Types of Culture Systems

Fish culture systems in Nigeria can be described from different perspectives bearing in mind
some biological, economical, and social factors. These include rearing facilities, technology of
production, numbers of species cultured, type of fish cultured, cultivation stage, geographic
origin of cultural species, and target market.

 Production System based on Rearing Facilities

The facilities used for rearing fish in Nigeria are described in the following sections.

 Fish Production in Earthen Ponds

This is the most common type of fish production system in Nigeria. The ponds used vary in size
ranging from small (less than 1/2 hectare) to medium (0.5-1 hectare) and large (1 hectare and
above). They are either dug with hand or with the use of heavy equipment like a bulldozer. It
varies in shape depending on the shape of the land where it is constructed. Earthen ponds can be
embankment pond, excavated pond or barrage pond.

Earthen ponds are easier to manage, and production is usually faster because of the addition of
natural foods to supplement the feed given to the fish. They are however prone to predators if not
properly managed, which can reduce production drastically.

 Fish Production in Concrete Tanks

Concrete tanks used for fish production can be made of blocks with holes filled with concrete or
with reinforced concrete slab. It can be rectangular or circular. Depths range from 1-1.2 m. and it
can be any size. This type of production system is common in most urban and pre-urban cities in
Nigeria particularly where land is not available or suitable for earthen pond construction. This
can be a static renewal or completely flow through system. The performance of fish can easily be
assessed and fish must be fed with adequate diet to obtain maximum yield. If not properly
managed, there could be constant outbreaks of disease. Stocking density is usually higher that
those obtained in earthen ponds.

 Reinforced Plastic Tanks

This is a ready-made fibre glass tank that can be used for rearing fish. It can be circular or
rectangular in shape. They are of different sizes and can easily be moved from one place to the
other. Fish are stocked at high density and the management is similar to that of a concrete tank. It
is, however, more expensive than the concrete tank.

 Plastic Tanks
These are ordinary plastic tanks without reinforcement either designed and constructed for
rearing fish or used for storing water. Stocking density is also high as in reinforced plastic tanks.
The use of these tanks is gaining ground in Nigeria.

 Wooden Troughs

Wooden troughs are constructed with planks. They vary in size and depth. After construction, the
tank is lined with nylon to prevent leakage. It is moveable and stocking density is high.
Management is as in concrete and reinforced plastic tanks.

 Fish Rearing in Cages

A fish cage is an enclosure made with net where fish are held captive in free flowing water. Cage
culture is therefore the rearing of fish in cage, mostly, in open waters such as flowing rivers,
reservoirs, lakes and large ponds.

Cages used for fish culture have four parts, the solid frame, the cage itself which is made of
netting material, the floats that keep the cage in the water column and the anchor which prevents
the cage from drifting away. A cage could be floating if the greater part is submerged inside the
water and it could be fixed if it is attached to stakes driven into the bottom of the place where it
is to be installed. Cages allow for high stocking density. In Nigeria, rearing of fish in cages is
still at experimental level, only a few farms engage in cage culture. However, it has a lot of
potentials to improve local fish supply.

The major threats to cage culture are water pollution, poaching and conflicts in the use of water
ways. Adequate security measures should, therefore, be provided to ensure that fish are not
stolen, and the cage must be inspected regularly to detect and repair broken nets. Good quality
feed must also be provided for the fish for faster growth.

 Culture System Based on Technology of Production

There is a whole range of models with various degrees of technology and intensiveness involved-
from extensive to intensive aquaculture. Their boundaries are blurred and tend to overlap. In
Nigeria, we have the extensive, semi-intensive and intensive culture systems.

 Extensive Culture System

This system of aquaculture is characterized by low stocking density, low production, little or no
nutritional input and low level of investment. Fish depend mainly on natural productivity of the
pond. Management practices are poor and yield is below 1000kg/ hectare/year.
  Semi-Intensive Culture System

This is the culture system where fish are stocked at a higher stocking density than the extensive
system. Stocking density may range from 2-20 fish per m3 of water depending on culture
facilities. There is usually pond fertilization to increase the primary productivity of the pond.
Supplementary feed are provided for the fish but this may not completely meet their nutrient
requirements. Agro-industrial bye-products such as breweries waste, maggots, chicken intestines,
blood meal, rice bran, etc. and occasionally compounded ration, are fed to the fish. Production
cost is usually moderate and yield is around 10,000kg/hectare/year. A lot of fish farms in Nigeria
operate this system.

 Intensive System

This is a system where fish are stocked at a high stocking density between 20fish/m 3-450fish/m3
depending on level of intensification. Level of intensification could be moderately intensive,
hyper-intensive or ultra-hyper-intensive. Fish are fed exclusively on a nutritionally balanced diet
to meet their nutrient requirements. Cost of production is high, and yield is also very high. In
some cases, there may be complete water flow through the system or a re-circulation of water as
in Re-circulation Aquaculture System (RAS). There is usually the addition of aeration facilities
to improve oxygen level. Production period is usually 5-7 months and operations involve high
technical knowhow. There is an increasing number of fish farms that operate this culture system
in Nigeria.

 Production System Based on Numbers of Species Cultured

There are two types of fish production systems based on the numbers of species cultured in
Nigeria. These are monoculture and poly-culture. Both could, however, be practiced at the
intensive, semi-intensive or extensive levels and could be integrated with other forms of
agriculture.

