Kingdom - FUNGI

NCERT Syllabus: Fungi – General introduction, Life cycle of Rhizopus, Life cycle of Yeast, Economic
importance, Characteristic features of important fungi: Albugo, Puccinia, Agaricus.
Life cycle of Rhizopus.

KINGDOM: FUNGI
 The term ‘fungus’ (plural: fungi) is a Latin word meaning mushroom, and this term was coined
by Gaspard Bauhin (1560-1624). The science of study of fungi is known as mycology (Gk.
mykes: mushroom; logos. study) or mycetology.
 Father of mycology: Pier Antonio Micheli (1 679-1737).
 Father of systematic mycology: E. M. Fries (1794-1878).
 Father of modem mycology and plant pathology: H. A. de Bary.
 Father of lndian mycology and plant pathology: E. J. Butler.
 K. R. Kirtiker was the first Indian scientist who collected and identified fungi.
 Whittaker (1969) placed this group of achlorophyllous organisms in a separate kingdom
Fungi.

DEFINITION
Alexopoulos (1952) defined fungi as nucleated, achlorophyllous organisms, which typically reproduce
sexually and asexually and whose usually filamentous, branched somatic structures are surrounded
by walls containing cellulose or chitin or both.

DISTRIBUTION
There are more than 1,00,000 species of fungi, which are cosmopolitan in distribution.

HABITAT
Fungi are ubiquitous i.e., found in almost every habitat. They flourish well in moist, dark and warm
conditions. The most usual habitat of fungi is wet soil rich in humus. A few forms are aquatic, e.g.,
Saprolegnia, Allomyces, Achlya, etc.

NUTRITION
Fungi lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
Therefore, they obtain their nutrition from the external source by the process of extra cellular digestion
and absorption of the digested material. Such mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic and absorptive,
and the organisms are called heterotrophs.
 According to their mode of nutrition, fungi are of two types: parasites and saprophytes.
Parasites: They obtain their food from living hosts. Parastitic fungi are of two types, obligate
parasite (e.g. Puccina) and facultative saprophyte (e.g. Ustilago).
Saprophytes: They derive their food from dead and decaying organic matter. Saprophytes are
of two types, obligate saprophyte (e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus, etc.) and facultative parasite (e.g.
Fusarium).
 Some fungi are symbiotically associated with algae to form lichens. A few form has symbiotic
association with roots of higher plants (e.g.. Pinus) called mycorrhiza.

THALLUS ORGANIZATION
 The plant body of fungi is thallus, which may be acellular and multicellular. Acellular thallus
may be motile (e.g., Synchytrium) or non-motile (e.g., Saccharomyces). Multicellular thallus is
tubular, filamentous, branched and is called mycelium. The unit of mycelium is hypha.
 The mycelium may be aseptate and septate. Aseptate mycelium lacks septa. It is
multinucleate and is called coenocytic, e.g., members of Phycomycetes. In aseptate
mycelium, septa formation occurs at the time of injury and during separation of reproductive
structures. Septate mycelium is partitioned into separate compartments by means of cross
walls (septa). Individual cell may be uninucleate, binuclate or multinucleate.

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 Each septum is perforated by a central pore. The pore may be either simple or dolipore. The
septal pores may, however, remain partially plugged by woronin bodies.
 Mycelium may be eucarpic (only a part forms the reproductive body) or holocarpic (the whole
mycelium is transfomed into reproductive body). The eucarpic forms may be monocentric
(having a single sporangium or polycentric (having many sporangia).

FUNGAL TISSUES
 In some higher fungi, the mycelium gets organised into loosely or compactly woven structure,
which looks like a tissues called plectenchyma (Gk plekein = to weave, enchyma = tissue). It
is of two types:
 Prosenchyma (Gk. pros = towards, enchyma = tissue): It consists of loosely woven hyphae
which he almost parallel to each other and the cells and hyphae are easily distinguishable.
 Pseudoparenchyma (Gk. pseudo = false, enchyma = tissue): It consists of compact mass of
parenchyma like tissues where the hyphae are closely packed and interwoven so that they
loose their individuality and can not be easily distinguishable from one another.
 In addition to above, the fungal mycelium may form some specialized structures like
rhizomorphs, sclerotic and stroma.

