temps again and, if bragging rights at the next hangar party. It’s a test of
they’re still fine, then pitch up so the airplane slows precision flying and expert engine management. It’s
more. It will likely be descending now. Using rudder also a good excuse for learning more about aviation
for directional control, slow until 1.1 Vs or any indi- physiology and the symptoms of hypoxia that may
cation of an impending stall. Recover with a decrease affect you at altitudes well below what you thought.
SHARPEN THAT AIRMANSHIP 45
Mission: Impossible?

Elevated Instructor
Difficulty Crew

If your engine fails immediately after take- degrees of turn to successfully touch down on the de-
off, can you make the “impossible turn” parture runway.
It’s possible to turn around and land on the re-
and get back to the runway? Trying it out ciprocal runway from a surprisingly low altitude in
at altitude can be revealing. many airplane types. However, it requires instanta-
neous and near-perfect execution. And we know per-

I t’s a staple of hangar flying and internet chats: Do you

attempt a return to the runway you just departed if
an engine quits on takeoff? The FAA has openly called
fection is almost never the case in the real world.
Airline captain and air crash investigator Brian
Schiff proposed a specific exercise to determine when
such an attempt “the impossible turn.” Most flight in- it may be possible to make such a return, which you
structors teach landing straight ahead. Some advocate can try yourself.
attempting a return, citing the rare success or how it’s
routine for sailplane pilots. Try This Experiment
This exercise gives you hard data to determine Climb to an altitude where you could safely perform
whether, or when, getting back to the airport is a a power-on stall. Clear the area—both below and be-
“Mission: Impossible.” hind you—and then align
A 180-degree turn SAFETY NET the airplane with a prom-
actually puts the airplane inent road or other sur-
· Practice this exercise at a safe altitude.
on a track parallel to the face landmark that you’ll
runway, not back on it. · Reduce bank angle and/or G load at the first recognize because you’ll
To align, you’d continue stall indication. make a 360-degree turn
the turn toward the run- · Clear airspace including below and behind you back to it. (The reason for
way, perhaps another 45 before the maneuver. 360 degrees will be clear
degrees, and then turn 45 · Use this technique in a real emergency only if it is in a moment.)
degrees in the opposite riskier to land straight ahead. For reference, start
direction. That’s 270 total on an even thousand alti-
46 THWART THE EMERGENCIES
Starting from a known altitude (4000 feet 1
here) climb at Vy (1). At engine failure (4500
feet here), hold your pitch for five seconds (2).
Pitch down for Vbg and roll 45 degrees (3).
After 360 degrees of turn, pitch up for a flare
(4). The total altitude loss is what it would
take you reach your departure runway. This
airplane flared with only 10 feet to spare from
the “ground” of 4000 feet.

tude. This is simulated ground level. Begin with

the set up for a traditional power-on stall: Set
a normal takeoff configuration and slow to a
normal rotation speed, and then apply takeoff 2
power and pitch up to a takeoff climb attitude.
However, don’t pitch up further as you
might for a power-on stall. Instead, simulate a
sudden engine failure by having the instructor
reduce the throttle to idle. This doesn’t precise-
ly provide true engine-out performance, but is
much safer than actually failing your only en-
gine. The instructor should note the altitude at
which the simulated failure occurred, which is
your altitude above the simulated ground.

Don’t Do Anything 3
Next—and this is critical to the exercise—do
nothing but hold the normal climb attitude
pointed straight ahead for a full five seconds.
Research indicates that when faced with an un-
expected engine failure, pilots take about five

SEE IT IN THE SIM

Location: Santa Monica Municipal, Santa
Monica, CA (KSMO) Runway 21.
Conditions: Returning after the engine stops at
600' AGL. Scattered clouds, Winds 180 @ 6. 4

THWART THE EMERGENCIES 47

 The entire maneuver from the outside: 2
Climb (1), fail engine (2), wait five sec- 3
onds still flying straight ahead (3), turn
360 degrees (4), and flare (5). Hope you
finish at least as high as you started. 4

seconds to detect the problem, determine

SCORECARD
whether it requires a reaction, decide what
Your score is a combination of reaction and precision. You’ll the response should be, and then make a
react to power loss with a pitch down after the “startle re- control input. Research shows that during
sponse” to establish the right speed, then swing a 360-de- this five-second “startle event,” pilots tense
gree turn with minimal G-loading and a stable airspeed, be- up on the controls and subconsciously
fore finally flaring the airplane in a simulated landing on the apply back pressure to maintain a nor-
heading you started on. mal-looking departure attitude. All the
while the airplane is climbing and decel-
Establish correct pitch and speed: erating toward flaps-up stall speed with a
1: Vbg on first push slowly increasing G load.
0: Hunt for Vbg or stall horn After the five count, push the nose
down to the attitude that yields best glide
Maintain 45-degree turnback bank angle: (Vbg). It will be a significant forward
1: ±5° push, because you must regain lost speed
0: Variations >5° and accelerate to Vbg. In many airplanes,
this is about the same attitude that you see
Minimize altitude loss in 360° turn: on short final while making a short-field
1: <800' landing. (Tip: Practicing short field land-
0: ≥800' ings regularly helps prepare you for engine
failure on takeoff. )
Maintain Vbg in 360-degree turn: While pushing the nose down, simul-
1: ±5 knots during turn taneously bank 45 degrees. Most pilots feel
0: Variation > ±5 knots during turn, or stall horn more comfortable making left turns, so
bank to the left. Mathematics prove that a
Simulate touchdown on heading and under control: 45-degree bank is an optimal compromise
1: On heading ±5° in flare between rate of turn and altitude lost. As
0: Off heading >5° in flare long as you push the nose down firmly to
Vbg attitude, you will not increase G load
Total Score for Mission Impossible: significantly even at 45 degrees of bank,
thus stall speed is not increased noticeably.
Maintain coordination, bank angle,
48 THWART THE EMERGENCIES
and airspeed while you make a complete 360-degree There’s a natural desire to turn a crippled air-
turn to realign with your ground reference. When plane back to the departure runway. The accident
you’ve completed the 360, pitch to a flare attitude record shows that simply following the urge often
and see if this flare was above—or below—the virtual has disastrous results. However, as the areas around
ground. airports are becoming more built up with houses
and businesses, it leaves few (if any) options for an
Note the Required Altitude engine-out landing that doesn’t put persons on the
The amount of altitude lost in this maneuver, from ground at risk. Even if you can’t make it back to a
simulated power loss and “startle response” to the runway, it may be that your best bet is to attempt a re-
end of a 360-degree turn, represents the minimum turn to the airport area and land on the infield, a taxi-
altitude AGL from which you could attempt to return way or another runway. You’ll also want to turn into
to the runway if an engine quit on takeoff. This pro- any crosswind in most cases to minimize your lateral
vides a small buffer for safety given that in an actual distance traveled in the turn. This requires an assess-
emergency pilots may not fly as precisely as they do ment of the options and obstacles for your departure
during an exercise. runway before you depart, which is something all re-
Of course, you shouldn’t attempt the turn un- sponsible pilots should do.
less you have regularly practiced the maneuver. If you Knowing the minimum altitude for making it all
want this technique in your toolkit, practice this ex- the way back to the runway helps you decide a lesser
ercise periodically. Schiff also points out: “A turnback altitude where you’d at least have the option of reach-
should be attempted only when it is more hazard- ing the flat airport grounds. If nothing else, the rescu-
ous not to.” If you have options straight ahead or at ers can reach you more quickly and it keeps innocent
a slight angle, don’t attempt to return to the runway. bystanders out of the picture.