 Monoculture

This is the culture of a single specie of fish in a pond or tank. For example, the culture of Clarias
gariepinus only or Oreochromis niloticus or Heterotis niloticus or Gymnarcus niloticus, etc. The
advantage of this method of culture is that it enables the farmer to get to know his fish very well.
It helps the farmer to be able to make feed that will meet the nutrient requirements of his fish,
especially in an intensive culture system where feed is used extensively. For species that are not
carnivorous like Tilapia and Heterotis, it enables fish of different ages to be stocked in the same
pond and selective harvesting can be carried out, thus helping the farmer to produce fish all year
round. The main disadvantage of this system is that if there is an outbreak of disease or parasite
infection, all the fish can be wiped out at the same time if adequate treatment is not given on
time.

 Polyculture

This is the culture of two or more species of fish in a pond or tank. Example of this is the culture
of tilapia with catfish or tilapia with Heterotis and catfish or common carp. In this system,
natural food produced in the pond is better utilized since each fish feeds at a different column.
Fish are more resistant to disease outbreaks since different fish are susceptible to different
diseases. This system of culture can be used to control excessive populations of tilapia in a pond,
especially when stocked with carnivorous species like catfish or Gymnarchus niloticus.
Polyculture is a more productive culture system where a farmer can get three times better yield
than under monoculture. It must, however, be noted that if there is poor stocking combination
and size range of fish, especially when carnivorous fish are stocked with other species, results
obtained at the end of the culture period will be very poor.

 Integrated Aquaculture

Integrated aquaculture is the culture of fish alongside other forms of agriculture. It is a semi-
intensive farming system where resources are efficiently utilized and re-cycled in order to
achieve higher production than would have been obtained from a single production system. This
culture system was first practised in densely populated Europe and Asia with primarily
agriculturally based resources and limited access to wild fish stocks.

The main objective of integrated aquaculture is to establish a highly flexible system with low
external inputs, with various outputs all year round. Integrated aquaculture has the following
advantages:

a. It results in optimal utilization of resources, higher return of investment and higher

productivity.
b. It helps to reduce cost of production as wastes generated from livestock or farm produce
are re-cycled to feed fish, while water and silt from the fish pond can be used to irrigate
and fertilize crops.
c. It also helps to reduce environmental pollution due to waste conversion and utilization.
d. It plays a vital role in national economy through production of animal protein and
employment generation.
e. It increases sources of income and food to farmers thereby improving the quality of life
and alleviating poverty and malnutrition.

There are various types of integrated aquaculture system practiced all over the world, which
ranges from very simple systems such as fish with one kind of domestic animal or crop to
complex ones like fish with animals and crops.
In general, the layout of an integrated system should be such that land for fish pond(s), poultry
pens, livestock pens, and crops are well arranged in order to enhance future operation. The
development of each unit should be in phases depending on availability of capital, market outlet
and manpower. In Nigeria the most commonly practiced forms of integrated aquaculture are
described below:

 Fish and Poultry

This is the most common type of integrated aquaculture system practiced in Nigeria. In this
system, fish are raised alongside poultry-layers, broilers, cockerels and or breeders. The poultry
pens are either constructed directly on the fish pond or separated, away from the pond. The
poultry droppings can be used to produce natural food for fish, while some fish consume the
droppings directly. The disadvantage of building a pen on a pond is that it can lead to over
fertilization of the pond which can cause high mortality of fish, especially when the water level
is low. However, one advantage is that it helps to maximize space and saves labour of
transporting manure to the pond. The poultry pen will also be more hygienic. About 1000 layers
of average weight of l kg would be needed to effectively fertilize a hectare of fish pond.

When poultry pens are constructed separately away from a pond, manure from pens are collected
regularly to fertilize the pond and/or used to generate maggots which in turn are used in feeding
fish. Where broilers are dressed, the intestines are used in feeding fish, while waste feed from the
pen, dead chickens and broken eggs are also fed to the fish.

 Fish and Piggery

This is a culture system where fish are raised together with pigs. Pig pens can either be built
directly on the pond or away from the pond. The pig dung is used to fertilize the pond directly or
used to generate maggots for feeding fish, while the pigs wash in and drink water directly from
the pond.

 Fish and Livestock

Fish could also be raised together either with cattle, goat or sheep. The animals graze on the
pond's embankment thereby helping to control weeds, while their faeces are used to fertilize the
pond. The animals also have access to good source of water especially during the dry season.
However, if there is zero grazing, the pond embankment will be prone to erosion.

 Fish and Duck

This is practiced on a low scale in Nigeria. Farmers keep ducks usually on a free range system
although pens are sometimes provided for the ducks to roost in the night, while in the day they
swim around in the ponds. The ducks feed on worms, water insects and fish fry. Their droppings
in turn help to fertilize the pond. By swimming and playing, the ducks also help to aerate the
pond thereby improving the oxygen content. Stocking rate is usually 1 pond. Care should be
taken to ensure that ducks are not released into fry and fingerlings pond so that they don't prey
on them.

 Fish, Rabbit and or Grasscutter

The integration of fish culture with rabbit and/or grasscutter production is fast gaining ground in
Nigeria. Rabbit and grasscutter pens are constructed separately, away from the pond; their faeces
are regularly collected to fertilize the ponds while grasses that are preferred by these rodents
found around the pond's embankment are regularly cut to feed them.