CELL STRUCTURE
 Fungi are eukaryotic and possess true nuclei. Fungal cells are bounded by definite cell wall.
The cell wall is made up of fungal cellulose/chitin (nitrogen containing polysaccharide or
heteropolymer of acetyl glucosamine which are also found in insects). True cellulose is found
in cell wall of some Phycomycetes (e.g. Phytophthora).
 The cell wall encloses protoplast, which is differentiated into plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus and vacuoles. Cytoplasm has all the eukaryotic cell organelles, except plastid.
However, a reddish pigment, neocercosporin has been isolated from the fungus Cercospora
kikuchii. The dictyosomes are also not typical. Lomasome (Moore and McAlear 1961) is a
convoluted complex of membranous outgrowth of plasmalemma.
 Vacuoles are many but small Near the hyphal tip the cytoplasm contains small vesicles called
chitosomes (Braker et al, 1974). They contain cell wall materials.
 Nuclei are smaller as compared to those of higher plants Nuclei undergo intranuclear spindle
formation (kar Moore 1961)
 Food reserve is glycogen (animal starch) and oils Volutin granules are present

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
Vegetative reproduction occurs by the following methods:
 Fragmentation: Mycelium may break accidentally into two or more parts. Each segment
develops into complete mycelium.
 Fission: It occurs in unicellular forms where cell division produces two daughter cells e.g.,
yeasts.
 Budding: The protrusion grows out into a bud. The bud constricts at the bases and separates
into a new individuals e.g., yeasts. Sometime a number of buds may be seen attached to the
parent cell, e.g., torula.
 Chlamydospores: They are thick walled, black, multinucleate resting spores formed by the
collection of protoplasm at one or many places from the adjacent places. They are mostly
intercalary and after the separation, germinate to produce new mycelia, e.g., Rhizopus,
Mucor, Ustilago, etc.
 Oidia (Arthrospores): Oidia are thin walled structures produced in chain. They are formed by
the segmentation of hypha in the presence of excess water, sugar and salts. They germinate
immediately after liberation and produce new mycelia, e.g., Mucor. The oidia formation in
Mucor represents the Torula stage.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is accomplished by means of asexual spores formed by mitosis, so also called
mitospores. Asexual spores are of two types, motile (zoospores) and non-motile (aplanospore).

ZOOSPORES
 The zoospores are thin walled flagellate spores produced inside a sac like structure known as
zoosporangium.

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 Zoospores may be uniflagellate or biflagellate. The flagella occur anteriorly, laterally or

posteriorly, e.g., aquatic fungi.
 The biflagellate zoospore is of two types, primary and secondary. The primary zoospore is
pyriform and has two anteriorally attached and forwardly directed flagella. The secondary
zoospore, formed by the germination of primary zoospore, is reniform and has two unequal
laterally attached and oppositely directed flagella. The phenomenon of the occurrence of two
types of zoospores in the same asexual life cycle of a fungus is called diplantism and the
fungus is called diplantic, e.g., Saprolegnia.

APLANOSPORES
 Aplanospores are of two types, sporangiospores and conidia.
 Sporangiospores are thin walled, non-motile, uni-or multinucleate spores produced
endogenously in sporangium. After dispersal and germination, they produce new mycelia,
e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor, etc.
 Conidia (Gk. konis - dust, idion - diminutive) are non-motile, thick walled asexual spores
produced exogenously at the tip of special hypha, called conidiophores, in a basipetal
succession. They are produced either singly (e.g. Pythium, Phytophthora) or in chain (e.g.
Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc). Conidia are dispersed by wind. On falling on suitable
substratum, each conidium produces a new mycelium e.g., Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc.

