Computer Networks – MAKAUT

Semester Exam Answers

Unit 1, Q1: Explain the components of data communication. How do they work
together to ensure successful communication?

Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data between two or more
devices through a transmission medium such as a cable or wireless signal. For
communication to be effective and reliable, several key components must work
together:

1. Message: This is the actual data or information that needs to be communicated. It

can be in the form of text, numbers, images, audio, or video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device or person that generates and sends the message.
It could be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, etc.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device or person for whom the message is intended.
Like the sender, this could be a computer, printer, smartphone, or any end device
capable of understanding the data.

4. Transmission Medium: This is the physical path through which the message
travels from sender to receiver. It could be wired (like coaxial cables, twisted pair,
fiber optics) or wireless (like radio waves, microwaves, or infrared).

5. Protocol: Protocols are a set of rules that govern data communication. Both
sender and receiver must agree on the same protocol to successfully communicate.
Protocols define how data is formatted, transmitted, and interpreted.

These components must work synchronously for effective communication. The

sender must encode the message using a standard encoding method. The
transmission medium must support the chosen data format and be free from
excessive noise or distortion. The receiver must decode and interpret the message
accurately, and protocols ensure that both devices agree on timing, formatting, and
error-checking mechanisms.

In modern networks, additional components such as modems, routers, switches,

and network interface cards (NICs) are often involved, especially when
communication spans across different networks or requires signal
modulation/demodulation.

Together, these components create a reliable communication system where

messages are accurately delivered, interpreted, and acknowledged, making data
communication seamless and efficient.

Unit 1, Q2: Differentiate between analog and digital data. How is data
represented and transmitted in a network?

In computer networks, data can be represented in two fundamental forms: analog

and digital. Both have their own characteristics and are used based on the
requirements of the communication system.

1. Analog Data:
- Analog data is continuous and can have an infinite number of values within a
range.
- Examples include human voice in a phone call, analog audio and video signals.
- Analog signals are represented using sine waves that vary continuously over time.
- Used in traditional TV broadcasts, telephone lines, and radio transmissions.

2. Digital Data:
- Digital data is discrete and binary, usually represented using 0s and 1s.
- Examples include computer files, text, images, software code.
- Digital signals are represented using square waves or pulses.
- Used in modern computers, digital telecommunication, and internet data transfers.

Data Representation:
- Analog data is typically represented using variations in amplitude, frequency, or
phase.
- Digital data is represented by binary sequences using voltage levels.

Data Transmission:
- Analog transmission is continuous and prone to degradation over long distances.
- Digital transmission involves encoding the binary data using line coding
techniques (e.g., NRZ, Manchester encoding).
- Digital data can be compressed, encrypted, and transmitted more efficiently.
Key Differences:
| Feature | Analog | Digital |
|----------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|
| Nature | Continuous | Discrete |
| Signal | Sine waves | Square waves |
| Noise Immunity | Low | High |
| Transmission | Less efficient | More efficient |
| Applications | Radio, Telephone | Computers, Digital Networks |

In conclusion, digital data is widely preferred in networking due to its resistance to

noise, ease of compression and encryption, and compatibility with modern digital
devices.

Unit 1, Q3: Compare and contrast LAN, MAN, and WAN with examples.

LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), and WAN (Wide
Area Network) are categories of networks based on the geographical area they
cover.

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

- Covers a small geographical area like a home, school, or office building.
- Connects computers and devices within the same premises.
- High data transfer speeds (up to 10 Gbps or more).
- Low latency and minimal errors due to controlled environment.
- Example: A network connecting computers in a college lab.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

- Covers a larger area than LAN, typically a city or a large campus.
- Can connect multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
- Uses high-speed fiber optics or wireless connections.
- Moderately fast and more complex than LAN.
- Example: A network connecting multiple branches of a university across a city.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network):

- Covers a very large geographical area, such as a country or continent.
- Connects multiple LANs and MANs through routers and public transmission
systems.
- Lower speed compared to LANs, and higher latency due to long distances.
- More prone to errors and more expensive.
- Example: The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.

