Stability Analysis of Retaining Wall

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Retaining wall stability analysis ensures a wall remains stable under various loads and
conditions, preventing failures like overturning, sliding, or bearing capacity failures. The
background involves understanding the forces acting on the wall, including lateral earth
pressure, vertical loads, and potential seismic forces. Analyzing these forces, along with soil
properties and wall dimensions, allows for the determination of safety factors against these
failure modes. Retaining wall stability analysis has a rich background that involves
understanding the behavior of soil and structural mechanics. - Retaining walls have been
constructed for centuries, with ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
building walls to support hillsides, roads, and buildings. Early designs were based on empirical
methods and experience, with limited understanding of soil mechanics.

The development of modern soil mechanics in the 20th century, led by Karl Terzaghi and others,
provided a fundamental understanding of soil behavior and its interaction with structures.
Geotechnical engineering emerged as a distinct field, focusing on the behavior of earth
materials and their interaction with structures. - Retaining wall stability analysis involves
various analytical methods, including Coulomb's theory (1776) for calculating lateral earth
pressure. Rankine's theory (1857) for calculating lateral earth pressure. Limit equilibrium
methods for analyzing stability against sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity failure. -
Retaining wall design involves considering various factors, including Soil properties (e.g.,
strength, density, drainage). Wall geometry and material External loads (e.g., traffic, buildings,
seismic). Water pressure and drainage.

The ancient Egyptians also used retaining walls in their work, mainly to try to control the mighty
Nile River as it careened through their territory. In addition to trying to manage some of the
floodings that would occur, retaining walls would also be used to divert water for irrigation.
Stability analysis of retaining wall is influenced by loads which burden the structures. This load
in the mechanic analysis can be known as force. This force mainly can be divided into two kind,
lateral pressure and vertical pressure.

Retaining walls are designed to restrain soil, or engineering fill, at an angle steeper than the
material's angle of repose – the steepest angle it can hold naturally, without failing. To do this,
they need to be able to withstand the horizontal – or lateral – earth pressure, exerted by the

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material being retained. A retaining wall is a structure designed to hold back soil and prevent
erosion, typically on a slope where the natural angle of repose is too steep. These walls are used
to create level areas, support slopes, and allow for more efficient use of land, especially in areas
with significant elevation changes. Retaining walls has helped divert the flow of water from the
river into the fields and reservoirs. This also protected the homes within the path of the river.
Additionally, an ancient community in modern Ireland, Newgrange, Cairn also used retaining
walls 5,000 years ago.

A retaining wall serves to keep soil in place. This mostly applies to landscapes featuring small
hills where these walls act as a necessary barrier to prevent the soil from sliding forward in a
landslide. - Retaining walls have been constructed for centuries, with ancient civilizations using
them to support hillsides, roads, and buildings. Understanding soil behavior and properties is
crucial for designing stable retaining walls. Retaining wall design has evolved from empirical
methods to modern analytical and computational approaches. Retaining walls are a key
application of geotechnical engineering, which studies the behavior of earth materials and their
interaction with structures.

Retaining Wall Stability Analysis has its roots in ancient civilizations where structural failures
led to devastating consequences. Ancient Egypt built retaining walls along the Nile River
around 2500 BC to prevent flooding, while Ancient Rome constructed walls to support roads,
bridges, and buildings around 100 BC. The failures of retaining walls in the 18th century led to
the development of soil mechanics and structural analysis. Today, increasing urbanization and
infrastructure development require stable retaining walls, especially with natural disasters like
earthquakes, landslides, and floods highlighting their importance. This analysis saves lives and
properties, prevents soil erosion, and supports sustainable infrastructure development.

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1.2 Types of retaining walls

• Gravity Retaining walls: Gravity Retaining Walls rely solely on their weight to resist
soil pressure and prevent overturning or sliding. These walls are typically thick and heavy,
made of concrete, stone, or brick masonry, with a wide base that extends below ground
level. The weight of the wall counteracts the lateral force of the soil, ensuring stability.
Gravity walls are suitable for low to moderate height applications (up to 6 meters) and
are often used for landscaping, garden walls, and low-lying retaining walls. They are cost-
effective and easy to construct, but may not be suitable for areas with poor soil quality or
high seismic activity.