Fig 1. Various Asexual spores in Fungi

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 True fungi reproduce by sexual method, but in the members of the fungi imperfecti
(Deuteromycetes), sexual reproduction is not seen.
 The sexual stages are either absent or unknown. The sexual reproduction in true fungi is
affected by the fusion of two nuclei of different parentage.

PROCESS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

During sexual reproduction three processes occur:
 Plasmogamy: Fusion of cytoplasm of two sex units of opposite strains (+ and —).
 Karyogamy: Fusion of nuclei to form synkaryon (2n).
 Meiosis: Reductional division of synkaryon to form haploid meiospores.
 In higher fungi, plasmogamy is not soon followed by karyogamy rather it gets delayed. Before
fusion, they get paired to form dikaryon (n + n).
 In some fungi, these processes do not occur at specific time in the life cycle. This
phenomenon is called parasexuality. It was first recorded by Pontecorvo and Roper (1952) in
Aspergillus nidullans.

METHODS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

The various methods by which the compatible nuclei are brought together through plasmogamy are
as follows:
 Gametangial copulation: In this method, the sexual fusion occurs between the entire
contents of two gametangia in any of the following two ways:

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 In some true fungi, particularly in the holocarpic forms, the gametangial copulation is affected
by the transfer of entire contents of one gametangium into the other through a pore developed
in the gametangial walls at the point of contact.
 In some true fungi, the two gametangia fuse with each other by the dissolution of contact
walls, leading to the formation of a common cell in which the contents of the two gametangia
mix.
 Gametangial contact: In many true fungi, the male and female gametangia come into
contact with each other. The male nucleus or nuclei from male gametangium (antheridium)
are directly transferred into the female gametangium (oogonium), either through a pore
formed in the common wall at the point of contact, or through one or more fertilization tubes
that arise from the antheridium. The fertilization then takes place by the fusion of male
nucleus with the egg inside the oogonium. After the fertilization, either both the gametangia
(i.e., antheridium and oogonium) or only the male gametangium (antheridium) may eventually
collapse.
 Spermatization: In some true fungi, numerous uninucleate, unicellular, non-motile male cells
called spermatia (sign. spermatium), are borne externally in various ways on the
spermatiophores.
 Somatogamy: In most of the higher true fungi, the sex organs are completely lacking. In such
true fungi, the sexual reproduction consists in the anastomosis of somatic hyphae bearing the
nuclei of different parentage.

Fig 2. Different methods of sexual reproduction in Fungi

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

There are three types of sexual reproduction-isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
 Isogamy: In isogamy, both fusing gametes are morphologically and physiologically similar.
 Anisogamy: In anisogamy, the fusing gametes are morphologically dissimilar and
physiologically similar.
 Oogamy: In oogamy, the fusing gametes are both morphologically and physiologically
dissimilar.

SEX ORGANS
There are two types of sex organs (gametangia) male and female. The male sex organ is called
antheridium while the female sex organ is called oogonium (in the members of Oomycetes) or
ascogonium (in the members of Ascomycetes). There is no development of sex organ in the members
of Basidiomycetes, though they reproduce sexually by somatogamy. There is no sexual reproduction
at all in the members of Deuteromycetes, so they are called Fungi Imperfecti.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
 A number of criteria are used for classification of fungi. The important ones are morphology of
vegetative structure, morphology of reproductive structure, types of meiospores, types of
mitospores, life cycle, physiology, biochemistry, etc.
 The major groups of fungi are as follows:

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF MAJOR GROUPS

Phycomycetes (the algal fungi)
 They are found on decaying leaves and damp places and also as parasites.
 Hyphal wall contains cellulose and other glycans in many members. In some cases chitin or
fungus cellulose is also present.
 The mycelium is aseptate coenocytic (multinucleate).
 Asexual reproduction is through zoospores as well as aplanospores. Both the kinds of spores
are produced in sporangia.
 Zoospores are generally biflagellate.
 The sexual reproduction takes place by fusion of similar (isogamy) and dissimilar (Oogamy)
gametes. The method of sexual reproduction is gametangial contact.
 Gametes are usually non-flagellate.
 The common members are Albugo, Phytophthora, etc.