 Fish and Vegetable Production

This is fast gaining ground in Nigeria, especially during the dry season. Farmers either use pond
water directly to grow vegetables and/or grow vegetables directly inside the fish pond after the
fish have been harvested. The advantage of this system is that fertilizers are not added, thus
reducing the cost of production. The vegetables planted inside the pond help to utilize
accumulated nutrients.

 Fish and Plantain or Banana or Pineapple

In this system the fish farmer plants plantains, bananas or pineapples along the embankment of
the pond. The plantain or banana stands provide shade to the pond thereby reducing direct
heating of the pond water by sunlight. Additional income is obtained from the sales of the
plantains or bananas or pineapples. Suckers should, however, not be more than 2-3 stands in a
particular spot to prevent unnecessary shading which can serve as a hideout for predators and
pilferers.

 Fish and Rice Production

This culture system is practiced in some states in the Northern and Southern parts of Nigeria, and
it is still mostly on a small scale. In this system, fish are stocked in rice fields that are flooded
with water. Fish depend mainly on insects, worms, vectors of rice and supplementary
fertilization. Fish that are usually raised are tilapia-and catfish which grow fast and can withstand
high temperatures and low oxygen levels. Culture period is usually 3-4 months. This culture
system helps to reduce the cost of production of rice since the fish directly consume rice vectors
thus preventing farmers from spending money on insecticides which otherwise would have been
used to control them.

 Production System Based on Type of Fish Cultured

  Fin Fish

This is the cultivation of fish with fins in either earthen, concrete, reinforced plastic, wooden
troughs or cages. The types of fish reared could be carnivorous, herbivorous or omnivorous
species. Fish are fed to meet their nutrient requirements while water quality is maintained at the
optimal level. Fin fish cultivation is the most common and popular type of aquaculture in
Nigeria. Some of the species reared are Clarias gariepinus, Heterobranchus spp (catfish),
Oreochromis niloticus, Sarotherodon galilaeus, (tilapia), Heterotis niloticus (African bony
tongue), Cyprinus carpio (common carp), Chryscithys nigrodigitatus (silver catfish) and
Gymnarchus niloticus (trunk fish).

 Crustaceans

Crustacean farming is the rearing of shrimps and prawns in both brackish or marine water and
freshwater respectively. Brackish and marine water. shrimps (Peneaus spp) and freshwater
prawn (Macrobachium spp) are the common crustaceans in Nigeria. However, their cultivation is
still at a low level. Only very few shrimp farms exist in the country.

 Molluscs

Oysters, mussels and scallops are reared by using either hanging immersed methods particularly
in the brackish and marine water This type of aquaculture is common among the natives in the
rur areas of the Niger Delta in Nigeria. These species feed on natural food available in the water.
Its potential is yet to be exploited.

 Production System Based on Cultivation Stage

 Fingerling Production

This is production of fingerlings (baby fish) in the hatchery either on a small, medium or high
scale. Relatively little space is required for hatchery depending on technology involved.
Qualified, trained personnel are required for successful fingerling production. Fish produced are
usually 0.5-3cm in size; however, the appropriate size of fingerling is 3-5cm. Fingerlings are the
major input for successful aquaculture. Many farms are engaged in fingerling production in
Nigeria; however, the supply of fingerlings is yet to meet the demand.

 Juvenile Production

This is rearing of fingerlings to 7-10cm in size. Juveniles are bigger and stronger than fingerlings
and usually have a higher survival rate when stocked in ponds. There is increasing demand for
juveniles by farmers, while more hatchery operators are incorporating juvenile production in
their system.
  Grow-out Production

This is rearing of fish to table size. Fish are sold at the end of the culture period. Sizes of fish
usually range from 500gm and above depending on culture technology, type and quality of feed,
feeding programme, the culture period and target market.

 Broodstock Production

Production of broodstock for hatchery operators for reproduction purpose is just gaining ground
in Nigeria. Fish raised as broodstock are specially selected based on specific qualities such as
fast growth rate, hardiness and resistance to disease. Broodstock are raised on special diets that
will enhance not only growth but also egg quality and semen production. Feeding rate is
controlled to prevent excessive fat accumulation. Few farms are into broodstock production in
Nigeria.

 Production System Based on Water Environment

Fish farming can be practiced in different types of water environment; which can be freshwater,
brackish or marine environment.

 Freshwater Aquaculture

This is the rearing of fish in freshwater where salinity is less than 1 part per thousand (ppt). This
is the most common type of aquaculture practice in Nigeria. Species of fish reared can only
survive in freshwater. Examples of freshwater that can be used are: streams, rivers, springs, rain
water, borehole and well water. The water must be of good quality and pollution free. Over 90%
of fish farming operation in Nigeria is in freshwater.

 Brackish and Marine Water Aquaculture

Brackish water aquaculture is the rearing of fish in salt water where salinity ranges from 1-
34.9ppt. Few species of fish are reared in Nigeria in brackish water. Ponds are usually filled at
high tide and drained at low tide.

Marine water aquaculture is the rearing of fish in salt water where salinity is higher than 35ppt.
The potential of this system of aquaculture is yet to be exploited in Nigeria.

 Production System Based on Geographic Origin of Cultured Species

 Native or Indigenous Species

This is the cultivation of fish that are naturally found in Nigerian waters. There are lots of species
suitable for aquaculture that are found in Nigerian water bodies. The most widely cultured are
African catfish, tilapia, Heterotis niloticus and Chryscithys Spp. Others such as Lates niloticus,
Gymnarchus niloticus, Elops spp. Macrobranchium spp, Panéaus spp and others are yet to be
fully exploited.