• Cantilever Retaining walls: Cantilever Retaining Walls consist of a vertical wall stem
connected to a footing slab, creating an L-shaped structure that resists soil pressure
through a combination of weight and leverage. The footing slab extends beyond the wall
face, counteracting overturning forces, while the wall stem withstands lateral soil
pressure. Cantilever walls are suitable for heights up to 10 meters and are often used for
bridge abutments, highway retaining walls, and industrial applications. They are cost-
effective, relatively easy to construct, and can withstand moderate soil pressures and
seismic activity.

• Counterfort Retaining walls: Counterforts are vertical ribs or buttresses that are added to
cantilever walls to reduce bending moments and shear stresses. They are often used for taller
walls where the load from the retained soil is significant. Counterfort Retaining Walls are a type
of cantilever wall reinforced with counterforts - triangular or rectangular buttresses - that extend
from the footing slab to the wall stem. These counterforts increase the wall's resistance to soil
pressure, overturning, and sliding, making them suitable for taller heights (above 10 meters)
and poor soil conditions. Counterfort walls are often used for heavy-duty applications like
highway retaining walls, industrial facilities, and high-rise building foundations.

• Anchored Retaining walls: - Anchored Retaining Walls use anchors or ties that extend
from the wall face into stable soil or rock beyond the failure zone, providing additional
resistance to soil pressure, overturning, and sliding. These anchors are typically made of
steel cables or rods, grouted into place, and prestressed to ensure maximum stability.
Anchored walls are ideal for soft or unstable soil conditions, high wall heights, and areas

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with limited space for counterforts or wide footings. They offer excellent flexibility,
minimal disturbance to adjacent soil, and cost-effectiveness for complex projects, but
require careful design and installation to ensure lasting stability.

• Pile Retaining walls: - Pile Retaining Walls consist of a row of piles (deep foundations)
connected by a capping beam or wall panel, resisting soil pressure and transferring loads
to stable soil or rock deep beneath the ground surface. These piles can be made of concrete,
steel, or timber, and are installed using drilling or driving methods. Pile retaining walls are
suitable for deep excavations, soft or unstable soil, and areas with high water tables. They
offer excellent stability, minimal settlement, and resistance to seismic activity, making
them ideal for construction projects like bridges, tunnels, and high-rise buildings.
However, they can be costly and require specialized installation equipment.

• Sheet Pile Retaining walls: - Sheet Pile Retaining Walls consist of interconnected steel
sheets driven into the ground to form a continuous wall, resisting soil pressure and water
ingress. These sheets are typically made of steel (u-shaped or z-shaped) and are installed
using vibratory hammers or presses. Sheet pile walls are suitable for waterfront
constructions, bridge abutments, and deep excavations near water tables. They offer
excellent resistance to soil pressure, water tightness, and ability to withstand seismic
activity.

• Basement Retaining walls: - Basement Retaining Walls surround basement areas to resist
soil pressure, prevent water ingress, and support adjacent structures. These walls extend
below grade level, typically made of concrete masonry, insulated concrete forms (ICFs),
or permanent steel panels.

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1.3 Failure Modes: -

 Overturning Failure: Overturning Failure occurs when a retaining wall rotates about
its toe due to excessive soil pressure, causing the wall to collapse or topple over. This type
of failure happens when the moment of soil pressure behind the wall exceeds the resisting
moment of the wall's weight and any other resisting forces. Factors contributing to
overturning failure include High soil pressure due to waterlogged or soft soil. Insufficient
wall weight or footing size. Poor wall design or construction. High wall height relative to
its base width. Seismic activity or external loads. If the moment of soil pressure exceeds
1.5 times the resisting moment, the wall is likely to overturn. Engineers use factors of safety
ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 to prevent overturning failure in retaining wall designs.