PUMP IT UP: LOW ALTITUDE TURN BACK

Set up at the airport of your choice and first try it wind and high ground speed in
with no-wind conditions and from the altitude you the opposite direction, so you
determined in the “Mission: Impossible” exercise. may go off the far end of the run-
You should be able to return to the airport and land. way. Turning into a crosswind re- Elevated
Note how being closer to the ground creates a duces your turn radius and also
strong urge to pull back on the controls. That’s a killer minimizes the total amount of Difficulty
in the real world. turn necessary to align with the
runway.
Experiment and find the min-
imum altitude needed to make it Sim Only
to the runway. Find the minimum
altitude that permits a 180-de-
Crew
gree turn back to the airport grounds. Just remem-
ber to delay five seconds each time. The danger
in doing these exercises is convincing yourself that
you’re an expert in turning back because you could
repeatedly do it in the sim. Remember that you were
expecting the failure and doing repeated practice.
Now add some winds. It’s best to use real-world It’s another animal if it surprises you in the real world.
winds so you can check them on your iPad or web Also try some straight-ahead and 90-degree
browser. Pick an airport with some interesting winds turns such as taking off toward the ocean and turn-
and try again. A strong headwind becomes a tail- ing to land on a beach.

THWART THE EMERGENCIES 49

No-Panel Landing Sure, your head is mostly outside in the
traffic pattern, but how well can you land
with no flight instruments at all?

Elevated
Difficulty

Instructor
Crew

50
50 THWART THE EMERGENCIES
F rom the first days of flight training, we’re taught
to watch our airspeed like a hawk on final. It’s a
worthy point: airspeed is a proxy for AOA on most
SAFETY NET

· Find an instructor experienced in this maneuver

light airplanes and exceeding critical AOA close to and comfortable performing it.
the ground (but above the landing flare) too easily · Go around for any stall warning or indication on
leads to a fatal stall. final approach.
Having an AOA indicator is an improvement, · Don’t actually disable or power down instru-
but these instruments can have common failure ments, and leave all system instruments and
points, so you still might find yourself landing with warning lights (oil temp, voltage, etc.) visible.
no airspeed indication some day. In fact, you might
have to land with no instruments at all. · Set a minimum remaining runway for a stop-and-
go. Stopping beyond that requires taxiing back
Start with Everything Except Airspeed for a fresh takeoff.
Step one is finding a runway that’s long enough for
a floating landing or a stop-and-go. You’ll want one
that’s at least twice as long as you require for a safe,
SCORECARD
full-stop landing.
Practice a few normal landings to a complete You can do this, but can you do it with style? To
stop on the runway. These could be stop-and-goes or score high, the attempt should seem effortless.
full-stops with a taxi back to take off. Do whatever
works best for traffic and available runway. Use a con- Pitch control on final to flare:
sistent aiming point, because these test landings pro- 1: Steady pitch attitude
vide a baseline for where the wheels touch down and 0: Multiple pitch changes
where you come to a complete stop. Do this at least (Any stall warning without go-around is 0 for the
three times so you have a good average. entire exercise.)
Pay close attention to the sound of your engine
on downwind, and again when you reduce power for Enter flare at same point as done on
landing. Extend flaps and landing gear (as applica- test landings:
1: Same position on runway
You’ll likely float the first few times, so choose a 0: Earlier, or >200' further
runway with more length than you’d need normally.
Distance from flare to touchdown (float-
ing) compared to tests:
1: 0-100' longer, or shorter
“Didn’t Know I was going that fast.”
0: >100' longer
Normal touchdown
Energy at touchdown:
1: Normal landing attitude
0: Flat attitude (or worse)

Position when fully stopped compared

to tests:
1: 0-300' longer, or shorter
0: >300' longer

Total Score for No Panel Landing:

THWART THE EMERGENCIES 51

ble) at consistent points in your pattern, and note the Your best method is setting the same power you
change in elevator trim necessary to maintain the de- used in the three previous patterns, extending gear
sired airspeed on downwind, base, and final approach. and flaps at the same places, and flying the same vi-
If you’re doing this at a towered airport, ask for sual glidepath. You just landed three times, so you
“the option.” This landing clearance takes the place of should have a good sense of the winds.
“cleared to land” or “cleared touch-and-go.” “Cleared Because you can’t see the airspeed getting low,
for the option” allows you to do any low-approach, any hint of a stall—buffet, stall horn, or even an odd-
touch-and-go, stop-and-go, or full-stop landing ly nose high attitude—requires an immediate go
without telling the tower which you plan. You’ll only around. There’s no scoring penalty for a go around,
get the option when traffic permits, but it’s the per- even from the flare. You’ll just fly another pattern and
fect clearance for practice landings at a towered air- do it again. If you go around, the instructor should
port. For non-towered operations, make sure there’s remove the instrument covers, allowing you to see all
enough room in the pattern behind you and an- flight instruments. Any systems warning, such as low
nounce that you’ll be a “stop-and-go, with a moment voltage is another reason to uncover the instruments.
sitting on the runway.” The common error isn’t approaching too slowly,
Once you have your landing technique dialed in, however. Pilots tend to land too fast without airspeed
fly another pattern, but this time have your instructor indication. As you transition to the flare, you may re-
cover the airspeed indicator (or tape) on the down- alize you have more energy than planned. Just as with
wind. If your airplane has an AOA indicator, cover any landing that’s flyable but a bit too hot, bleed off
that too. You’re simulating loss of data from the pitot the speed and accept the floating as long as you have
mast, so you won’t have airspeed or AOA indications sufficient runway remaining. Don’t force the plane
for the rest of the landing. down on the runway.

PUMP IT UP: TAKE NO-PANEL ON THE ROAD

After you’ve practiced this no-instrument landing technique, take it on
the road. In cruise flight, have your instructor cover the flight instruments,
tachometer and manifold pressure gauge (if equipped). Based on your
runway requirements, select an airport and descend for a landing with
no flight instruments at all. Have your instructor use an iPad or other
GPS-enabled device as a reality check on pattern altitude and air-
speed for flap or gear deployment.

Elevated Instructor
Difficulty Crew

52 THWART THE EMERGENCIES

 Power reduction by ear

Cover instruments
before pattern altitude
Descent by
sight picture
alone
Full panel for
takeoff through
turning crosswind

Normal Uncover
landing instruments

The standard rule is to have wheels on pavement Always launch with everything working, but cover
in the first third of the runway. The location of your the instruments before reaching pattern altitude.
abort point is your choice. Just make sure you leave
sufficient room for a complete stop. take a few stickies or dimming of displays. Just be
When it’s time to take off for another try, have sure the instructor is ready to uncover them quick-
the instructor reveal the airspeed indicator. ly—airspeed first—in the event of a go around.
You’ll level off at pattern altitude by sight picture,
Cover Just About Everything but you’ve done it several times by this point. Howev-
After a few circuits without a known airspeed, fly er, being just 100 feet off can mess with your landing
another, but this time on the crosswind have the energy. Do your best to put your wheels on your target
instructor cover all flight instruments plus the touchdown point, and come to a stop at or before the
tachometer and manifold pressure gauges. This might one you established in the test runs. Score the landing.