 Exotic Species

This is the cultivation of fish species that are not naturally found in the Nigerian water bodies.
Species such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Indian major carps and grass carp were
introduced into Nigeria for culture from Israel, India and United States of America at one time or
the other. Their culture today is very limited as a result of their non-acceptability by the majority
of consumers and their ecological implication.

 Production Based on Target market

 Domestic Market

This is production of fish as food to meet the protein needs of Nigerians. There is a wide gap
between supply and demand. This means that there is a short fall that must be met by increasing
domestic fish production. Fish produced in Nigeria today are mainly for the domestic market;
however, there is high potential for export market of aquaculture products.

 Export Market

This is production of fish for the export market as a source of income for the country. Nigeria
has a lot of potential to produce high quality fish particularly shrimps, freshwater prawns, tilapia,
Lates niloticus and catfish for export to Europe and America. For this to be realized there is the
need for a concerted effort on research on the mass production of these species and appropriate
culture, processing and packaging techniques to meet international standards.

Criteria for Selecting Fish Suitable for Culture

There are several thousands of fish species which abound in Nigerian waters. However, only
some of them satisfy the condition for culture. In selecting fish for culture, it must possess the
qualities listed below.

 Ability to Reproduce under Culture Condition

This is necessary in order to be able to obtain fingerlings for restocking instead of depending on
collection from the wild which may be seasonal and unreliable. There are some species like
Gymnarchus niloticus, Lates niloticus, Parachanna obscura and Heterotis niloticus which at
present cannot reproduce in captivity but are of commercial importance-their fingerlings are still
being obtained from the wild. However, with more research into their breeding habits, it may be
possible in future to produce their fingerlings under culture conditions.

 Temperature Tolerance

Farmers must choose fish which can adapt easily to the temperature of the culture environment.
For instance, some fish cannot tolerate cold water environment and the culture of such fish is
limited to the tropical environment (i.e Heterotis niloticus, Gymnarchus niloticus etc). Some
others cannot tolerate warm water environment. The culture of such species is limited to
temperate regions (i.e. trout, salmon etc). The most suitable culture temperature for fish culture
in Nigeria is between 24℃-31℃.

 Growth Rate and Disease Resistance

Fish to be used for culture must be such that have fast growth rate and reach market size within a
short time. Fish used for culture must be resistant to disease, easy to handle and transport without
any difficulty. A good example is catfish.

 Consumer Acceptability

Fish to be cultured must meet the taste of consumers. Fish preference by consumers differs from
one locality to the other. For instance, in some parts of the country, there is preference for Lates
niloticus and Gymnarchus niloticus, while in some other areas, it is catfish. Therefore, a fish
farmer must consider the acceptability of the fish to be produced by the final consumer in his
locality.

 Compatibility with Other Species and Acceptability of Artificial Feed

Fish to be cultured must be compatible with each other. They must accept artificial feed. This
will help to increase production and thus reduce culture period, thereby increasing the farmer's
profit. It should be noted that only fingerlings of Clarias spp., Heterobranchus spp.,
Heteroclarias, tilapia and common carp can easily be obtained in some government and private
fish hatcheries in the country. Research work is still in progress on how other culturable fish
species can be propagated so that their fingerlings can be obtained by fish farmers.
 POND CONSTRUCTION

 Types of Ponds

A fish pond is a confined body of water where fish are raised under controlled conditions. It
could be earthen or concrete. There are two major types of earthen ponds-excavated pond and
embankment pond

Excavated pond is constructed by “digging out” the soil. It is usually constructed on relatively
flat terrains. Embankment pond is constructed by building up walls or dam across a stream or
water course. They are usually built in areas where land slopes range from gentle to moderately
steep and where stream valleys are depressed to permit water storage to a considerable depth.

o Selection of Pond Site

The failure or success of the fish farming exercise will be determined by the location of the pond
and how well the pond is constructed. Therefore, before selecting a site for fish farming, the
following factors should be considered.

Availability of Good Quality Water in Sufficient Quantities Water supply is the most important
factor in selecting a proper site for aquaculture. Aquatic organisms depend on water for all their
needs. Therefore, good quality water, free from pollution must be available all year round. Water
source can be streams, springs, groundwater, wells, bore-holes, lakes or municipal water supply.

 Nature of soil. The soil must be that which will retain water, preferably clay or silt-clay.
 Topography. The topography of the land should be gently sloping so as to enable water to
flow into the ponds by gravity, although flat land can also be used.
 Environmental Consideration. Choose a location where drainage from domestic sewage,
polluted water from industrial wastes and chemicals used for agricultural purposes will
not drain into the ponds.
 Accessibility. A pond should be constructed where there will be easy access to good
roads for easy transportation of farm inputs.
 Vegetation of site. The site selected for pond construction should not be heavily wooded
to reduce cost of land clearing.
 Construction Work. Pond construction should be handled by experts and not quacks.

o Planning the Pond(s)

It is necessary to estimate the quantity of water available since this will determine the area of
land that can be put into use.

o Layout of Pond(s)
The size and shape of the pond should fit into the topography of the land. If more than one pond
is to be constructed, it is better to have them side by side using a common embankment and
separate inlet and outlet. Water inlet should be located at the shallow end of the pond while
outlet is at the deepest end. The bottom of the pond should slope gently from the inlet to the
outlet, while pond depth should not be more than 1.5m at the deepest and 1.0m at the shallow
end.

o Construction of Earthen Ponds

Once a suitable site has been chosen, the next thing to do is to decide on the size of the pond-
usually a small pond of 0.1 - 0.5ha is ideal for fish culture. This is because small ponds are easier
to construct, manage and harvest. However, they are more expensive to construct per unit area
because they require more earth movement.