 Sliding Failure: Sliding Failure occurs when a retaining wall moves horizontally along its
base due to inadequate friction or excessive soil pressure, leading to loss of support and
potential collapse. This type of failure happens when the shear force of soil pressure
exceeds the sliding resistance of the wall's footing, including: Friction between footing and
soil. Cohesion of soil beneath footing. Weight of wall and footing. Factors contributing to
sliding failure .Soft or clayey soil with low friction. High water table or saturated soil.
Insufficient footing size or depth. Poor wall design or construction .Seismic activity or
external loads.

 Bearing Capacity Failure :Bearing Capacity Failure occurs when the soil beneath a
retaining wall's footing fails to support the loads imposed on it, causing settlement or
collapse of the wall. This type of failure happens when the weight of the wall, soil pressure,
and any external loads exceed the soil's bearing capacity, including: Soil shear strength.Soil
compressibility. Foundation depth. High water table or saturated soil.Insufficient footing
size or depth.Poor wall design or construction.Excessive wall height or loads.

 Settlement Failure :Settlement Failure occurs when a retaining wall experiences

excessive settlement or movement due to poor soil conditions, inadequate design, or
construction issues, affecting its stability and adjacent structures. This type of failure
happens when Soil compresses or consolidates excessively under wall load. Foundation
soil lacks sufficient strength or stiffness.Wall footing is inadequate or poorly designed
High water table or saturated soil ,Insufficient footing size, depth, or reinforcement, Poor
wall construction materials or workmanship, Nearby excavations or underground

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 Piping Failure occurs when water erodes soil particles from beneath a retaining wall's
footing or through joints, causing soil removal and wall instability. This type of failure
happens through: Piping Failure occurs when water erodes soil particles from beneath a
retaining wall's footing or through joints, causing soil removal and wall instability. This
type of failure happens through Seepage of water through wall joints or cracks, Erosion of
soil particles from beneath footing, Creation of underground pipes or channels. High water
table or flooding nearby Poor wall drainage or waterproofing Inadequate joint sealing or
wall construction Soil composition prone to erosion (sandy or silty)

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1.4 Analysis Methods

 Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM): The Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) is a

widely used analytical approach to determine the stability of retaining walls. This
method assumes that soil failure occurs along specific planes, such as circular arcs or
logarithmic spirals, and calculates the moment of soil pressure and wall resistance
about a potential failure point. LEM considers factors like soil density, friction angle,
cohesion, wall height, and footing depth to estimate the factor of safety against
overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failures. Simple calculations and minimal
data requirements. Rapid assessment of wall stability. Suitable for homogeneous soil
conditions.

 Finite Element Method (FEM):The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical

analysis technique used to determine the stability and behavior of retaining walls by
dividing the soil-wall system into smaller elements (finite elements) and solving
equations for each element. FEM considers factors like: Soil type and properties. Wall
material and geometry. Loading conditions (soil pressure, water tables, external loads)
Soil-wall interaction and stress distribution.

 Software Analysis Method: Software Analysis Method utilizes specialized programs

to model and analyze retaining wall stability, considering various factors like soil
properties, wall geometry, loading conditions, and environmental effects. Popular
software includes:

*STAAD*: General-purpose structural analysis software with retaining wall modules

*Plaxis*: Geotechnical software specifically designed for soil-structure interaction

analysis

*GeoStudio*: Suite of programs for geotechnical modeling, including retaining wall

stability

*DeepEX*: Specialized software for deep excavation and retaining wall analysis

*Retain Pro*: Software specifically designed for retaining wall design and analysis

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LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 General Introduction

Retaining walls are essential structures in civil engineering, used to support soil masses,
prevent landslides, and maintain soil stability. However, their stability is threatened by
various factors such as soil properties, wall geometry, loading conditions, and
environmental effects

2.2 Overview of Literature

(1) DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF RETAINING WALL :

Authors: D.R. Dhamdhere1 , Dr. V. R. Rathi2 , Dr. P. K. Kolase3

Research Findings:

