CHAPTER 4

NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM

4.1 Networks
What is a Computer Network?

A network is two or more computers, or other electronic devices, connected together so that they can
exchange data.

4.1.1 Common network devices and terms

Media access control (MAC) address
MAC address is a number which uniquely identifies a device when it is connected to a
network.MAC addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults because they never
change, which makes it a more reliable method of identifying data senders and data receivers on
a network.
Internet protocol (IP) address
-Whenever a computer connects to the internet it is given an internet protocol (IP) address.
✓ Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data
communicating through the internet.
✓ An IP address essentially identifies the location of a device on a network.
✓ There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.
✓ IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and
potential increase in the amount of data traffic.
Data packet.
Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets. Whenever a user sends some data, it
is split up into a number of packets and each packet is transmitted separately.
Packets of data will usually have a header which contains:
✓ The sender’s IP address
✓ The receiver’s IP address
✓ The identity number of the packet - this is to ensure that all the packets can be
reassembled into the correct order once they reach the destination.
✓ The packet size - this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets have
arrived intact.
✓ How many data packets make up the whole message.
COMMON NETWORK DEVICES.
1. ROUTER
Understand how a router works and its purpose
➢ Routers are used to route data packets from one network to another network, based on IP
addresses. It can do this because each router has its own IP address.
➢ Routers are used to join a LAN to the internet.

How it Works
➢ When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router inspects the IP address and
determines whether the data packet is meant for its own network or for another, external
network.
➢ If it’s meant for its own network, then the data packet is routed to the local switch or
hub.
➢ Otherwise, the data packet is transmitted to a different router that is to an external
network.
➢ Routers know where to send data packets by consulting a routing table.
➢ The routing table will contain information about the router’s immediate network -such as
computer addresses and information about other routers in its immediate vicinity.
➢ When a data packet reaches a router, it examines the IP address. Because the routing table
contains computer addresses of all the computers/devices on its network, it will be able to
work out that the data packet is intended for a computer on its network.
2. Network interface card (NIC)
✓ Used to connect individual computers/devices to a network.
✓ NICs come in two distinct types:
✓ Wired: cards that have ports which allow network cables to be plugged in directly.
✓ Wireless: cards that connect to networks using Wi-Fi signals

3. Hubs
✓ Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them.
✓ They are used primarily to connect devices together to form a local area network (LAN),
often in the same building.
✓ A hub will take a data packet received at one of its ports and broadcast it to every device
connected to it.

Because data packets are delivered to every device on the network:

✓ Hubs are not very secure because every device will receive every data packet
✓ There will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced
bandwidth.

4.Switches
✓ Switches are ‘intelligent’ versions of hubs.
✓ As with hubs, they connect a number of devices together to form a LAN.
✓ However, unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the network.
✓ Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a matching MAC address called
a look-up table.
✓ Using the look-up table, a switch matches the MAC address of an incoming data packet
arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct device.
 ✓ switches are more secure than hubs - because only the intended device is sent the data
✓ Do not waste bandwidth -because network traffic is reduced.
In summary:
» Both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN.
» Both hubs and switches use data packets.
» Hubs send data packets to every device on the network; whereas switches send data packets
to a specific device only.
» Security is lower with hubs than with switches
» A switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
» Switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.

5. Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol.
They are often used to connect together different parts of a LAN so that they can function as a
single LAN.
Differences between bridges and routers.

4.1.3 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

➢ Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices.
➢ They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data transmission.
➢ Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different frequencies (channels)
➢ Devices using Bluetooth automatically detect and connect to each other, but they do not
interfere with other devices because each communicating pair uses a different channel.
➢ When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the channels at random to pair with
another device. If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another channel.
➢ Once paired, to minimise the risks of interference with other devices, the devices
constantly change the channels they are using (several times a second). This is known as
spread-spectrum frequency hopping.
➢ Bluetooth uses key encryption to create a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN).
Bluetooth is useful:
✓ When transferring data between two or more devices which are very close together- less
than 30 meters distance.
✓ When the speed of data transmission is not critical.
✓ For low-bandwidth applications -for example, when sending music files from a mobile
phone to a headset.
 ➢ Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology makes it possible to connect devices with a
wireless connection to a network or to a single computer.
➢ Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers much faster data
transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth.
➢ A Wi-Fi enabled device (such as a computer or smartphone) can access, for example, the
internet wirelessly at any access point or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away.