The following steps are required:

a. Clear the pond area of all vegetation;

b. Mark the area for excavation with stakes (indicating depth of cut from ground surface to
the pond bottom).
c. Demarcate the base of the pond by pegging at a distance of 3.5m -5m within the first
marked areas as shown in figures 2 and 3, depending on the size of the pond under
construction.
d. Mark out the water inlet and outlet;
e. Start digging from the highest point inside the inner marked stakes.
f. Pond Preparation, Feed Application and Management

The topsoil which is rich in organic matter should be completely removed and heaped aside,
while the wall should be built using good materials such as clay or silt clay. The wall should be
compacted at every 15-20cm layer using wood with flat or round surface. This will help to
strengthen the embankment and prevent sudden collapse when filled with water. If a bulldozer is
used, compaction is ensured by moving on the embankment several times as soil is piled. The
pond bottom should slope gently toward the drain with a minimum depth of 1m and maximum of
1.5m. A slope of 1:1,2:1 or 3:1 is recommended depending on the nature of the soil. To fix the
drainage pipe at the area marked for outlet, cut a trench of about 0.5m wide on the embankment
and fix the drainage pipe which could be PVC or concrete pipes 6" or 9" wide with a turn down
system or control gauge; it could also be rings or concrete pipes connected to monk. This is then
refilled with clay soil and compacted very well. The inlet is also connected to the water source.

Screen should be provided for both the inlet and outlet. If monk is used, monk board should be
provided which will be filled with clay in between to prevent water leakage. For ponds without
good clay material, a "core trench" about Im wide should be made in the centre of the
embankment with proper compaction to prevent pond leakage. Once construction of the pond(s)
is completed, it should be grassed properly with bahama grass to prevent erosion and washing
away of the embankment.

 Construction of Concrete Fish Tanks

The culture of fish in concrete tanks is now a common practice in Nigeria. Several hundreds of
homestead fish farmers operate in concrete tanks made from blocks, plain concrete slabs or
reinforced concrete. Construction methods are usually very simple. Generally, they involve:

a. clearing of proposed site;

b. setting out which involves pegging and lining with rope;
c. stripping of soil to form basement;
d. blinding with cement mortar; setting of blocks and filling of block holes with concrete or
making 4" - 6" plain concrete slab or reinforced concrete and finally,
e. placement of water outlet and inlet pipes and plastering of tanks.

POND PREPARATION, FEED APPLICATION AND MANAGEMENT

 Pond Preparation

Culture facilities (ponds) must be adequately prepared before stocking with fish for a successful
fish culture. Earthen ponds should be de-silted (if it is an old pond) before liming and
impounding with water. Liming of pond is necessary in order to increase pond productivity,
especially in a pond with low pH (acidic pond) and pond water with low alkalinity. Lime should
also be applied when the bottom of the pond is too muddy and when there is high organic matter
content which can lead to low dissolved oxygen.

Lime should be applied to the pond bottom by broadcasting using either calcium carbonate,
hydrated lime or calcium oxide at the rate of 500-2,270kg/ha and 200kg/ha respectively. For a
newly constructed pond, it is cheaper to use calcium carbonate while for old ponds either
hydrated lime or calcium oxide should be used. In rural areas where it is difficult to get lime,
wood ash can be used.

For concrete tanks, reinforced plastic, plastic tanks and wooden troughs, there is no need for
liming (except the water is acidic); however, it must be ensured that these facilities are not
leaking.
Pond fertilization is optional depending on type of culture system. However, if pond is to be
fertilized, this should be done immediately after impounding with water using poultry droppings,
cow dung or pig manure (organic fertilizers) at the rate of 200 - 3000kg/ha. It is better to put
manure in bags and keep them at different corners of the pond. This will allow the nutrient to
leach into the pond slowly without having a negative effect on the water chemistry. This manure
should be removed once the water is green. Inorganic fertilizers such as single or double super
phosphate, and N.P.K can also be used to fertilize the pond at the rate of 25-50kg/ha and 112-
130kg/ha respectively. These are however, more expensive than organic fertilizers and their use
should be discouraged when an organic fertilizer is available.

 Stocking

The number of fish stocked in the pond will be determined by the technology of culture; whether
it is extensive, semi-intensive or intensive. It usually ranges from 1-450 fish/m3 or 1,000 to
450,000 fish per hectare. Whatever system is used by the farmer, it is important that fish of the
same size, either fingerlings (3-5cm) or juveniles (7-10cm) are stocked to avoid uneven growth
that can lead to cannibalism particularly for carnivorous or omnivorous species such as catfish.
In order to get better results, juvenile fish is recommended for stocking.

If it is polyculture, proper species combinations should be ensured where carnivorous or

omnivorous species are stocked with herbivorous species, for example; where tilapia is raised
with catfish, tilapia should be stocked 2-4weeks before the catfish. This will ensure higher
survival rate and bigger size of tilapia at the end of the production period while tilapia fingerlings
produced will also serve as food for catfish.