Comparison Table:
| Feature | LAN | MAN | WAN |
|--------------|------------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Area Covered | Small (building) | Medium (city) | Large (country or
more) |
| Speed | High | Moderate to High | Moderate |
| Cost | Low | Medium | High |
| Ownership | Private | Either private or public | Mostly public or ISP-
owned |

In summary, LAN is ideal for localized environments, MAN serves a city-scale

network, and WAN interconnects networks globally.

Unit 1, Q4: Discuss different network topologies. Which topology is best suited
for a large organization and why?

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices in a

network. Common network topologies include:

1. Bus Topology:
- All devices are connected to a single backbone cable.
- Data is transmitted in one direction.
- Inexpensive but limited scalability and prone to failure if backbone breaks.

2. Star Topology:
- All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
- Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
- High performance, scalable, and widely used in modern LANs.

3. Ring Topology:
- Devices are connected in a circular manner, forming a closed loop.
- Data travels in one direction to reach the destination.
- Failure of one node affects the whole network unless using dual ring.

4. Mesh Topology:
- Every device is connected to every other device.
- Provides high redundancy and fault tolerance.
- Expensive and complex due to large number of cables.

5. Tree Topology:
- A combination of star and bus topologies.
- Hierarchical structure with multiple star networks connected via a backbone.

6. Hybrid Topology:
- Combines two or more topologies based on needs.
- Offers flexibility, reliability, and scalability.

Best Topology for Large Organizations:

- **Star** and **Hybrid topologies** are best suited.
- Star topology ensures easy troubleshooting and centralized management.
- Hybrid offers high fault tolerance and flexibility, ideal for expanding organizations.

In conclusion, while star topology is simple and effective, hybrid topology provides
scalability and reliability, making it best for large organizations.

Unit 1, Q5: Explain the purpose of protocols and standards. Give examples of
each.

Protocols and standards are essential in networking to ensure smooth, accurate, and
interoperable communication among devices.

1. Protocols:
- Protocols are a set of rules that define how data is transmitted and received over a
network.
- They ensure that communication is carried out in a reliable, secure, and
synchronized manner.
- Protocols define parameters such as data format, timing, sequencing, error control,
and flow control.
- Example protocols include:
- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – ensures reliable data transfer.
- IP (Internet Protocol) – handles addressing and routing of packets.
- HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) – used for web communications.
- FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – used to transfer files over the Internet.

2. Standards:
- Standards ensure interoperability between devices and systems from different
manufacturers.
- They define the specifications and guidelines for hardware, software, and
protocols.
- Standards promote innovation, reduce cost, and prevent vendor lock-in.
- Examples of standards organizations:
- IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) – defines standards like
IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet).
- ISO (International Organization for Standardization) – develops OSI model and
other global standards.
- ITU (International Telecommunication Union) – sets telecom and radio
communication standards.

In summary, protocols are the language of communication, while standards ensure

devices speak the same language. Together, they make global communication over
networks possible and efficient.

Unit 1, Q6: Describe the OSI model in detail. Explain the functions of each layer.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework

developed by ISO to standardize the functions of a telecommunication or computing
system into seven distinct layers. Each layer performs specific tasks and
communicates with the layers directly above and below it.

1. Physical Layer:
- Deals with physical connection between devices.
- Responsible for transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical
medium.
- Includes hardware like cables, switches, connectors.

2. Data Link Layer:

- Ensures error-free and reliable data transfer between nodes.
- Breaks data into frames and handles MAC addressing and error
detection/correction.
- Protocols: Ethernet, PPP.

3. Network Layer:
- Responsible for logical addressing and routing of data packets.
- Determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination.
- Protocol: IP (Internet Protocol).
4. Transport Layer:
- Provides reliable data transfer using flow control, segmentation, and error
correction.
- Ensures complete data delivery.
- Protocols: TCP, UDP.

5. Session Layer:
- Manages sessions between applications.
- Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.

6. Presentation Layer:
- Translates data between the application layer and the network.
- Handles encryption, compression, and data formatting.

7. Application Layer:
- Closest to the end-user.
- Provides network services to applications.
- Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Each layer serves a specific function and helps reduce the complexity of networking
by modularizing operations. The OSI model also serves as a reference point for
designing and troubleshooting networks.