A retaining wall is a structure designed to sustain the earth behind it. It retains a steep faced
slope of an earth mass against rupture of slopes faced slopes in cuts and fills and against sliding
down. The retained material exerts a push on structures and this tends to overturn and slide it.
Besides the self-weight, the main predominant force for analysis and design of the retaining
wall is lateral earth pressure. The lateral earth pressure behind the wall depends on the angle
of internal friction and the cohesive strength of the retained material, as well as the direction
and magnitude of movement of the stems. Its distribution is typically triangular, least at the top
of the wall and increasing towards the bottom. The earth pressure could push the wall forward
or overturn it if not properly addressed. Retaining walls are encountered and constructed in
various fields of engineering such as roads, harbors, dams, subways, railroads, tunnels, mines
and military fortifications.

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining wall is
recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained to move down slope due to gravity. This
creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on the angle of internal friction
and the cohesive strength of the retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of
movements the retaining structure undergoes.

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(2) The stability analysis study of conventional retaining walls variation design in vertical
slope:

Authors: U C Sari1 , M N Sholeh2 , and I Hermanto

Research Findings:

In the slope there is a landslide hazard to wary. Besides declivity of slope, this landslide can occur
due to the condition of the soil material, load on the slope, and the presence of groundwater. For
this reason, soil stabilization and soil reinforcement on the slopes are needed. Soil stabilization is
the alteration of soils to enhance their physical properties. There are several methods in framework
of soil stabilization, by using physical, chemical, mechanical, biological or combined method.
Moreover, soil reinforcement is a technique used to improve the stiffness and strength of soil using
geo-engineering methods. On the other hand, mechanically stabilized earth wall using artificial
reinforcing to overcome landslide. However, the common solution which is widely used for slope
is retaining walls. Coduto (2011) stated that retaining wall is a structure designed to maintain two
faces of different soil elevations . There are two types of retaining walls, conventional retaining
walls and mechanically stabilized earth walls . For the conventional retaining wall, it can be formed
by masonry stone, concrete, etc. In this soil retaining wall concept, the weight of the structure is
very influential in resisting slope avalanches. Stability analysis on the conventional retaining walls
design can be viewed from various factors, overturning, sliding, bearing capacity, and deep-seated
shear failure. The overturning and sliding failure are review of the retaining wall in holding the
load that works. In addition, an analysis of bearing capacity failure is influenced by soil
parameters. Moreover, deep-seated shear failure can occur along a cylindrical surface. The critical
cylindrical failure surface which must be determined by trial and error, using various centers. The
failure surface along which the minimum safety factor is obtained is the critical surface of sliding
.

The main cause of landslides is the presence of gravitational force affecting a steep slope [3]. Thus,
the safety factor of slope is influenced by the slope geometry itself where the steeper the slope the
occurrence of landslide will be more potential. Moreover, the material parameters also can affect
the landslide. For the cohesive soil will be more potential than non-cohesive soil. As the example,
the existence of friction angle, for the cohesive soil the value of friction angle will be smaller than
non cohesive soil.

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(3) Reliability Analysis of Counterfort Retaining Walls :

Authors: Anil Kumar Mandali* , Sujith M. S**, B. N Rao**$, Janardhana Maganti *

Research Findings:

Retaining walls provide lateral support to vertical slopes of soil. They retain soil which would
otherwise collapse into a more natural shape. They are common in highways and railway
embankments, large constructions etc. The retained soil or backfill has a tendency to exert a lateral
pressure against the retaining structure which is called active earth pressure. There are many
different kinds of retaining walls, such as, cantilever, counterfort, butress etc. Generally cantilever
walls are constructed of reinforced concrete for heights up to about 8 m. Above this height, the
bending moments developed in the stem, heel slab and toe slab become very large and hence,
thickness required for the stem, heel and toe slab becomes larger. In order to reduce the bending
moment, transverse supports called counterforts are placed at regular intervals and hence it is
called a counterfort retaining wall. Traditionally, in the deterministic design of retaining walls a
lumped ‘factor of safety’ approach is adopted to quantify the uncertainties in the design variables.
The safety factor concept, however, has shortcomings as a measure of the relative reliability of
geotechnical structures for different performance modes as the parameters are assigned single
values when in fact they are uncertain (Fenton and Griffiths, 2008). Traditional deterministic
theory may be used to model spatial variation, provided the spatially random soil can be
represented by an equivalent uniform soil, which is assigned as an “effective” property. It has been
shown for several geotechnical problems that the effective soil property can be based on an
appropriate average value of the random soil property (Fenton and Griffiths, 2005).