 Feed and Feeding Practices

 Types of Feed
o Natural Food. These are phytoplankton, zooplankton, insects, etc. which are produced
through pond fertilization using organic manure such as cow dung, pig dung, poultry
droppings and chemical fertilizers such as NPK, urea, single supper phosphate, etc., used
for feeding fish particularly at the early stage of growth.

o Compounded (Artificial) Feeds. These are produced in form of mash, crumbles or pellets.
The pellets can be sinking or floating. Artificial feed can be either complete or
supplemental. Complete feed supplies all the nutrients required by fish in the right
proportion for optimal growth, while supplementary feed does not contain the full
complement of nutrients required for optimal fish growth. For profitable commercial
aquaculture, complete feed is advisable for use.
 o Alternatives to Conventional Feeds. Other alternatives to conventional fish feed that can
be used to reduce cost of fish production are: maggots, chicken offal, cow tripes and
blood meal. These, however, should be properly processed and applied to avoid pollution
of the culture media.

 Feeding Practices

Fish should be fed properly with quality feed of the right size that can meet with the nutrient
requirements of fish at the right time at each stage of their growth in order to achieve optimum
growth.

Fish should be fed 3-8 times at regular intervals per day depending on culture techniques and
stage of growth. Feeding spots should be demarcated in the pond so that all the fish will have
access to the feed given. It is important to observe the response of fish while feeding. This will
help to assess the growth and health status of the fish. In many farms, there is no adequate feed
in terms of quantity and quality, while in some cases, the feeding programme is haphazard. The
farmer should avoid under- or overfeeding of fish. This will lead to poor growth or feed wastage
which increases the cost of production and may lead to pollution of rearing facilities and
increased bacterial loads, leading to disease outbreak.

Fish can be fed manually (point feeding and broadcasting) or by automatic feeders or demand
feeders depending on technology of culture. Feeding should be at 6.5-7.5% body weight of fish
in the first two months and later reduced to 1.5-6% for subsequent feeding. The farmer can
increase or reduce the quantity of feed given to fish depending on their acceptability of the feed.
Feed given to fish should meet their nutrient requirement. For tilapia monoculture 25-30% crude
protein diet is ideal, while for catfish, 40-45% crude protein is ideal. For polyculture of tilapia
with catfish, 35-40% protein diet is ideal. Fish feed can be compounded by the farmer using a
combination of available ingredients within their locality such as fishmeal, soybean cake,
soybean meal, groundnut cake, breweries waste, rice bran, wheat offal, oyster shell, bone meal,
di-calcium phosphate, fish vitamin premix, fish oil, etc. These ingredients can be purchased from
reputable livestock feed dealers or by special arrangement. Ingredients should be properly mixed
together in the right proportions before pelleting and drying in other to reduce feed wastage and
make the nutrients in feed more easily available to fish. Feed should be properly stored in a dry
cool place out of direct sunlight to prevent rancidity and damage to proteins and vitamins. Feed
should not be placed directly on the bare ground. It should be arranged on pallets. The farmer
should avoid high moisture contact with feed which can stimulate mould growth and feed
deterioration. Avoid unnecessary handling that can damage the feed and increase feed wastage.
Rats should be controlled by biological method to reduce feed wastage. Feed should not be
stored more than 1-2 months after production before use to ensure freshness. The shorter the
storage period the better it is.
  Routine Management Practices

Daily care of the fish will lessen, to a great extent, the chance of something going wrong
unnoticed. For new earthen ponds, erosion must be constantly controlled by refilling all eroded
parts of the pond embankment with clay and re-grassing with bahama grass immediately. Pond
should be checked for leakages and water inlet and outlet should be checked for blockage.

Weeding of the pond's surroundings should be done regularly. This will help to eliminate
predators' hideouts and discourage pilferers. Fish response should be observed, especially early
in the morning, before, during and after feeding.

 Water Quality Management

Water quality include all physical, chemical and biological factors that influence the beneficial
use of water. It affects the survival, growth and reproduction of fish. Fish yield will be better in a
pond with good water quality than those with poor water quality.

Fish respond differently to varying water quality. For instance, Clarias sp. can survive in poor
water conditions while sensitive species like tilapia and carp cannot. Therefore, regular
determination of water quality parameters is very important in any fish farm. These are dissolved
oxygen (DO), pH, temperature (TC), nitrite, ammonia, water hardness, alkalinity and turbidity.
Recommended levels are presented in the Table below.
To determine these parameters, there is the need for portable water analysis kits, which are not
too expensive. Water samples can also be collected from the pond by fisheries experts for
analysis in the laboratory, for the farmer. In case a farmer does not have access to these facilities,
the following methods can be used to detect whether the pond water is in good condition for fish
culture.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Spit into the pond early in the morning and wait for 1-2 minutes, if the
spit dissolved quickly, the dissolved oxygen level is high in the pond but if it does not dissolve, it
is very low.

If fish come up early in the morning opening their mouths to gulp air, DO is low in the pond. The
farmer can do any of the following to correct low DO in a pond:

o allow fresh water into the pond through the water inlet;
o aerate the pond if aerators are installed or use a pumping machine to pump water from
one side of the pond to the other;
o stir water with a plank or paddle a canoe round inside the pond if this is available.

pH: Taste the water, if it is salty or sour, pH is low (acidic). To correct this, add some quantity of
lime preferably calcium carbonate.

Hardness: Use pond water to wash hands, if soap takes a long time to lather and if lather does
not stay very long, the water is hard and good for fish culture. But if it lathers easily and is
difficult to wash off, the water is soft; therefore, the farmer will need to apply lime.