SEE IT IN THE SIM This Could Really Happen to You

Location: Wausau Downtown, Wausau, WI. Left Most light airplanes are one well-placed bug strike
traffic for Runway 13. away from losing airspeed indication. Losing all indi-
Conditions: Clear skies, winds unknown to keep it cations may seem unrealistic, but there are VFR air-
interesting. planes with only one display, including many LSAs.
Losing the display means you have no flight or engine
instruments.
Even if your airplane is immune to this total fail-
ure, standard power profiles and established check-
points in the pattern improve the consistency of your
landings. Consistency lets you fine tune any landing
for better results overall.
Flying entire patterns with nothing but sound
and sight picture is just fun as well. You’ll end up with
better landings, even with all instruments working.
THWART THE EMERGENCIES 53
Gliding Spiral to Landing

Elevated
Difficulty

Instructor
Crew

Pilots always say they’d just spiral down to

an airport if they had to, but how many ac-
tually practice the procedure?

M any of the maneuvers in the Airman Certifica-

tion Standards (ACS) have lost their roots in
real-world flight. The commercial Steep Spiral was
originally intended to simulate a descent after en-
gine failure within gliding distance of a landing spot.
But how is that practicing for an emergency landing
when you recover no less than 1500 feet AGL?
You can restore the intent by joining it with an-
other maneuver: the Power-Off 180-degree Landing.
The result is a spiral down from altitude that ends with
a power-off, full-stop landing. The real challenge—
and the point—of this exercise is manipulating speed,
bank, course, and drag to hit two target points as you

As you’re evaluating steep turns with power off at

something close to minimum-sink airspeed (above)
you'll learn how much altitude you need for each
360. An iPad can help with orientation (right).
54 THWART THE EMERGENCIES
The primary purpose of the controlled
spiral from altitude is to have this view
from High Key, looking down to Low
Key. You're positioned so that a single,
smooth 180-degree turn without pow-
er puts you at Low Key, which is short
final for your power-off landing.

descend. It’s easiest to think about these

targets in reverse order.

You Have Two Target Positions

To touch down in the right spot without
excess energy, you must pass through a point on short turn faster and complete the 360 sooner. For most
final at the right speed and in the right configuration, light GA airplanes, about 45-degrees bank and Vbg
aligned with the runway, having countered crosswind is approximately the minimum altitude loss for each
as needed, and on a power-off glidepath. This point is 360.
called low key. Because you’ll want to control your radius as
To reach low key without power (or low-altitude you circle your selected landing spot, you must adjust
aerobatics), you must pass through a point abeam low the airplane’s heading relative to the wind. This means
key yet 1000 to 1500 feet higher and displaced to the your bank angle must vary whether you like it or not.
side. This is high key. High key is the starting point for You’ll need to compensate for the wind to prevent
your 180-degree power off landing—and the ending losing too much altitude, or not enough, in each turn.
point for your steep spiral.
No Towers or Traffic Please
Do Some Test Flying You're about to approach an airport from directly
First, you need some data. Climb several thousand above in about as non-standard of a pattern as pos-
feet and determine the average altitude lost in your sible. Trying to explain this to a tower controller is
airplane for 90-, 180- and 360-degree turns at best probably not worth the effort. Trying to work this in
glide speed (Vbg). This lets you assess your progress at a busy non-towered airport is careless and reckless.
toward high key so you can alter your technique as Find a quiet, non-towered airport with few ob-
needed to make the landing. structions and no traffic. Climb at least 4000 feet AGL
You can adjust descent rate with airspeed and directly over the airport and reduce power to idle. It’s
bank angle. Flying faster than Vbg means you’ll lose a good idea to make at least one radio call for each
more altitude for each 360 degrees
of turn, but you’re also turning It’s essential to know how much altitude
faster. Slowing to a minimum sink each 360 will cost you at different bank
airspeed (usually about halfway be- angles and speeds. That way you can ad-
tween Vbg and stall speed) might just as you descend to reach high key.
reduce the altitude lost, or it might
not because it takes longer to make
the turn. You’ll need to experiment.
If applicable, you can also try differ-
ent prop positions.
Also test Vbg but with bank
angles as steep as 55 degrees. Ver-
tical speed will be greater with a
steeper bank angle, but you’ll also
THWART THE EMERGENCIES 55
time you make a revolution over the airport, prob- 9000 feet AGL. In that case, you combine gliding on
ably about the time you reach abeam the landing a direct course to the best landing option within glid-
spot (over high key). A call might sound like: "Muni ing range, and then spiraling down over that landing
Traffic, Cessna Three Papa Whiskey, over the airport zone to high key, low key, and the emergency landing.
3200, spiraling down for simulated engine-out land-
ing Runway Two Six. Muni Traffic." Save Perfect Circles For a Checkride
As you spiral down, your goal is to adjust your On the Commercial Pilot Practical Test these circles
airspeed, bank angle, course, and maybe even coor- should be equidistant from the airport. Forget about
dination, to pass through high key on altitude and that. You can shorten or lengthen them as much
airspeed. These adjustments are an acquired skill. as you need to hit high key. That’s all that matters.
They’re especially handy if you ever have to do this The point of hitting high key is only to have the best
for real and from a higher altitude, such as a cruise at chance of hitting low key, and landing safely.
However, try to pass over the approach end of
SCORECARD the runway on each turn. When you reach high key,
the next 180 will be to line up with the runway, so you
From over the airport you’ll spiral down to high might as well practice as you spiral down.
key, adjusting for wind to make as perfect a cir- Once you’ve reached high key, in this exercise
cle as you can. You’ll complete the Engine Failure or in an actual emergency, you’re committed to land-
in Flight emergency procedure. From high key, ing. That means you must complete your emergency
you’ll need to hit five criteria for low key: speed, checklist before high key, so fit that in during one of
configuration, runway alignment, drift correction, your circuits. Many real emergency landings could
and glide angle. Then you’ll touch down at or be- have been prevented, if pilots had developed the habit
yond your target, never short. of checking these critical items during flight training.