Probabilistic methods are needed in geotechnical and structural engineering applications to

account for variations in the design variables. This can be attributed to various factors such as
complex geological variations, limited information of uncertain quality, poorer understanding of
material behavior, and less controlled construction procedures and workmanship.

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(4) Reliability of traditional retaining wall:

Authors: G. A. FENTON *, D. V. GR I FF ITHS † a n d M. B. W ILL IAMS

Research Findings:

Retaining wall design has long been carried out with the aid of either the Rankine or Coulomb
theories of earth pressure. To obtain a closed-form solution, these traditional earth pressure
theories assume that the soil is uniform. The fact that soils are actually spatially variable leads,
however, to two potential problems in design: do sampled soil properties adequately reflect the
effective properties of the entire retained soil mass, and does spatial variability of soil
properties lead to active earth pressure effects that are significantly different from those
predicted using traditional models? This paper combines non-linear finite element analysis
with random field simulation to investigate these two questions and assess just how safe current
design practice is. The specific case investigated is a two-dimensional frictionless wall
retaining a cohesionless drained backfill. The wall is designed against sliding using Rankine’s
earth pressure theory. The design friction angle and unit weight values are obtained by
sampling the simulated random soil field at one location, and these sampled soil properties are
then used as the effective soil properties in the Rankine model. Failure is defined as occurring
when the Rankine predicted force acting on the retaining wall, modified by an appropriate
factor of safety, is less than that computed by the random finite element method employing the
actual soil property (random) fields. Using Monte Carlo simulation, the probability of failure
of the traditional design approach is assessed as a function of the factor of safety used and the
spatial variability of the soil.

(5) Evaluation of Soil Shear Strengths for Slope and Retaining Wall Stability Analyses with
Emphasis on High Plasticity Clay:

Authors: Stephen G. Wright

Research Findings:

During the past approximately 30 years, a number of research projects have been conducted for
the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) by the Center for Transportation Research
at The University of Texas at Austin (CTR) to address problems of slope stability. An important
part of this research has been devoted to characterizing the shear strength of

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Texas’ soils as it pertains to slope stability. Most of the slope failures involved soils with high
plasticity indices generally classified as CH materials by the Unified Soil Classification System.
Most of the slope failures also involved relatively shallow slides, typically extending to depths
of ten feet or less and, thus, the stresses were relatively low. A significant understanding of
these materials and their shear strength values, including particularly the shear strengths at low
stresses comparable to those along observed slip surfaces, has been developed by the research .

Different tests and characterizations of shear strength are required for short-term stability,
where clays do not have ample time to drain, and for long-term stability, where it is assumed
that any pore water pressures in excess~ of long-term, steady-state seepage values have
dissipated. Appropriate shear strengths for short-term stability are discussed in Chapter 4 along
with guidelines for estimating and measuring shear strength. Corresponding guidelines and a
discussion of long-term shear strengths are present

(6) Retaining Wall Failure due to Poor Construction and Design Aspects A Case Study:

Authors: Hanifi BINICI* , Huseyin TEMIZ* , Cafer KAYADELEN* , Hasan KAPLAN**,

Muhammed Yasin DURGUN*

Research Findings: The retaining walls (RW) are constructed for holding back soil from a
building, structure or area. The main objective of these structures commonly constructed using
masonry, stone, brick and concrete is to prevent down slope movement of soil or to resist the
lateral pressure acted by soil . However many retaining walls may fail due to the poor-design,
poor materials and installation with insufficient numbers of support to keep the wall from
moving. Three main checking are necessary for the design of the RW which are overturning,
sliding and bearing capacity . The other important consideration for the RW is the water table
which has significant effects on the lateral pressure. The water pressure due to water table
reduces the effective stresses which are advantages for stabilization of RW; it acts as additional
pressures to wall which forces to RW for overturn and sliding .