Comparison of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity

4.1.4 Cloud computing (storage)

Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers – there may
be thousands of servers in many different locations.
The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing
clients to access data at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
There are three common cloud storage systems:
1. Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage
provider are different companies.
2. Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company
firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single
entity.
3. Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two previous environments; some data
resides in the private cloud and less-sensitive data can be accessed from a public cloud
storage provider.
Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
✓ Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from any device,
anywhere in the world, as long as internet access is available.
✓ There is no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device with them, or
even use the same computer, to store and retrieve information.
✓ The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data, with obvious advantages in the
event of data loss/disaster recovery on their own computer.
✓ If a customer/client has a failure of their hard disk or backup device, cloud storage will
allow recovery of their data.
✓ The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity at a price!
Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
✓ Security aspects of storing data in the cloud.
✓ Problems accessing or downloading data/files in case of unstable internet connection.
✓ High cost if a large storage capacity or high download/upload data transfer is required.
✓ Failure of the cloud storage company– could lead to loss of all backup data.
Users purchase cloud storage and can then access all their files (for example, photos,
videos, music or e-books) from any device anywhere in the world. This has obvious
advantages:
✓ No need to carry memory sticks around to access files from home.
✓ No need to pay for large storage capacity on your device.
✓ External companies, ensure that your files are backed up and therefore reduce the
possibility of losing irreplaceable data.
✓ The ability to synchronise files ensures they are automatically updated across all devices;
this means that the latest version of a file saved on a desktop computer, for example, is
also available on other devices, such as a smartphone.
✓ Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it allows several users to edit and
collaborate on a single file or document – there is no need to worry about tracking the
latest version or which user made the changes.
The main fears of cloud storage are data security and data loss.
Data security using cloud storage/computing
The following questions arise from sending your data to a cloud service provider:
» What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is housed?
» How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or power cuts?
» What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service company? Can they
use their authorisation codes to access confidential data for monetary purposes?

Data loss
➢ Actions from hackers gaining access to accounts or pharming attacks, for example could
lead to loss or corruption of data.
➢ Users need to be certain that sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these potentially
very harmful risks

4.1.5 Common network environments

Extranets, Intranets and the Internet
Intranets and extranets
Many companies use an intranet as well as the internet.
An Intranet -Is a computer network based on internet technology but designed to meet the
internal needs for sharing information within a single organisation or company’.
Access to an intranet is usually confined to a company or organisation and,
unlike the internet, is not available to the general public.
Intranets reside behind a firewall and are only accessible:
» Internally to members of the company, or
» To people given various levels of access who are external to the company.

There are a number of reasons for adopting intranets rather than using the
internet:
✓ Intranets are safer because there is less chance of external hacking or viruses.
✓ It is easier to prevent external links to, for example, certain websites.
✓ Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their internal
audience’s needs.
✓ It is easier to send out sensitive messages in the knowledge that they will remain within
the company.
 ✓ Intranets offer better bandwidth than the internet, therefore there are fewer connection
limits than with the internet.
Typical uses of an intranet would be:
✓ Viewing internal web pages (e.g. company , schools, university's etc.)
✓ Internal e-mail and instant messaging between workers
✓ Sharing of internal documents

Extranets allow intranets to be extended outside the organisation, but with the same advantages
as an intranet;
Extranet allows, for example, trading partners to have controlled access to some information
(commercially-sensitive information is password protected).
INTERNET
Internet is Public (available to all users)
o Internet is network of networks
o Internet is global
o Internet has more information than an intranet
Typical uses of an internet would be:
✓ Viewing web pages
✓ Sending and receiving e-mail messages
✓ Sharing files
✓ Communicating using voice (VOIP) and video (video-conferencing)
✓ Playing multi-player games
✓ Streaming Video/audio Content
✓ Online Shopping/Banking

What are the differences between the internet and an intranet?

✓ Internet comes from the phrase: INTERconnected NETwork.
✓ Intranet comes from the phrase: INTernal Restricted Access NETwork.
✓ An intranet is used to give local information relevant to the company or organisation;
whereas the internet covers everything.
✓ It is possible to block out certain websites using the intranet; while this is also possible
with the internet, it is more difficult.