Spiral down to high key: From High to Low

1: Within ½ mile of runway Your high key should be somewhere between 1000
0: >½ mile at times and 1500 feet AGL, depending on the power-off de-
scent rate of your airplane. It should be offset from
Complete Engine Failure Checklist: the runway so a 180-degree turn will align you with
1: All steps in order final. And it should be along the runway relative to the
0: Missed steps or out of order landing zone you’ve selected. The 1000-foot marker is
usually a good landing zone to choose, if the runway
Hit the high key position at: has one. At high key that landing zone should be just
1: ± 10 knots and ±300' off your wing, or even a bit behind you. Pick a land-
0: >10 knots and/or >300' ing zone and verbalize it.
If you miss high key by more than 200 feet or are
Hit the low key position criteria: in the wrong position relative to the runway, abandon
1: Meet all 5 the approach and try again. Learning how to hit low
0: Any of the 5 not met key from a bad high key partially defeats the point.
From high key, make a continuous turn through
Wheels on landing target: a 90-degree point (a momentary base), all the way to
1: 0-200' beyond and soft touchdown rolling wings level at low key. Make it a uniform turn
0: Before or >200' beyond, or hard with a baseline of medium or slightly steeper bank,
touchdown but vary the bank as needed to reach low key without
risking an overshoot or a stall. Conserve or dissipate
Total Score for Gliding Spiral to altitude as appropriate to hit low key.
Landing: At low key, you should have flaps as appropriate
and gear down, be on target airspeed, aligned with
56 THWART THE EMERGENCIES
 SAFETY NET SEE IT IN THE SIM

· Use carb heat (if appropriate) and periodic veri- Location: San Diego International, San Diego, CA
fications that engine power is still available. (KSAN). Runway 27.
Conditions: Clear Skies. Wind 090 @ 15.
· Communicate your intentions during the maneu-
ver and discontinue for any traffic conflicts.
· Respect the traffic pattern direction for the land-
ing runway.
· Abandon the approach if you miss your targets at
high or low key.
· Assume actual engine failure could occur at any
time.

the runway. If any of these criteria aren’t met by low

key, go around and try again. Don’t try to salvage the Don’t Try This Alone
landing. If the airplane’s only engine is going to fail, cruise
From low key, it’s a power-off landing in the flight is the best place for it to happen. However, an
touchdown zone. Landing long isn't a terrible thing, unpracticed pilot could snatch defeat from the jaws of
as the landing would still be survivable. However, victory without a plan for positioning the airplane in
landing short is an outright zero on your scorecard. just the right spot for a successful, power-off landing.
Here’s a tip: Approach low key with partial flaps It’s tempting to practice this solo because it
if your airplane can land with that flap position. If doesn’t seem like the second person is needed, let
you’re going to end up short, wait until the landing alone an instructor. Resist that urge. You want a sec-
flare and then extend the remaining flaps in ground ond set of eyes for spotting traffic. You’re attention
effect for extra float to reach the touchdown zone. is divided between many tasks, so the chances for
If there’s any doubt about reaching the touch- missing something—like the landing gear—is high.
down zone, or you feel you’d land off-airport in an The instructor is also a good a safety check that your
actual emergency, go around, and climb to altitude. descent rate for the power-off landing isn’t excessive.
There are no partial points for coming up short, so They also had to do both these maneuvers on their
climb out and try again. checkride, so see how well they can do it.

PUMP IT UP: DO IT FROM UP HIGH AND IN SIMULATED IMC

Instrument pilots say they could use their moving map hood and try again. The instruc-
to spiral down to an airport if they lost their engine in tor should be ready to take the
the clouds. But how hard would that really be? controls and remedy a deterio-
Perform the entire Emergency Spiral to Landing rating situation if needed.
while under the hood from 4000 feet AGL all the However, if it all goes well High
way to low key. Use your instruments, GPS, iPad, to an approximate low key po- Difficulty
intuition, prayer beads, or whatever else you need sition, that person can call, “Look
to make it work. Your moving map is probably your up and land.” That’s your cue
best friend here, especially when flying from high to lift the hood and land on the
key to low key. runway, which should be directly
Have your instructor watch for traffic and ob- ahead and still within your glide Instructor
structions, as well as make the radio calls. If at any range from just a few hundred
Crew
time the instructor says to discontinue, take off the feet AGL. Good luck!

THWART THE EMERGENCIES 57

Handling Rejection

Too many pilots just open the throttle and then go along for the ride. What’s your system
to recognize a problem—and then abort the takeoff before it’s too late?

T hink back to the first takeoff on your first flying

lesson. Your flight instructor was in the defensive
position, but you didn’t notice. You poured
a stop on the remaining runway: insufficient engine
power, an obstacle on the runway ahead, an unusual
instrument reading, an open door or window
on the power, kept the airplane going more … the list goes on. No matter what, it’s better
or less in a straight line down the runway, to get stopped and deal with the problem on
pulled back, and flew. It may take hours of Normal the ramp instead of risking a high-speed col-
practice to master landing an airplane, but Difficulty lision, degraded performance, or just intense
our first lesson demonstrates that taking off distraction while you’re in flight.
is easy. Maybe that’s why we so seldom prac-
tice rejecting a takeoff before the wheels even Know What to Expect
leave the ground If you reject a takeoff, it has to be for a rea-
Any number of possible situations may Instructor son. That could be obvious, such as an ani-
prompt you to reject a takeoff and come to Crew mal or another airplane suddenly appearing
58 BONUS EXERCISES
ahead on the runway. But more likely it will be for SAFETY NET
something subtle, such as insufficient RPM. There’s
no way you’ll notice something like that if you don’t · Practice on paved, dry runways, long enough to
know what to look for, so step one is to make a list of reach Vr and still stop with ample room remaining,
what you expect to see on a normal takeoff roll. Us- 100 feet wide or wider, with minimal crosswind.
ing your airplane manuals, your experience, or even · Communicate your intentions clearly to Tower or
a test takeoff if need be, find out what the normal in- on the CTAF.
dications for your airplane should be. · Ensure there is no landing traffic behind you.
For example, if you have a fixed-pitch propeller
you won’t see full (redline) RPM when power is first · Only simulate engine failure in multi-engine air-
applied. It’s common to see only 2200-2300 RPM for planes below 50 percent Vmca.
a Cessna 172 at sea level until the plane starts mov-
ing. For a controllable-pitch propeller, you should see wheels. That’s simple in theory, but requires practice
full RPM. Make a list of the correct engine indica- to perform effectively.
tions of full power, or at least know what the “in the If your AFM or POH contains a Rejected Take-
green” indications are. off procedure, that supersedes any recommendations
You should also note your takeoff speed, which presented here. For example, it’s generally recom-
could be rotation, liftoff, or some other marker as ap- mended you don’t change flap position. Retraction of
propriate for your airplane, and your ini-
tial climb speed for the departure.
Finally, you should have a sense of EXPECTED PERFORMANCE
how much ground roll you’d expect and How do you know if the takeoff performance you’re seeing is
the obstacle clearing distance for any the takeoff performance you should be expecting? The first step
given takeoff. However, if you wait until is to hit the books for the airplane you fly. At the elevation of your
you’ve already used the expected ground home airport, determine the expected
roll and are still plodding down the run- takeoff power by noting:
way, that could be too late to abort. That’s •Propeller RPM (For a fixed-pitch
why there’s a common rule of thumb that propeller, that’s RPM at the beginning
the airplane should reach 70 percent of of the takeoff roll and, again, at
the liftoff speed no later than 50 percent takeoff speed)
of the estimated takeoff distance. •Manifold pressure (if applicable)
Use an airport diagram, aerial view •Fuel flow
of the airport, or just look out at the run- •Oil pressure and temperature
way to estimate where you’d expect to lift •Cylinder head temperature (CHT) or
off. Now find a second point that is half- pattern of CHTs
way between where you’ll start the take- •Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) or
off roll and that liftoff point. This is the pattern of EGTs
point where you should have 70 percent •Turbine inlet temperature (if
of your takeoff speed. So multiply the turbocharged)
takeoff speed by 0.7 to know what you Adjusting for elevation and temperature
should see on the airspeed indicator at differences, you should be seeing rough-
this point. ly the same “grouping” of indications
when you truly have full power. Gen-
Know What to Do erally speaking, if any of these values
Rejecting a takeoff requires three simple are well below the norm, there is either
actions: Reduce throttle(s) to idle; main- a problem with the engine or the configuration—that is, you’ve
tain directional control and; apply brak- forgotten to reset the mixture or prop controls.
ing as necessary without locking up the
BONUS EXERCISES 59
 A good mnemonic for items to check on
5
the takeoff roll is REACT: RPM correct
4 (1), Engine instruments green (2), Air-
speed alive (3), on Centerline (4), Take-
off before abort point (5).