Zygomycetes (the conjugation fungi)

 It is a class of terrestrial fungi which are mostly saprotrophic and rarely parasitic.
 Hyphal wall contains chitin or fungus cellulose.
 The mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate; aseptate) like the one found in phycomycetes.
 Motile cells (zoospores or planogametes) are absent.
 Mitospores are non motile.
 The method of sexual reproduction is gametangial copulation.
 The gametes are commonly multinucleate and are called coenogametes.
 Sexual reproduction produces a resting diploid spore called zygospore. Because of the
presence of zygospore, the group of fungi is called Zygomycetes.
 Zygospore does not give rise to new mycelium directly. Instead it produces a new sporangium
called germ sporangium (previously called zygosporangium). Germ sporangium forms
meiospores called germ spores, which later develop new mycelia.
 The common members are Rhizopus, Mucor, etc.

Ascomycetes (the sac fungi)

 They include pigmented moulds (brown, green, blue, pink), powdery mildews, yeasts, cup
fungi, morcis and truffles.
 The mycelium consists of separate hyphae. Yeasts are an exception in that they are basically
unicellular. Cell wall contains chitin.
 Motile structures do not occur in the life cycle.
 In majority of Ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is through the
formation of conidia, formed in chains exogenously.

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 Conidia are borne on branched or unbranched hyphae called conidiophores. They detach
from the parent and form new mycelia.
 Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of sex cells, gametangial contact between an
antheridium and ascogonium and autogamy.
 Sexual reproduction is through (auxospores) which are formed endogenously in a sac like
structure called ascus.
 The gametes involved in sexual reproduction are non-motile, compatible and are generally
represented as + and –. The fusion of gametes is followed by reductional division that
produces ascospores, which on germination gives rise to new mycelia.
 The asci may occur freely or get aggregated into specific fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
Ascocarps are of many types: apothecium (cup like, e.g., Peziza), perithecium (flask shaped
e.g., Neurospora) or cleistothecium (closed e.g., Penicillium). The fructifications of some
Ascomycetes are edible, e.g., morels, truffles, etc.
 Yeast, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Claviceps are common examples.

Basidiomycetes (the club fungi)

 They are the most advanced and most commonly seen fungi as their fructifications are often
large and conspicuous, e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi, etc.
 Basidiomycetes are among the best decomposers of wood. They are able to decompose both
cellulose and lignin.
 Motile structures or cells are absent.
 Mycelia are of two types, primary and secondary. Primary mycelium contains monokaryotic
cells, i.e., cells with single haploid nuclei.
 Monokaryotic phase or primary mycelium may multiply by oidia, conidia like spores and
pycniospores.
 Sexual reproduction does not involve sex organs. Instead fusion occurs between germinating
basidiospores and other monokaryotic spores, between a spore or spermatium and a
receptive hypha (spermatisation) or between two hyphal cells of primary mycelia
(somatogamy).
 There is often differentiation of two mating types, (+) and (—).
 Sexual reproduction actually causes plasmogamy or fusion of protoplasts without fusion of
their nuclei.
 Karyogamy is delayed for long. The intervening phase is called dikaryophase. It produces a
new mycelium called secondary mycelium.
 Secondary mycelium is long lived. It consists of profusely branched septate hyphae in which
the septa possess dolipore or central pore with barrel shaped outgrowths.
 Dikaryophase or secondary mycelium may multiply by different types of spores
chlamydospores, accidiospores, uredospores, teleutospores, etc.
 Karyogamy and meiosis occur in club shaped structures known as basidia (singular:
basidium). The name of the class is given after them.
 A basidium commonly produces four meiospores or basidiospores exogenously at the tips of
fine outgrowths called sterigmata.