A farmer can also look at the side of the pond wall (embankment) where the water line is. If
there is a white line on the wall where water is touching the pond before water level falls, the
water is hard and good for fish culture.

Turbidity: If the farmer puts his hand inside the pond and it disappears when the water is about
elbow deep, the water is not too turbid. But if it appeared before it reaches the elbow the water is
either turbid or very productive (it should be noted that light greenish turbidity is preferable).
However, if the entire arm from hand to shoulder can be seen under the water, it is not
productive (i.e. it does not contain any fish food). To correct this, pond should be fertilized.

 Sampling

This should be carried out either biweekly or on a monthly basis in order to check for fish growth
and adjust fish feed (Plate 24). It is also done for selective cropping of big fish, especially in a
polyculture of non-carnivorous species of different ages. Sampling also helps the farmer to know
whether or not his fish have been tampered with. Sampling equipment include drag or cast net,
weighing scale, hand net, empty containers, etc.

 Harvesting
Once fish are fed well, depending on level of intensification of production, fish can be harvested
between 5-12 months. Usually, average weight will range from 0.6-2kg for catfish, 0.30-0.6kg
for tilapia to 0.8-1.3kg for heterotis and common carp. Percentage survival rate will depend on
size of fish stocked. In a polyculture of catfish with tilapia where fingerlings are stocked,
survival rate will range between 20-80%, and for juveniles between 70-95%. If polyculture of
non-carnivorous species is practiced, survival rate will range between 70-95%.

During harvesting, fish are normally removed either by complete or partial drainage of pond. If
the pond is drained completely, fish are scooped out with a hand net or basket. But if it is partial
harvesting, drag nets are used until fish population is reduced. When the pond is finally drained,
leftover fish are removed. Fish should be handled with care during harvesting in order not to
injure them.

Provision should be made for tank(s) with clean water for holding the fish immediately they are
brought out of the pond in order not to stress them. Water to water principle should be strictly
adhered to.

Harvesting materials are usually drag net, hand net, basket, drum(s) or tank(s) with clean water,
tractor or vehicle for transportation of fish to point of sale, and containers, etc. Holding of fish in
tanks should be for a short period of time, water should be changed from time to time, and the
tank should be covered with a net to prevent the fish from jumping out.

 Marketing

In Nigeria today, market abounds for fresh fish and the price per kilogram is favourable
depending on location and bargaining power of the farmer. Prior to the day of harvesting, fish
farmers should make proper arrangements and contacts on how to sell their fish in order to
reduce post-harvest loss. The farmer should carry out a market survey of the price of fish in his
locality to avoid over-pricing or under-pricing. Farmers should advertise sales of fish 1-2 weeks
before harvesting and take bookings of the quantity required by customers. The farmer should
have a sales outlet not too far from the farm and provision should be made for both retail and
wholesale buyers. Sales should be on “cash and carry” basis. The farmer should have a good
weighing balance and a sales officer who is intelligent in the use of the weighing balance in
order to prevent over-or under- weighing of fish which can lead to shortage or loss of future
customers. Unsold fish should either be frozen or smoked and if still alive and in good condition
can be returned into the pond.
  Record Keeping

There should be proper records of all the activities carried out on the farm from the first day till
harvesting time. This will not only help to plan for the coming production year but will also help
to compute farm expenses and income accurately. To this effect, the following records should be
kept.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH FISH FARMING AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

 Problems

 Theft, Poaching and Pilfering

This is a serious threat to the success of fish farming in Nigeria. Pillay (1990) explained that
poaching and wanton killing of stocks are problems faced in varying degrees in almost all
countries. Ponds are either drained completely overnight by removing monk/pipe or outlet, or
hooks and long lines are set overnight by intruders. The use of baskets and cutlasses, cast, gill or
drag nets are also common, especially during the dry season when water level is very low. All
these undermine the security of the stock and have led to complete failure of many fish farms in
Nigeria. Losses due to theft could be as high as 100% while poaching/pilfering could be between
10-40% or even more.

 Predators

Predators can, and do cause fish farmers considerable loss. Predators, such as frogs, snakes (Plate
26), monitor lizard, alligator, birds such as kingfishers, heron, falcon, egret and water duck are
threats to aquaculture. Some of these predators feed on fry, fingerlings or juveniles, while others
feed on adult fish. Predatory fish when mistakenly allowed into the pond can cause more
production losses than all other predatory animals combined.

 Cannibalism

This is more common in catfish production at all levels (fry, fingerlings and grow-out). The
bigger and more aggressive fish tend to prey on smaller fish. This can drastically reduce the fish
population and cause considerable loss to a fish farmer.

 Pollution

Pollution of pond water can be caused by several factors such as overfeeding, decomposition of
grass, excessive algae die-off, over-fertilization and excessive liming. There could also be
pollution by run-off from farms where chemicals, pesticides and herbicides are used to control
certain crop diseases, pests and weeds. Insecticides such as Gammalin 20 can be applied directly
into the ponds by saboteurs. Effluents from domestic use and industries emptied into rivers or
streams used for aquaculture can also cause pollution. All these lower the dissolved oxygen level
of the water, expose the fish to stress factors, lower their body resistance and increase their
susceptibility to disease attack which can eventually lead to deaths or wipe them out outrightly.