3 Throw In the Element of Surprise

Now have the instructor randomly call
out something that would make you
reject the takeoff, such as low oil pres-
2 sure, or an animal on the runway. Reject
the takeoff while maintaining runway
1 alignment—or continue if no issue was
announced by your instructor. Perhaps
flaps may allow for greater braking, but the aerody- challenge your instructor to toss in an unexpected
namic braking of flaps also provides deceleration. takeoff rejection on some future flights.
Once you’re comfortable handling rejection,
Practice the Rejection Procedure you can try it under slightly more advanced circum-
It’s best to practice the rejection procedure itself so stances, such as wet or snow-contaminated runways,
you get the process down without locking up the significant crosswinds, or non-paved surfaces. Al-
wheels or losing directional control. Let Tower know, ways start with a test run that’s not a surprise with a
or announce on the CTAF, that this will be a “reject- rejection at first indication of airspeed.
ed takeoff,” sometimes abbreviated as an “RTO.” Then
line up on the centerline and apply takeoff power. As Why Bother With Rejection
the airspeed comes alive, smoothly retard the throt- While it’s true that a real-world rejected takeoff is
tle(s) to idle, stay on centerline, and apply increasing even more rare than a real-world go-around, it can
brake pressure. Raise the flaps if appropriate. Bring happen. If you’re unprepared, you’ll find yourself
the airplane to a complete stop on the runway. struggling to clear the trees, when you could have
Once stopped, note the distance used. The later been pondering a solution for the problem from the
you abort, the more distance you need to stop—and comfort of the ramp.
it goes up exponentially. Use this minimum distance
you just used as a reality check that you’re practicing
on a sufficiently long runway. SEE IT IN THE SIM
Location: St. Cloud Regional, St. Cloud, MN
Include the Rejection Criteria (KSTC) Runway 13 with a rejection after takeoff.
Taxi back to the hold short line and voice aloud the (See “Pump It Up: Engine Failure After Takeoff” on
items you’ll check, the speed you need by the abort page 61.)
point, and the speed you’ll fly after liftoff. Pull onto Conditions: Clear skies, winds calm.
the runway, apply takeoff power, and note the engine
parameters. If any are out of tolerance, abort.
As the airspeed comes alive, recheck the RPM,
fuel flow, oil pressure, and EGT(s). If any are out of
tolerance, abort. Voice aloud reaching 70 percent of
takeoff speed or 50 percent of takeoff distance, which-
ever occurs first. If it’s 50 percent of takeoff distance,
abort. Voice aloud when you reach takeoff speed and
take off. Come back around the pattern and land.
Taxi back for the final step.
60 BONUS EXERCISES
 PUMP IT UP: ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF
Pilots often say that if an engine fails on takeoff, reducing descent rate, especially
they’ll land on the remaining runway if conditions in low-wing airplanes.
permit. However, most pilots have never actually Now it’s time to add the fail-
tried this and have no idea how challenging it can ure at ever-closer points to the High
be or how much runway is actually needed. ground. Starting at the first brick Difficulty
The two essential things you must do to sur- of the runway, commence a nor-
vive landing straight ahead is push the nose down mal takeoff. When you reach
for a proper attitude and hold the wings level with 600 feet AGL, reduce the power
the rudder. The problem is that you’re already nose to idle, and then—after reducing
high with takeoff power. If you wait five seconds at power—pitch down for the atti- Sim Only
this attitude with no power, you’ll be near or at stall tude you used during power-off Crew
speed. It takes a bunch of forward pressure—and a 180s to landing. You’ll see airspeed dwindle until
few hundred feet of altitude—to even regain flying you pitch down and then a pretty stunning descent
speed without power. rate until airspeed has regained and stabilized.
While some instructors will do this exercise in Once it has, this is a power-off landing just like you
real airplanes, doing it wrong can easily result in previously practiced. If runway permits, land on the
damage to the landing gear or a runway overrun. remaining runway. Be sure to look out to the end of
Practicing the reaction at altitude in your plane with the runway as you descend rather than downward,
an instructor is fine, but for the landing use a sim. as the ground will seem to rush up at you.
Pick the longest runway you can. Ideally, it’ll be For most light airplanes, you’ll lose 300-500
10,000 feet or more. The higher performance your feet during that pitching down to regain airspeed for
airplane, the more distance you need. a power-off landing. If it seems too tight for a safe
Warm up with a few power-off 180s to land- landing, add power and go around. If there was
ing. Note the attitude in degrees nose down as you plenty of buffer, repeat the exercise, but this time re-
approach the landing. If you have flaps, do these duce power at 500 feet … then 400 … and so on.
power-off 180s with takeoff flaps. If your normal Always leave yourself enough room to regain flying
takeoff is flaps up, do them with the flaps up. Just as speed and make a safe landing with the margin of
you raise the nose to flare, extend full flaps to cush- extending full flaps for float just as you round out
ion the landing. This can be astoundingly effective in and flare.

BONUS EXERCISES 61
Aerial Triathlon

How well can you predict the speed and fuel burn of your airplane for either high
efficiency or high speed? How can you do effective flight planning if you don’t know?