Deutcromycetes (the fungi imperfecta)

 Deuteromycetes is an artificial class of fungi that has been created to include all those fungi in
which. sexual stage is not known or they have not been classified and placed anywhere else
as yet.
 The mycelium is usually septate. Coenocytic forms are not known.
 Asexual reproduction often occurs by conidia along with some other types of spores. In some
cases even asexual spores are absent.
 It is believed that most members of deuteromycetes are actually ascomycetous fungi in which
sexual reproduction is either absent or yet to be discovered.
 Common examples are Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Alternaria, etc.

Economic importance of fungi

 Mushroom: Agaricus campestris is a common mushroom with edible basidiocarps. Agaricus
brunnescens (= A. bisporus) is cultivated. Honey mushroom (Armillariella = Armillaria mellea)

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is edible but is a root parasite on many trees. Psilocybe mexicana (sacred mushroom) is
hallucinating like LSD. It is used by Mexican Indians for certain religious ceremonies.
 Toadstools: A poisonous mushroom is called toadstool. It often possesses white
basidiospores, e.g., Amanita palloides/A. caesarea (death cup/Caesar’s mushroom). The
latter was used for killing Roman emperor Claudius Caesar by his wife.
 Bracket or shelf fungi: They are Basidiomycetes whose basidiocarps appear on tree trunks,
logs, etc. just as bracket or shelves (lignocolous or epixylic) e.g., Ganoderma, Fames plantus
(perennial), Polyporus sulphureus (annual).
 Puffballs: They are edible in the young stage but send puffs of spores on ripening, e.g.,
Lycoperdon, Clavatia. The latter has anticancer properties.
 Smuts: Smuts are pathogenic basidiomycetes that possess thick walled, black coloured
resting spores called chlamydospores, teleutospores or smut spores. Smuts are of two types,
loose and covered. In loose smuts, the spores are exposed from the beginning, e.g., loose
smut of wheat (Ustilago tritici). In covered smuts, the spores remain covered till before
liberation, e.g., corn smut (Ustilago maydis, grains become very large gall like), bunt of wheat
(Tilletia tritici), whip smut of sugarcane (Uscitaminae).
 Rusts: The pathogenic basidiomycetes produce rusty pustules, e.g., Puccinia graminis tritici
(black rust of wheat). Puccinia completes its life cycle on two hosts, wheat and barberry, Such
a parasite is called heteroecious. Indian scientist K.C. Mehta is famous for his work on black
rust of wheat. The spores produced on wheat are uredospores (stage II) and teleutospores
(stage III). Uredospores can reinfect wheat but teleutospores cannot do it. Instead they give
rise to basidia (stage IV). Basidiospores infect barberry. Pycnidia (stage I) develop on the
upper surface of barberry leaves where dikaryotization occurs. It gives rise to aecidial stage
(stage 0). Aecidia develop on the lower surface of barberry leaves. They form aecidiospores
that infect wheat.
 Predator fungi: The fungi trap small nematodes and other animals to obtain nourishment
from them,e.g., Dactyella bembicoides, D. ellipsospora.
 Stinkhorn: Phallus impudicus (dead man’s finger). Stinking odour is due to spore mass that
is attractant to flies.