 Disease outbreak

Fish are continuously exposed to a wide range of diseases and parasites, which can cause
economic losses: Losses due to disease come not only from mortality but also from cost of
treatment, loss of opportunity to sell and loss of growth during and after infestation.

Fish can suffer from bacterial, viral and fungal infections. There could also be parasitic
organisms such as worms and leaches, viral and fungal infections and nutritional disorders.
There are also congenital diseases, tumors and other disorders of growth which are poorly
understood.

Usually, disease outbreaks occur when fish are in poor conditions such as over-crowding,
starvation and/ or use of poor quality feed. Fish can be stressed either by rough handling or when
injured, and under conditions of low dissolved oxygen, high temperature or accumulation of
pollutants in the culture environment. Infected fish usually die slowly, a few fish each day.

To recognize a diseased or parasite infected fish, look out for the following signs:

 Refusal of fish to feed due to loss of appetite;

 Crowding of fish at the water surface particularly near water inlet;
 Abnormal activities such as whirling, twisting, or lack of activity;
 Abnormal colouration and erosion of the scale and skin;
 Failure of fish to respond to stimulus;
 Rubbing of body against surfaces;
 Accumulation of liquid in body cavity;

Fish exhibiting any of these signs should be closely examined.

 Management Lapses

Failure of pond owner/farm manager/supervisor to observe certain routine management practices

can cause a serious threat not only to the fish but to the entire business. Improper pond
preparation before stocking can lead to fish loss. Failure to clean monk/spillway of grasses or
rubbish which can block the screen can lead to flooding, leading to fish escape.

A leaking monk can lead to loss of considerable amounts of water thereby exposing the fish to
series of dangers. This can also affect the water chemistry which might pose some problems to
fish health. Haphazard feeding programmes can lead to feed wastage, irregular fish size and
cannibalism. Overstocking, wrong species combination and ratio can lead to fish loss and
wastage. Lack of maintenance of eroded embankment can weaken and cause the collapse of the
pond and lead to fish escape.

Poor sanitation of pond environment can create problems. For instance, predators and intruders
can hide and cause havoc if surroundings are overgrown with weeds. Carelessness of the
manager or supervisor in leaving behind any type of net or material that can be used to harvest
fish overnight can threaten the security of the fish.

Carelessness in handling fish at any stage of growth can lead to stress and eventual mortality of
the fish. Failure to train attendants and monitor their attitude and their commitment to the job can
lead to sabotage and undermine the security of the fish and the farm as a whole. Lack of integrity
and honesty on the part of the manager/supervisor can pose a serious threat to the entire farm.
This can lead to lack of discipline, breakdown of law and order and under-productivity.

 Possible Solutions

The activities of thieves and poachers can be reduced by fencing off the farm and putting up 'no
trespass' signs. Routine surveillance of ponds, effective security patrol (night and day), erection
of security tower and the use of security dogs will help to reduce the menace of pilferers,
poachers and thieves. Government should promulgate fisheries edicts and legislation to guard
against poaching activities. This will ensure the security, promotion and development of
aquaculture in Nigeria.

Predators, such as frogs can be controlled by fencing the pond to the height of 1m, especially
when fish are very small. They can also be harvested from the pond by dragging. Removal of
vegetative cover around the pond will reduce their breeding places and hideouts.

Reptiles such as snakes, monitor lizards and birds can be controlled by shooting and trapping.
Scaring devices can also be used to scare birds. Predatory fish can be eliminated by draining and
disinfecting pond using calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide and screening the water supply.
Inspection of fish to be stocked is also very important in order to avoid introducing unwanted
fish.

Cannibalism can be reduced by proper grading of fish before stocking. This will ensure
uniformity of the size of fish stocked and thus reduce the tendency of cannibalism among fishes.
Proper feeding programmes considering quality, quantity and regularity should also be ensured
to reduce cannibalism.

Prevention is the best control measure to overcome fish disease outbreak. In order to reduce
causes of disease and parasitic infections, the fish farmer should stock only healthy fish from
reliable hatcheries; prevent excessive fertilization of pond; feed fish only with a balanced diet
that will meet their nutrient requirement; and prevent run-off from agricultural farms and other
forms of polluted water from entering the pond. Pond should not be overstocked. Wild fish
should be prevented from entering the pond by ensuring proper screening of water inlet; and
quality water free of pathogens should be provided for raising fish. However, when a farmer
notices that fish are distressed and/or are dying in the pond, he should stop feeding for some days
until mortality reduces or stops. Water in the pond should be drained and fresh water should be
let in continuously. Feed given to fish after should be rich in vitamins and minerals and applied
in smaller quantities until the fish recover again. A fisheries expert should be consulted for
proper diagnosis and medication.

Effective supervision of the day-to-day activities by the Fishery Manager or. Supervisor will
enhance the security of the farm. Ponds should be inspected regularly to determine the need for
minor or major repairs. Eroded dams should be refilled with clay, compacted and regressed.
Monk, spill way, inlet and outlet screens should be kept free of grasses, garbage and dirt.
Necessary steps should be taken to control any abnormalities at the right time. High intelligence
in the manager or supervisor in solving any problem detected and introduction of new
technology will lead to increased production.

Viable insurance policy coverage should be packaged by the agriculture insurance companies
and other insurance firms for the aquaculture project. This will ensure the security of the interest
of investors, shareholders, bankers and others interested in financing the business.

REFERENCES

Omitoyin, B.O. 2007. Introduction to Fish Farming in Nigeria. Ibadan University Press. 90p