G eneral aviation training emphasizes maneuvers

and procedures with success criteria measured
in altitudes, attitudes, airspeeds, and angles. Little
with a landing at the end of each leg. The first leg is
flown at normal cruise power. The second leg uses
best economy cruise power. The leg home is flown at
time is given to real understanding of aircraft engines. the fastest true airspeed you can achieve. You’ll pre-
Even the High Performance endorsement—which dict the total fuel burn and total flight time, and then
is all about operating big engines—doesn’t require compare your predictions to the results.
training on engine management technique.
As a result, pilots often use a Develop Your Cruise Profiles
single power setting all the time, Use your airplane’s cruise performance charts to de-
even when there are better op- termine a high-power cruise (throttle and propeller
tions. This lack of training even controls pushed most of the way forward) for your
Normal contributes to pilots running out airplane. This may be in your airplane manual as a
Difficulty of fuel because they think they’ve best-power setting, or you may find a setting for
got enough to go all the way. A maximum continuous power. Unless you have turbo-
little research and practice is all charging, the best speed you see will probably be at
that’s necessary to avoid this trap. low altitude. Figure out the altitude where you can get
You’ll prove your research the highest true airspeed.
Safety with an aerial triathlon. It’s a Next find a standard 65-percent power cruise
Crew three-leg cross-country flight setting. This is probably close to the power setting you
62 BONUS EXERCISES
use most of the time. The 65-percent cruise is a good
compromise between speed and fuel burn. Because
this power setting can usually be generated up to
6000 feet or so even in non-turbocharged airplanes,
find the altitude where wide-open throttle is 65-per-
cent power. (Tip: Some carbureted airplanes are more
efficient with a slight deflection of the throttle instead
of wide open. The slightly closed throttle creates tur-
bulence that can better mix the fuel and air and allow
for better leaning and smoother operation.)
Find your airplane’s economy cruise. This is
usually 50- to 55-percent power, which is slower than
we typically fly. However, flying at best economy can
save money on short trips when the time lost is insig-
nificant.
Check for any notes specifying the technique
or conditions necessary to get book performance
for each of these cruise settings. This should include
what to see on any engine instruments.
Your airplane may not have the instrumentation
you need for real precision. Cruise fuel burn is usu-
ally based on a mixture setting that is 25 degrees F
rich (cooler) of maximum, or peak, EGT. Yet the EGT Power settings make all the difference. Three po-
probe may have been an option you don’t have. Some tential cruise configurations for the Cessna 172SP:
larger engines provide recommendations that are 50 High power cruise (left), which gives good speed but
degrees F rich or lean of peak EGT on a specific cyl- prodigious (for a 172) fuel burn; typical cruise (cen-
inder (such as the first or last to reach peak). You’ll ter); and long-range cruise (right).
have to decide how much experimentation you’re
comfortable with, given your specific cockpit. airspeed off your PFD. Otherwise, you may need to
calculate it. Hopefully, this matches your expected
Reality Check Your Numbers, If Practical numbers. If not, note the corrected ones. Feel free to
If you have a fuel totalizer with a flow gauge, that’s experiment a bit with the power settings within your
a huge help in this exercise, because you can test fly aircraft limitations. Be sure to record how long you
all three profiles in a short time. Fill your tanks and spent at high-power.
measure the amount with a dipstick if you can. This is Do the same for 65-percent power cruise and
to ensure you start with a known quantity. economy cruise. Correct your engine settings and
Launch and configure for high-power cruise. resulting performance for these two settings as well.
If you have an autopilot, engage it in altitude and (Even if you stop this exercise at this point, you’re
heading modes. After a few minutes to let everything way ahead of many pilots by just understanding these
stabilize, note your fuel flow, indicated airspeed, and three potential cruise settings.) Record how long you
true airspeed. If you’re lucky, you can just read true spent at these two power settings as well.
When you return to the airport, you should
know how long you spent at each power setting, and
SAFETY NET about how much fuel you burned by estimates. You
· Monitor fuel closely. Your highest fuel burn will can compare that to what your fuel totalizer says and
be on the last leg of the exercise. Add fuel at the what your fuel tank dipstick reports to check that ev-
second airport if needed. erything agrees. If it doesn’t, check your calculations
or get your totalizer recalibrated.
BONUS EXERCISES 63
 going both ways, and there’s extra fuel burn for take-
off and climb that may not be offset during descent
and landing, but the two-way trip averages out some
of the potential errors. Repeat the trip at the other
two power settings to come up verified fuel burns and
true airspeeds.

Fly the Main Event

On a clear day with fairly light winds, plan a VFR
round-robin flight of three, roughly equal, 50- to 75-
mile legs. Each leg should be long enough to give you
some time in cruise, but short enough that you can
do the entire flight without refueling and still main-
tain healthy fuel reserve.
Plan the first leg at the 65-percent power cruise
setting, but at the altitude that gives you the shortest
time for leg one. That means you’ll have to balance
time to climb and descend versus the airspeed you’ll
Tools like ForeFlight are fair game for finding the get in cruise. Even light winds might matter. Estimate
best altitude and predicting fuel burn. But you’ll the time and fuel burn.
have to calculate each leg separately. Plan the second leg at best economy cruise set-
ting. Balance time to climb and descend against your
If you don’t have a way to see fuel flow ... it’s a true airspeed at this lower power setting. Any winds
bit tougher to verify your expected aircraft perfor- aloft are more important because they’re a higher
mance. You have two choices. The simpler choice is percentage of your true airspeed, so they have a big-
to do this test flight as just described but you won’t be ger effect. Estimate the time and fuel required.
able to record fuel flow. You can still verify indicated Plan the last leg at high-power cruise for the
and true airspeed. This time it’s critical you record the highest airspeed practical. You’ll probably be at lower
time spent on each power setting. When you’re done altitude, so pay extra attention to minimum safe alti-
with the flight, calculate the fuel consumed and com- tudes for the route. Estimate time and fuel.
pare to your consumed fuel according to your fuel Put it all together to predict your total fuel burn
dipstick. If it agrees, terrific. If not, you won’t know and total time from takeoff to touchdown for all three
which of your cruise settings is off, but you’ll know to legs combined. Double check your whole route and
adjust and maybe try again. landmarks to quickly acquire the airports visually
A more extensive test—and this is entirely op- for landing. Accurate navigation is clearly a must for
tional—is to plan a VFR cross-country flight of about meeting your predictions.
100 miles to a low-traffic airport with fuel available at Fuel up your airplane, taxi to the hold short line,
a price you can live with. Load full fuel on board and start your stopwatch, and depart. Fly the first leg at
start a stopwatch just before you add full power to the standard setting. Make a touch-and-go, or stop
depart. Fly to that airport at your high-power cruise the stopwatch while on the ground if a full-stop land-
setting. Enter the pattern, land, and taxi to the ramp ing is a better choice. Continue (or resume) timing as
without delay. Stop the stopwatch and write down you fly to the second airport at the economy setting.
your elapsed time. Top off the tanks and record the Do a touch-and-go or full stop, as before. Fly back
amount of fuel used. Or, use a dipstick to get an accu- home at the need-for-speed setting.
rate difference from the beginning of the flight. When you’ve completed your round-robin
Now fly back home, repeating the same proce- flight, record the total time. Top off the tanks to de-
dure. Average the fuel burn and true airspeed for the termine how much fuel you burned. See how well
two trips. A crossing wind can yield a net headwind your predictions match your reality.
64 BONUS EXERCISES
 PUMP IT UP: FIND YOUR SPEED
Maximum range airspeed for a piston engine is stronger the headwind, the faster
even slower than the book best economy profile. It’s you must fly to achieve maximum
possible that some day you’ll need to squeeze ev- range. A common rule-of-thumb
ery mile out of your airplane. However, it’s not just is to add half of the headwind
Normal
a matter of flying at a mind-numbing low speed. The component to the airspeed you
fly for max range. Difficulty
Climb to a lower cruise alti-
tude for your airplane and find
the lowest power setting that al-
lows you to sustain flight. This is
not the lowest airspeed at which
Safety
you can fly, it’s the lowest power Crew
setting. If your manual publishes a procedure for this,
use it. If not, experiment to find it (unless your air-
plane manual prohibits it). You’ll probably lean for
peak EGT, if you have the instrumentation. This will
be approximately your maximum range airspeed.
Plan a trip that would take 30 minutes at your
standard cruise speed, but plan it based on your
maximum range airspeed. The prediction is tough-
er because altitude really matters. Higher is often
better due to higher true airspeeds, but the winds
aloft may be against you. At such low speeds, winds
have a huge impact.
Depart and fly this trip. When you land, see how
much (or little) fuel you burned.