4.1.6 Network types

 1. Local area network (LAN)
▪ LANs are usually within one building or geographically near each other.
▪ A typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices connected to hubs or
switches.
▪ One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to allow the LAN to
connect to external networks, such as the internet.
Advantages of networking computers together using LANs:
✓ They allow the sharing of resources such as hardware and software.
✓ Allow easy communication between users.
✓ Network administrator can control and monitor all aspects of the network.

Disadvantages of networking computers using LANs:

✓ Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network.
✓ Queues for shared resources (such as a printer) which can be frustrating.
✓ Slower access to external networks
✓ Increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers.
✓ If the main server breaks down, the network will no longer function properly.

2. Wireless local area network (WLAN)

➢ Do not involve any wiring or cabling

➢ Provide wireless network connection overs a short distance
➢ They use radio or infrared signal's instead of cables.
➢ Devices known as Access Points (APs) are used for a larger range
➢ APs usually use spread spectrum technology (larger range)
Advantages
✓ All computers can access the same services and resources
✓ No cabling is involved
✓ The system is more flexible
✓ Adding new computers and devices is very easy
✓ Cost is reduced, and safety is improved
Disadvantages
✓ Security is an issue
✓ Problems and interference can affect the signal
✓ The data transfer is slow than in the wired LAN

Wired versus wireless LANs

3. Wide area networks (WANs)

❖ A WAN is a network that extends over a large geographical area.

❖ A WAN is often created by joining several LANs together.
❖ Routers are used –to connect LAN networks to form a WAN Network.
❖ The network of ATMs (automated teller machines) used by banks is one of the most common
examples of the use of a WAN.

4.2 Network issues and communication

4.2.1 Security issues regarding data transfer
4.2.2 Passwords
Passwords are used in many instances when accessing the internet. For example:
• When accessing your email account
• When carrying out online banking
• Accessing social networking sites.
Ways of protecting passwords
 1. Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being relayed back
to whoever put the spyware on your computer.
2. Change passwords on a regular basis.
3. Passwords should not be easy to crack.
passwords are grouped as either strong or weak.
» Strong passwords should contain:
– at least one capital letter
– at least one numerical value
– at least one other keyboard character.
An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT90kj=0
An example of a weak password is: GREEN1
4.2.3 Other authentication methods
1. Zero login and biometrics
Zero login essentially relies on devices being smart and secure enough to instantly recognize a
user by a number of features based on:
✓ Biometrics -such as Fingerprint recognition and Facial recognition.
✓ Behavioral patterns- include: how you walk, your typing speed, your normal location,
how you swipe the screen, and so on.
2. Magnetic stripe cards
The cards have a magnetic stripe on the reverse side.
The stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader.
Data such as name, ID number, sex, and date of birth may be contained on a magnetic stripe.
Access will only be allowed to a restricted area if the scanned data matches data in a database.
Ways of increasing security on cards.
✓ Holographic image (hologram) -are used to make forgery of the card more difficult.
✓ Printing Photographic image of the card user onto the card surface.
Advantages of magnetic stripe cards
✓ They are easy to use.
✓ It is not an expensive technology.
✓ Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
✓ The cards can be multi-purpose.
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards
✓ Less secure than biometric methods.
✓ The cards wear out with a lot of use.
✓ Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.

3. Smart cards
The chip on the smart card can store data such as name, security number, sex, date of birth and a
PIN. Smart cards can therefore be used as a security device.
As the owner of the card walks up to a security gate, readers on either side of the gate quickly
scan the security data stored on the RFID tag embedded in the card. The user will then be invited
to enter a PIN on the keypad. If all details match, then access will be allowed.