OTHER ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

 Organic acids: Many fungi are valuable for the commercial production of various organic acids
as their metabolic products. Some of the important organic acids, that are obtained from the
fungi, are given in table:

Table: Organic acids obtained from fungi

Organic acid Produced by

Citric acid Aspergillus niger
Fumaria acid Rhizopus stolonifer
Gallic acid Penicillium glaucum. Aspergillus niger
Gluconic acid Aspergillus niger
Itaconic acid Aspergillus terreus
Kozic acid Aspergillus flavus
Lactic acid Rhizopus oryzae
L-malic acid Schizophyllum commune
Oxalic acid Aspergillus niger, Sclerotinium Sclerotiorum
Trans epoxysuccinic acid Aspergillus fumigatus

 Enzymes: Various kinds of enzymes are synthesized on commercial scale by using different
fungi. Some important enzymes and the fungi that are used to produce them are listed in
table:

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Table: Fungi that produce enzymes

Fungi Types of enzyme

Aspergillus oryzae Amylase, pectinase, protease and glucoamylase
Amylase, protease, amyloglucosoidase, pectic enzyme and
Aspergillus niger
glucose oxide
Mucor sp. Rennet protease
Penicillium chrysogenum Glucose oxidase
Rhizopus sp. Lipase, pectic enzymes and amyloglucosoidase
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Invertase, eymase
Trichoderma viridae Cellulase

 Pigments: Some fungi are grown on commercial basis for the extraction of pigments that are
used for the preparation of various dyes. Table shows some pigments obtained from various
fungi.

Table: Pigments obtained from fungi Table: Vitamins obtained from fungi
Pigment Fungus Vitamin Fungus
Atromentin Paxillus atromentosus Vitamin B Yeasts
Ergosterol (the precursor of
-carotene Blakeslea trispora Yeasts
vitamin D)
Ashbya gossypii,
Catenarin Helminthosporium spp. Riboflavin
Eremothecium ashbyi
Citrinin Penicillium citrinum Vitamin A Rhodotorula gracilis
Neocereosporin Cercospora kikuchii
Phoenicin Penicillium phoenicum
Spinulosin Penicillium spinulosum

Table: Antibiotics produced by fungi

Antibiotics Source Biological activity

Penicillin Penicillium notatum Active against Gram(+)ve bacteria
Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum P. nigricans Antifungal
Cephalosporin Emericellopsis minimum Antibacterial
Viridin Gliocladium vilens Antifungal
Fumagillin Aspergillus fumigatus Amoebocide
Fumigatin A. fumigatus Antibacterial
Giiotoxin Gliocladium virens Antibacterial and antifungal
Patulin Aspergillus calvatus Antibacterial and antifungal
Sparassol Sparassis ramose Antifungal
Statolan Penicillium stoloniferum Antiviral
Ustilagic acid Ustilago maydis Antifungal and antibacterial
Wortmann in Talaromyces wortmannii Antifungal
Table: Fungal disease of plants

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Disease Causal organism

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Black or stem rust of wheat Puccinia graminis trifici

Brown or leaf rust of wheat Puccinia recondita tritici
Yellow or stripe rust of wheat Puccinia striiformis
Loose smut of wheat Ustilago nuda tritici
Flag smut of wheat Phythium graminicolum
Powdery mildew of wheat Erysiphe graminis tritici
Bunt of wheat Tilletia foetida
Leaf smut of rice Entyloma oryzae
Covered smut of oat Ustilago kolleri
Loose smut of barely Ustilago nuda hordei
Loose smut of oat Ustilago avenae
Downy mildew of jowar Sclerospora sorghii
Green ear of bajra Sphacelotheca sorghii
Covered smut of jowar Sphacelotheca cmenta
Green smut of jowar Sclerospora graminicola
Red rot of sugarcane Colletrotrichum falcatum
Cane smut Ustilago scitaminae
Wilt of arhar Fusarium udum
Early blight of potato Alternaria solani
Late blight of potato Phytophthora infestans
Wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Onion smut Urocystis cepulae
Anthracnose of mango Glomerella psidii
Blight of garlic Alternaria palwldi
Leaf rust of coffee HAemlia vestarix
Leaf rust of tea Pestalozzia theae
White rust of crucifers Albugo candida (=Cystpous candidus)
Root rot of pine Poria monticola
Wilt of Acacia Fusarium vasinfectum
Wilt of cotton Fusarium spp.
Stem rot of jute Macrophoma corchori
Leaf spot of rice Helminthosporium oryzae