This exercise is even better when performed

as an air rally with several airplanes, each
carrying a pair of pilots. How well did each
team plan? The actual total time for the flight
and fuel consumed decides who buys dinner.

BONUS EXERCISES 65
Extra Scorecards

FIGURE 8S ON CROSSING RUNWAYS

Because normalization is the goal, you must visual- abeam point. If you can’t climb that high, see how
ize where you want to be in next few minutes. Scor- high you can before reaching abeam.
ing for Figure 8s centers on how well you hit those Score each circuit you make.
targets without after-the-fact corrections.
If your runway configuration allows, you can
also try to reach pattern altitude exactly at the

Join downwind without overshoot or

undershoot:
1: No corrections
0: Must correct alignment

Maintain constant distance from landing

runway on downwind:
1: Straight track over the ground
0: Weaving track over the ground

Join final without overshoot or

undershoot:
1: Roll out exactly aligned with final
0: Must correct to align with final

Have wheels contact on touchdown

target:
1: 0–100' beyond
0: >100', or -0' short

Touch down gently:

1: No shock
0: Bounce or jolt of any kind

Total Score for Figure 8s:

66 RESOURCES
 DRAGGING THE RUNWAY
The first part of your score comes from the short final an instant zero for the whole exercise, and should
position where you should have five criteria on tar- be a go-around.
get: speed (±5 knots), configuration, runway align- Lateral accuracy is by wingspan. Ideally keep
ment, drift correction, and glide angle. the target position left or right of centerline directly
The next two have you leveling off and slowing below your seat, but you’re allowed up to half way
down to targets you must maintain throughout the out to the wingtip. Finally, from the point where you
“dragging” section of the maneuver. You can adjust begin the go-around, you should be climbing and
the scoring for either if you choose to fly a different reconfigured before traveling 1000 feet further
speed or target altitude. Contacting the runway is along the runway.

Meet targets on short final (see above):

1: Meet at least 4 criteria
0: Meet 3 or fewer criteria

Maintain target altitude in low pass:

1: Always 15-30' AGL
0: Ever 1-15' or >30' AGL

Maintain target airspeed in low pass:

1: ± 5 knots throughout
0: >5 knots fast or slow at any time

Fly right, left, or on centerline:

1: Within half a wing left or right
0: More than half a wing left or right

Complete the transition from low pass to

climbing, clean, go-around:
1: Within 1000' of initiation
0: Late start, or >1000'.

Total Score for Dragging the Runway:

RESOURCES 67
 FLY A PERFECT PAT TERN

Scoring for the perfect pattern is based on the five can score that as well. It’s said that a perfect land-
parts: Departure, Crosswind, Downwind, Base, ing comes from a perfect approach, so a high score
and Final. There’s no score for the landing, but you here should yield some good results.

Departure—Climb at Vx or Vy, turn

at 700' AGL, track extended runway
centerline:
1: -0/+5 knots, ±5° track, turn ±20'
0: Exceed any of the above

Crosswind—Vy to pattern altitude, track

perpendicular to runway:
1: ±5 knots, ±5° track
0: Exceed any of the above

Downwind—Pattern airspeed & altitude,

desired distance from runway:
1: ±5 knots, ±20', ± ¹/8 mile
0: Exceed any of the above

Base—Descent airspeed, vertical speed,

track perpendicular to runway:
1: ±5 knots, ±100 fpm, ±5° track
0: Exceed any of the above

Final—Join final, then from 400' AGL

to flare on airspeed, alignment, vertical
path:
1: -0/+5 knots, ±5°, on glidepath
0: Exceed any of the above, or overshoot final

Total Score for Fly a Perfect Pattern:

68 RESOURCES
 ROLLS ON A HEADING

The first three factors in your score are ones you’re Can you hold that speed, altitude, and—most frus-
used to as a pilot: speed, altitude, and heading. tratingly—heading still, while making the airplane
They remain fixed as if you were flying straight and roll left and right in rapid succession? How much
level. bank is up to you. We suggest 30°, then 45°, then
The next two rely on precision and symmetry. 60°, but less bank isn’t always easier.

Maintain target airspeed:

1: Within ±5 knots
0: Deviations >5 knots

Maintain target altitude:

1: Within ±20'
0: Deviations >20'

Maintain heading:
1: Within ±4°(Less than a tick mark)
0: Deviations >4°

Attain roll symmetry left and right:

1: Maximum banks ±5° of each other
0: Maximum banks differ by >5°

Roll rate:
1: Consistent rate throughout
0: Inconsistent rate throughout

Total Score for Rolls On A Heading:

RESOURCES 69
 FIXED-WING HOVER

The scoring happens once you’re established at holding a constant altitude or while making a
MCA, heading into the wind that you need. You 1000-foot change in altitude (while at MCA).
can tally your score for a fixed-wing hover while

Stall warning throughout exercise:

1: Constant stall warning
0: Intermittent stall warning or stall

Altitude (or descent rate) at MCA:

1: ±50' (or ±100 fpm)
0: Deviation >50’ (or >100 fpm)

Coordinated flight while at MCA:

1: ±½ ball width or PFD “line”
0: >½ ball width or PFD “line”

Desired heading while at MCA:

1: ±5°
0: >5°

Achieve hover for one minute:

1: Groundspeed <5 knots
0: Groundspeed ≥5 knots

Total Score for Fixed Wing Hover:

70 RESOURCES
 SHIFTING THE BALANCE

This scoring happens after two flights in two heavy and loaded more aft. The less the difference
different conditions. High scores come from between doing a task in both conditions, the higher
consistency in your performance when the airplane the score.
is light and forward in C.G. compared to when it’s

Difference in average altitude lost in

recovery from takeoff stall:
1: <100'
0: 100’ or greater

Difference in average altitude lost in

recovery from landing stall:
1: <100'
0: 100' or greater

Difference in greatest altitude lost in

recovery from either kind of stall:
1: <100'
0: 100' or greater

Difference in touchdown points:

1: <100'
0: 100' or greater

Difference in total landing distance:

1: <15%
0: 15% or greater

Total Score for Shifting the Balance:

RESOURCES 71
 BACK-TO-BACK WINGOVERS

The scoring for wingovers requires noting your air- When you’re ready for back-to-back, note
speed, altitude, and heading before you start the those three items at the start, after one course
maneuver and when you’ve reversed course, so be reversal (middle), and when you’re back on the
sure to have these stabilized before you begin. The original heading (end). Also note how high you
first time you try, you’ll do one course reversal and climb in each turn and whether you need to “fix”
just compare your airspeed, altitude, and heading your heading at the very end.
between the start and finish.