4. Physical tokens
A Physical Token enables authentication with the use of a small physical device
To access a system that uses a physical token, a user will enter their username and password into
the system, and then enter the security code generated by the token.
The physical token can be directly connected to the device that the user is trying to access or the
physical token will generate one time password (OTP) which is then entered into the system
manually
To obtain a one time password (OTP) the user will enter their personal identification number
(PIN) and any other authentication requirements into the physical token device. If all
requirements are satisfied then an internal clock will be used to generate the one time password
(OTP) which is displayed on its screen
To enhance security, the one time password (OTP) changes frequently and each code will only be
valid for a short period of time (usually within 1 minute).
Advantages of physical tokens include:
✓ Offline authentication
✓ Portable
Disadvantages of physical tokens include:
✓ Cost
✓ Loss or theft of the physical token
✓ Physical dependance.
 Example of Physical Token Use:
A customer has logged on to the bank’s website. They get to a web page which requires some
form of authentication to prove who they are. To do this, they need to use a physical token
supplied by the bank:
✓ The customer inserts their debit card into the top of the token device (first authentication
step) and the device either recognizes the card as genuine or rejects it.
✓ The device then asks the customer to press ‘IDENTIFY’ and then enter their PIN (second
authentication step).
✓ A one-time password is then shown on the device screen – this is usually an eight-digit code.
✓ The customer now goes back to their bank web page and enters the eight-digit code.
✓ They are now given access to their account.

There are two typical of physical token:

Disconnected physical token

When using a disconnected physical token, a separate device is used to generate the one-time
password (OTP) which the user will then enter into the system manually.

Connected physical token

When using a connected physical token, the one-time password (OTP) is generated and passed to
the system automatically though a physical connection and does not require to user to enter the
password manually
Electronic tokens
✓ software (apps) installed on a user’s device (eg. smartphone)
✓ When the website requests the user to authenticate who they are, the user opens the
app ontheir smartphone
✓ OTP will be generated and sent to the phone and the user enters this OTP when
prompted bythe website
✓ both the website server and smartphone have synchronized clocks, they will
generate thesame numbers.

Anti-virus
▪ Anti-Malware (also known as Anti-Virus software) is designed to protect devices against
viruses and malicious software.
▪ Anti-malware has 3 mains purposes, detect, prevent and remove malicious software.
▪ Anti-Malware is installed onto a computer system and will operate in the background.
common features:
✓ check software or files before they are run
✓ compares a possible virus against a database of a known viruses
✓ carrying out Heuristic checking
– This is the identification of potential threats within a file from behavioral patterns and
characteristics rather than just relying on a database of known viruses.
✓ Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine which:
– allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or
– allows the user to make the decision about deletion (it is possible that the
user knows that the file or program is not infected by a virus – this is known as a false
positive and is one of the drawbacks of anti-virus software)
✓ Needs to be kept up to date because new viruses are constantly being discovered.
✓ full system checks need to be carried out once a week
 Worked example
Give two examples of how Anti-Malware protects devices against malicious software
[4]

✓ Regular updates by the Anti-Malware software will keep an up-to-date list of threats

✓ If any of the threats are detected on the device, the Anti-Malware software will
quarantine the files.

✓ Anti-Malware software will scan external storage media when they are connected to
the device.

✓ Preventing viruses from being transferred from storage media onto the device.

4.2.5 Electronic conferencing

❖ Video conferencing
❖ Audio conferencing
❖ Web conferencing.

Video Conferencing
✓ Communication method that uses both video & sound
✓ Carried out in real-time
The basic hardware needed includes:
» Webcams
» Large monitors/television screens
» Microphones
» Speakers.
Software Needed
Few items to consider before a conference begins
✓ Agree on a time and date for the conference to take place.
✓ Delegates in each conference room must log into the video-conference.
✓ Set-up needs to be checked before the meeting goes live.
✓ Webcams need to be placed in the correct position so that all delegates are within visual
contact.
✓ Microphones need to be placed centrally so that all of the delegates can speak.
✓ One person to be the main contact in each conference room

Advantages of Video Conference

✓ No need to travel - cut down on traveling costs and traveling time.
✓ Can be held at short notice.
✓ Facilitates long distance learning
✓ It may be better to use video conferencing than have delegates travel to potentially unsafe
places around the world.
✓ It is better for the environment – less travel means less pollution
✓ It connects people in an organisation who might be otherwise left out, for example,
people not based at the headquarters.
Disadvantages of Video Conference
✓ There is potential time lag in responses/delays when talking.
✓ Images can jerk – usually due to poor internet/network performance or poor
bandwidth.
✓ It can be very expensive to set up in the first place.
✓ There can be problems if the delegates live in different countries where the time zone
differences are large.
✓ Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time consuming.
✓ It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the ‘perks’ of their job is
international travel.
✓ The whole system relies on a good network connection – if it breaks down or the signal
strength is diminished in any way, then the video conference can be almost unusable.

