University of Baghdad

College of Engineering

Petroleum Engineering Dept.

Temperature and Heat

Submitted by:
‫محمد ياس خضير‬

First Year
Group (A)
 Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Significance of Studying Temperature and Heat.......................................................... 2

1.2 Historical Background ............................................................................................ 2

2. Temperature: Concepts and Measurement ............................................................................ 2

2.1 Definition and Intuition .......................................................................................... 2

2.2 Thermometers and Calibration ................................................................................. 2

2.3 Temperature Scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin ......................................................... 3

2.4 Specific Heat Capacity ........................................................................................... 3

3. Heat and Internal Energy ........................................................................................................ 4

3.1 Difference Between Heat and Temperature ................................................................ 4

3.2 types of energy ...................................................................................................... 4

4. Heat Transfer and Its Energy Transformations ..................................................................... 5

4.1 Introduction: To Heat Transfers ................................................................................ 5

4.2 Modes of Heat Transfer .......................................................................................... 5

4.3 Heat Transfer as Energy Redistribution ..................................................................... 6

4.4 Calorimetry: Practical Application of Heat Transfer .................................................... 6

4.5 Energy Flow in Calorimetry .................................................................................... 7

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 8
References ...................................................................................................................................... 8

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1. Introduction
1.1 Significance of Studying Temperature and Heat
The concepts of temperature and heat are foundational to the understanding of thermodynamics,
molecular behavior, and energy transfer in physical systems. They play a critical role in both
natural phenomena and technological applications. Whether in meteorology, engine design,
material science, or medical diagnostics, the ability to quantify temperature and understand heat
flow is essential. This report explores the physical meaning of temperature, the measurement
techniques involved, the distinction between heat and temperature, and the mechanisms of heat
transfer.

1.2 Historical Background

The scientific exploration of temperature dates back to the works of Lord Kelvin (William
Thompson), who introduced the absolute temperature scale based on thermodynamic principles.
Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, developed a practical temperature scale in 1742 using the
freezing and boiling points of water. Similarly, the Fahrenheit scale, introduced in 1714 by German
physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit, used more arbitrary but operationally convenient reference points.
The report also references the groundbreaking work of James Prescott Joule, who established the
equivalence between mechanical energy and heat, revolutionizing our understanding of energy
conservation.

2. Temperature: Concepts and Measurement

2.1 Definition and Intuition
Temperature is commonly described as a measure of how hot or cold a body is. While this intuitive
definition helps in daily life, it lacks scientific precision. A more accurate definition is that
temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules within a substance. When
the molecules in a substance move more rapidly, the substance is said to have a higher temperature.
Conversely, slower molecular motion corresponds to a lower temperature.
2.2 Thermometers and Calibration
To quantify temperature, thermometers are used. The most basic thermometer consists of a liquid
in a glass tube that expands when heated. Calibration involves placing the thermometer in known

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environments such as melting ice (0°C) and boiling water (100°C) to establish reference points.
These points allow for the creation of a scale which converts the physical expansion of the liquid
into numerical values of temperature.
2.3 Temperature Scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin
There are three main temperature scales:
• Celsius (°C): Based on the freezing and boiling points of water at 0°C and 100°C respectively.
• Fahrenheit (°F): Sets freezing at 32°F and boiling at 212°F. Originally based on a freezing salt
solution and estimated body temperature.
• Kelvin (K): The absolute scale, where 0 K represents absolute zero — the theoretical point
where all molecular motion ceases.
Each of these scales is used in different contexts. The Kelvin scale is preferred in scientific research
due to its absolute nature and direct relationship with molecular energy.

Figure 1: Converting one temperature scale to another.

2.4 Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity, commonly referred to as specific heat, is a physical property that quantifies
how much thermal energy is required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by
one degree Celsius (1 °C). It varies from one material to another and is represented by the symbol
ccc. The equation governing this property is:
Q=mcΔt
where:
• Q = heat energy (in joules)
• m = mass (in kilograms)

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• c = specific heat (J/kg·°C)
• Δt = temperature change (in °C)
This equation shows that substances with higher specific heat require more energy to experience
the same temperature change.

3. Heat and Internal Energy

3.1 Difference Between Heat and Temperature
A common misconception is that heat and temperature are interchangeable terms, but in physics,
they refer to different concepts. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in a substance, whereas heat refers to the transfer of internal energy from one body to
another due to a temperature difference. A hot object does not “contain heat,” rather, it contains
internal energy, which can be transferred as heat when in contact with a cooler object.
3.2 types of energy
The stored energy of a substance can be classified into three fundamental components: kinetic
energy, potential energy, and the internal energy of atoms.
Kinetic energy refers to the motion of particles within the material. It includes translational motion
(straight-line movement of molecules), rotational motion (spinning of molecules), and vibrational
motion (back-and-forth movement of atoms, especially in solids).
Potential energy arises from the forces between molecules and atoms. This includes the energy
stored in compressed or stretched atomic bonds, electrostatic attractions and repulsions between
charged particles, and cohesive forces that hold molecules together, particularly in liquids and
solids.
The internal energy of atoms refers to the energy stored within the structure of the atoms
themselves. It includes electron excitation states and chemical bond energy, which typically do not
change with ordinary heating.
In addition to these internal components, energy can leave or enter a system through two transfer
mechanisms:
heat, which is energy transferred due to a temperature difference.
work, which is energy transferred when a force causes displacement.
While heat and work are not forms of internal energy, they are essential in describing energy
exchange between systems and will be referred to in this report as modes of energy transfer.