Difference in airspeed at start, middle,

and end:
1: ±5 knots
0: >5 knots

Difference in altitude at start, middle, and

end:
1: Difference ±100'
0: Difference >100'

Difference in heading at start, middle,

and end:
1: Difference ±5°
0: Difference >5°

Difference in altitude at two high points:

1: Difference ±100'
0: Difference >100'

Roll to wings level at completion:

1: No pause in rolling back to level on
original heading
0: Pauses or increases bank at end to reach
original heading

Total Score for Back-to-Back

Wingovers:

72 RESOURCES
 FINDING THE NUMBERS

After generating the numbers for your airplane, test Descending below MDA or failure to start a
the results with this scorecard. Each transition has a missed approach at DA is a zero for the “Tran-
score, and the smoother you can transition without sition to missed approach” score—and could be
oscillating around the new target values, the more a penalty punishable by death during a real ap-
likely you’ll score a point. proach.

VS and IAS Cruise to Enroute Descent:

1: 500 fpm, ±10 knots
0: Overshoot: >600 fpm or >10 knots

Enroute Descent to Approach Level on

target altitude:
1: +50’ and ±5 knots
0: Overshoot >50’ or >5 knots

Approach Level to Precision or Non-

Precision Approach targets:
1: No altitude gain before descending,
then ±5 knots, ±100 fpm
0: Alt gain or overshoot >5 knots, >100 fpm

Level off at MDA during a non-precision

approach:
1: MDA +50'/-0' and ±5 knots
0: >MDA +50', >5 knots, or below MDA

Transition to missed approach climb:

1: Single pitch change, ±5° heading
0: “Hunt” for correct pitch or >5°
heading

Total Score for Finding the Numbers:

RESOURCES 73
 TRIANGLE OF LOST NAV ARTS

It’s all about prediction and precision for a high probably feel more engaged in the flight than you
score on this one. No matter what you score, you’ll have been in years.

Altitude control for all level sections:

1: ±40' of desired in cruise
0: >40' of desired in cruise

Heading control on legs two and three:

2: Heading ±5° of expectation
0: Heading >5° from expectation

Number of heading corrections on leg

two:
1: No more than 2
0: >2

Time to find airport and enter pattern at

the end of leg three:
1: 5 minutes or less
0: >5 minutes

Difference in actual time of the three-leg

flight compared to estimate:
1: ±15 minutes
0: >15 minutes

Total Score for Triangle of (Lost)

Navigation Arts:

74 RESOURCES
 CEILING (UN)LIMITED

This exercise requires a bit of planning to make pre- lower scores on the first three criteria. Don’t take
dictions and then testing them in flight. There are that as a reflection on your air work—but do cele-
many factors that might cause correct math to yield brate if you nail it.

Reach the predicted service ceiling:

1: Within 1500' or above
0: >1500' below

Reach the predicted true airspeed:

1: ±10 knots
0: Off by >10 knots

Reach the predicted groundspeed:

1: ±20 knots
0: Off by >20 knots

Altitude control in thin-air 360° turn:

1: ±100'
0: >100'

Stall awareness in thin air:

1: No sudden increase in descent rate
0: Rapid increase in descent rate or stall

Total Score for Ceiling (un)Limited:

RESOURCES 75
 MISSION IMPOSSIBLE?

Your score is a combination of reaction and preci- G-loading and a stable airspeed, before finally
sion. You’ll react to power loss with a pitch down flaring the airplane in a simulated landing on the
after the “startle response” to establish the right heading you started on.
speed, then swing a 360-degree turn with minimal

Establish correct pitch and speed:

1: Vbg on first push
0: Hunt for Vbg or stall horn

Maintain 45-degree turnback bank

angle:
1: ±5°
0: Variations >5°

Minimize altitude loss in 360° turn:

1: <800'
0: ≥800'

Maintain Vbg in 360-degree turn:

1: ±5 knots during turn
0: Variation > ±5 knots during turn, or
stall horn

Simulate touchdown on heading and

under control:
1: On heading ±5° in flare
0: Off heading >5° in flare

Total Score for Mission Impossible:

76 RESOURCES
 NO-PANEL LANDING

You can do this, but can you do it with style? To score high, the attempt should seem effortless.

Pitch control on final to flare:

1: Steady pitch attitude
0: Multiple pitch changes
(Any stall warning without go-around
is 0 for the entire exercise.)

Enter flare at same point as done on test

landings:
1: Same position on runway
0: Earlier, or >200' further

Distance from flare to touchdown

(floating) compared to tests:
1: 0-100' longer, or shorter
0: >100' longer

Energy at touchdown:
1: Normal landing attitude
0: Flat attitude (or worse)

Position when fully stopped compared to

tests:
1: 0-300' longer, or shorter
0: >300' longer

Total Score for No Panel Landing:

RESOURCES 77
 GLIDING SPIRAL TO LANDING

From over the airport you’ll spiral down to high key, to hit five criteria for low key: speed, configuration,
adjusting for wind to make as perfect a circle as runway alignment, drift correction, and glide angle.
you can. You’ll complete the Engine Failure in Flight Then you’ll touch down at or beyond your target,
emergency procedure. From high key, you’ll need never short.

Spiral down to high key:

1: Within ½ mile of runway
0: >½ mile at times

Complete Engine Failure Checklist:

1: All steps in order
0: Missed steps or out of order

Hit the high key position at:

1: ± 10 knots and ±300'
0: >10 knots and/or >300'

Hit the low key position criteria:

1: Meet all 5
0: Any of the 5 not met

Wheels on landing target:

1: 0-200' beyond and soft touchdown
0: Before or >200' beyond, or hard
touchdown

Total Score for Gliding Spiral to

Landing:

78 RESOURCES
See It In the Sim

C ustomers can login at pilotworkshop.com and

find the Pilot Exercise Program within My Cock-
pit. You’ll have access to the videos of these exercises
as flown by a CFI, and also an online scorecard to
track your progress.

RESOURCES 79
 IFR Performance Profiles for Trainers and Light Singles from IFR: The Missing Lessons

RESOURCES
Vertical
Operation Power Pitch Config. Airspeed Notes
Speed
Vy Climb
Cruise
Climb
Cruise
Descent
Approach
Level
Precision
Approach
Profiles for Single-Engine

Non-Precision
Approach
Level at
MDA
Missed
Approach
Always use a safety pilot or instructor when recording these profiles in flight

80
 IFR Performance Profiles for High Performance and/or Two Engines from IFR: The Missing Lessons
Operation Power Pitch Config. Airspeed Vert. Speed Notes

RESOURCES
Vy Climb

Cruise
Climb

Cruise

Descent

Approach
Level 1
Approach
Level 2
Precision
Approach
Non-Precision
Approach
Level at
MDA
Missed
Approach
SE Approach
Level
Profiles for High-Performance & Multi-Engine

SE Precision
Approach
SE Level at
MDA
SE Missed
Approach

Always use a safety pilot or instructor when recording these profiles in flight

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