The contractor should be questioned why RW walls fail in spite of conservative design
measurers. However, many RW failures have taken place as results of many factors such as
poor construction, poor engineering, inferior quality materials, unexpected conditions lack of
coordination of responsibilities between the owners and the design consultants [6-9]. This
paper focuses on a failure of a RW in Kahramanmaras, Turkey. It appears that the failure
occurred principally due to poor engineering, the use of low quality materials and poor
workmanship. The lessons learned from reviewing of the causes of RW failure are reported
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here.

(7) Study on Comparative Design of Retaining Wall Structures and Analysis it in ANSYS
APDL Software

Authors: Sanket Pramod Dongare1, Prachi Rajeev Gandhi2, Shubham Sandip Gosavi3, Pravin Ajit
Redkar4, Prof. Reshma shaikh

Research Findings:

Retaining walls are used to retain earth or other loose material. The outline design of earth
retaining wall involves the choice of wall, while detailed design concerns with the numerical
calculation necessary to allow for safe chosen wall. However, wall sections forms a crucial
part of the overall design process and hence should be given much greater attention. This
Project focuses on comparative design of rigid retaining wall which is located on bendse Wave
Bridge, Karjat by detailed numerical calculation and analysis in ANSYS software and
comparing it with cantilever retaining wall and calculating and comparing results of both
manually and in ANSYS software. This comparative design procedure should lead to
economics of selection as a more informed comparison of alternative retaining wall types can
be made

Bharat Shah and P.P.Tapkire (Optimization of gravity retaining wall profile by introducing
cavity) (2015) etc. in which the main aim of this paper is to develop a cost effective and
structurally efficient profile of gravity retaining wall by introducing cavity in the section. For
this, various section sizes of gravity retaining wall are analyzed and accordingly profile is
selected and then after selection of an appropriate profile of gravity retaining wall stability
calculations are carried out for various heights using ‘C’ programming by strength of material
approach then section is further analyzed by finite element method by using software ANSYS.
A.sadrekarimi (Gravity retaining walls: Reinvented) (2015) etc. Stated that Gravity Retaining
wall are indispensable element of most important infrastructure, however many of these
structures have experienced large displacements during past earthquakes, resulting in damage
to the structures built on their backfill. In this published paper the study carried out using limit
equilibrium analysis to investigation the effect of wall back faces geometry on seismic lateral
earth thrust and overturning moment. This can be simply accomplished by modifying the back
face shape of the wall. One particular approach for reducing lateral earth pressure is to
minimize the size of the failure wedge developed behind the wall. Karan yadav and Dr.

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Raghvendra Singh (stability assessment of earth retaining structure) (2018) etc. stated a failure
of a recently constructed R.C.C. counter fort retaining wall of 5.0 high and 230 m length
constructed in 2003 which is located near sangli city of Maharashtra state of India is analyses
with analytical and finite element based software distressed under static loading condition.
The wall could not sustain the flood impact and there was a sliding, collapse and even rotational
failure at some portion of wall was observed and this wall was constructed to protect a village
road about 1800 m along a stream from flood water and it seems that the wall failed due to
heavy flood and backwater in the stream from river Krishna and the improper design criteria.

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2.3 OBJECTIVES

 To ensure the wall's structural integrity and stability under various loads, preventing failures
like sliding, overturning, or bearing capacity failure.

 This analysis verifies the wall's ability to safely support the retained soil and external loads.

 To analyze factors influencing retaining wall stability

 To evaluate existing methods for retaining wall stability analysis

 To determine factors of safety against various failure modes

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