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4. Heat Transfer and Its Energy Transformations
4.1 Introduction: To Heat Transfers
When thermal energy (heat) is transferred between bodies or within a substance, it is not simply a
movement of "heat particles" but a transformation of internal (stored) energy. This internal energy
also known as thermal energy is primarily made up of the kinetic energy of vibrating or moving
particles, and in solids, it also includes potential energy due to interatomic forces.
When heat flows into a system, it raises the system’s internal energy. This added energy may:
• Increase the kinetic energy of particles (resulting in a temperature increase)
• Be stored as potential energy during phase changes (melting, boiling)
• Be transformed into mechanical energy (e.g., expansion, motion)
• Or be converted into work, as in thermodynamic engines
This concept is captured in the First Law of Thermodynamics, which states:
ΔU=Q−W
Where:
• ΔU is the change in internal energy
• Q is the heat added to the system
• W is the work done by the system
Hence, heat is not a substance, but a form of energy in transit that can alter the stored internal
energy or be used to do mechanical work.
4.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred in three fundamental ways:
1. Conduction
o Heat flows through a material due to molecular collisions
o Occurs mainly in solids
o Example: A metal spoon becoming hot in a cup of tea
2. Convection
o Heat is transferred via the motion of fluid particles
o Occurs in liquids and gases
o Example: Boiling water, where hot water rises and cooler water sinks
3. Radiation

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o Heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves (infrared)
o Does not require a medium
o Example: The Sun heating the Earth
Each mechanism has different implications for how energy is stored or released, especially in
controlled systems like calorimetry setups.

Figure 2: Comparison Between Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

4.3 Heat Transfer as Energy Redistribution

To better understand the nature of heat, consider a hot metal block placed in cold water. The metal’s
atoms vibrate intensely (high stored kinetic energy), while the water’s molecules are less active.
When placed together, collisions at the interface cause energy to flow from hot to cold — from the
vibrating metal atoms to the water molecules.
This process results in:
• Decrease in the metal’s molecular kinetic energy
• Increase in the water’s kinetic energy
• Eventual equilibrium where both share the same average kinetic energy, i.e., the same
temperature
Thus, heat transfer is a mechanism by which the microscopic energy content of one system is
redistributed to another.
4.4 Calorimetry: Practical Application of Heat Transfer
Calorimetry is a direct application of heat transfer principles. It allows us to quantify how much
energy is transferred, and where it goes.

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 FIGURE 3: calorimeter part

In a calorimetry experiment:
• A hot sample (e.g., a heated metal) is placed into cool water inside an insulated container.
• Heat flows from the sample (energy loss) to the water and calorimeter (energy gain).
• There is no heat loss to the environment due to insulation.
• At equilibrium, we use:
Qlost=Qgained
Applying this balance allows us to:
• Determine unknown specific heats
• Calculate latent heats
• Study energy conservation in a closed system
It is a model system of energy redistribution with real-world relevance, as the same principles
apply in climate systems, engines, and biological temperature regulation.
4.5 Energy Flow in Calorimetry
Let us break down the energy transformations in calorimetry:
• Initial internal energy in the hot body is transferred as heat
• This energy becomes internal energy in the cooler substances (water, container)
• No energy disappears; it is converted from one form to another, in compliance with the law of
conservation of energy
If phase changes occur (e.g., melting ice or condensing steam), then latent energy is involved. This
part of the energy is not reflected as a temperature change, but as a change in the potential energy
of molecular arrangements (e.g., breaking bonds in melting).

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Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of temperature and heat provides a fundamental understanding of energy
behavior in physical systems. Through an exploration of molecular motion, internal energy
components, heat transfer mechanisms, and practical applications such as calorimetry, this report
has emphasized the critical role that thermal processes play in both natural environments and
engineered systems. The distinction between temperature and heat, as well as the underlying
transformations of energy kinetic, potential, and atomic—are central to disciplines such as
thermodynamics, materials science, and environmental physics. By connecting theoretical models
to real-world phenomena, this topic builds a foundational bridge between microscopic particle
behavior and macroscopic energy interactions.

References
1- Serway, R. A., & Vuille, C. (2014). Fundamentals of College Physics (Vol. 1, 5th Updated
Edition). Brooks Cole.
2- Borgnakke, C., & Sonntag, R. E. (2009). Fundamentals of Thermodynamics (7th Edition,
Solution Manual). Wiley.