A motor car company has some designers based in London and some in Beijing. The cost
of travel between the two cities is very high, so when they wish to meet to discuss new
products they use video-conferencing.
The designers all have PCs with a keyboard and a mouse in order to take part in video-
conferencing.
a. Name three other devices used to input or output data which would be needed to
take part in the video-conference.[3]
Three of:
✓ Webcam / video camera [1]
✓ Speakers / headset / headphones [1]
✓ Large monitor / television / data projector [1]
✓ Microphone [1]

b. Describe three potential problems of the designers using video-conferencing systems

rather than meeting in either London or Beijing. [3]

Three from:

✓ Time lag / lip sync caused by the image not being synchronised with the sound [1]
✓ Poor picture quality caused by the speed of connection / quality of the hardware [1]
✓ More likely to have poorer sound quality caused by the quality of the hardware /
connection [1]
✓ Confidential material about the new cars may have to be signed / viewed in person [1]
✓ The new car may have to be viewed in person [1]
✓ Hardware breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
✓ Communication breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
✓ Different time zones will mean the conference has to take place at inconvenient times[1]
Audio conferencing
Audio conferencing refers to meetings held between people using audio/sound equipment.
Audio conferencing can be done over the standard telephone network also referred to as a
phone conference.
Hardware required
✓ A Standard phone
✓ Internet Phone
✓ Computer (with in-built microphone and speakers)
✓ External microphone and/or speakers
Characteristics
✓ Voice communication only (no video)
✓ Audio is in real time
✓ Call management options (mute etc)
✓ Participants of the audio conference can be many miles apart or even in a different
country
Uses
✓ On the go business meetings
✓ Allows a hybrid collection of devices such as standard telephones, smartphones
and laptops (providing it is a VoIP call)
Advantages
✓ Attendees do not have to travel to the event
✓ Convenience
✓ Cost saving
✓ Better for the environment
✓ Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
✓ Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
✓ Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having
to visit on premises
✓ Audio conferencing is more cost effective as it requires less bandwidth and less
expensive equipment.
✓ Audio conferencing can integrate with many other devices and tools for
communication.
✓ Audio conferencing provides a higher level of security as users are not sharing a
screen.
Disadvantages

✓ Can be difficult to determine who is the speaker

✓ Limited interaction
✓ Lack of visuals:
✓ Body language
✓ Users sharing visual content
✓ This can cause issues amongst employees when working across different time
zones.
The procedure to be carried out during a phone conference is detailed below.
1 The organiser of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone company. A
personal PIN and the participant’s PIN.
2 The organiser contacts all of the participants and informs them of their PIN and the date
and time of the phone conference.
3 When the phone conference is about to start, the organiser dials the conference phone
number and, once they are connected, keys in their personal PIN.
4 The participants then call the same conference number to join in – once they
get through they each input the PIN given to them by the organizer. Without this PIN, it
would be impossible to join the phone conference.

Web Conferencing (Webinar /Webcast)

Hardware Required
✓ Computer (requires webcam, microphone and speakers)
Characteristics
✓ Allows both sound and video
✓ Participants of the web conference can be many miles apart or even in a different country
✓ Audio and video are real time allowing users to interact with each other
✓ Allows virtual breakout rooms for teams of participants
✓ Screen and slide presentations
✓ Instant messaging
✓ Document sharing
Uses
✓ Distance learning and education
✓ Online presentations
✓ Online team collaboration
✓ Interviews
✓ Customer support
✓ Virtual events
Advantages
✓ Attendees do not have to travel to the event
✓ Convenience
✓ Cost saving
✓ Better for the environment
✓ Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
✓ Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
✓ Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to visit on
premises
✓ Web conferencing software often allows recording and playback features to allow members
to review the event
✓ Enhanced visual presentations compared to video conferencing
✓ Real time collaboration
Disadvantages
✓ Requires a strong and stable network connection
✓ Security and privacy concerns
✓ Distractions from other activities on the device
✓ Those using the system may need to be trained to use it effectively which can:
▪ Take time
▪ Be costly
✓ Dependent on users being technically savvy and having suitable devices/network
connections.

Differences of Online Conferencing Types