 Disease of animals: Certain species of Trichophyton and Microsporium, are responsible for
causing a number of disease such as phycomycosis, rhinosporidiosis and mycotic abortions
in a large number of animals. The ringworm disease of dogs and horses is cause by
Microsporum canis. Aspergillus fumigatus, is the cause of bovine abortions in birds, ducks
and chickens.
 Disease of fishes: Saprolegnia and Achlya are the common parasites of fishes. Saprolegnia
ferax and S. parasitica infect the fishes of the domestic aquaria.
 Hallucinogenic fungi: A number of fungi affect the nervous system in such a manner that
the consumer has hallucinations. Amanita muscaria and Psilocybe mexicana are the common
hallucinogenic fungi.
 Fungi as allergens: A large number of fungi, e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium,
Alternaria,Fusarium, Cephalosporium, Trichoderma, Chaetomium, Mucor, Rhizopus,
Claviceps, the yeasts, the rusts and smuts are responsible for causing various types of
allergic disease in man.
RHIZOPUS: LIFE CYCLE
Occurrence

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Rhizopus is a common and widely distributed saprophytic fungus belonging to the family Mucoraceae.
The genus includes about 35 species of which Rhizopus stolonifer is one of the most common
representative. It is commonly called bread mould.

Vegetative structure
The vegetative body is a coenocytic mycelium that forms white cottony growth on the substratum. The
mycelium is differentiated into three kinds of hyphae- rhizoidal hyphae, stolons and sporangiosphorçs.
The mycelium is multinucleate and non septate. These septa are, however, formed in the older
hyphae and at the time of formation of reproductive structures. The cells of the young hyphae contain
granular protoplasm in which are embedded numerous nuclei, glycogen and oil globules. The hyphal
wall is composed of fungus chitin.

Reproduction
It reproduces asexually as well as sexually.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Asexual reproduction takes place by means of non motile spores that are produced within
sporangia, borne at the apex of unbranched erect hyphae called sporangiophores.
 Under suitable conditions, certain vertical hyphae grow up in clusters from the mycelium.
These unbranched upright hyphae are called sporangiophores. The tip of each
sporangiophore swells to produce a globose sporangium. A considerable amount of
cytoplasm, with nuclei and food materials migrate into this enlarged tip. The tip of the
sporangiophore enlarges and the nuclei undergo repeated mitotic divisions. The protoplasmic
contents accumulate densely in the peripheral portion of the developing sporangium, leaving
the central much less dense portion with few nuclei and vacuolated protoplasm. A layer of
vacuoles now appears between the peripheral and central portions. These vacuoles unite
laterally with one another to form a dome shaped septum.

Fig 3. Rhizopus

 This separates the sporangium into a peripheral fertile portion and an inner dome shaped
sterile portion, known as the columella. Within the protoplasm of the peripheral fertile portion,
cleavage furrows begin to start. These cleavage furrows divide the protoplasm into numerous
small pieces, each with several nuclei. Each piece secretes a wall and becomes a spore.
 At maturity, the wall of sporangium becomes fragile and is disintegrated by the slightest
disturbance of air current. The spores, which form a dry powdery mass, are scattered by air
currents as the sporangium ruptures. The columella usually persists at the end of the
sporangiophore even after the bursting of the sporangium.
 The spores are small, dark coloured and globose to ellipsoidal in shape. Upon reaching a
suitable substratum, each spore germinates by a germ tube, which gives rise to a new
mycelium.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Sexual reproduction occurs by the conjugation of two gametangia. Some species of Rhizopus
are homothallic, requiring hyphae of only one mating type (e.g., Rhizopus sexualis) while
other are heterothallic, requiring opposite mating types (e.g., R.stolon
 In heterothallic species, e.g., Rhizopus stolon the sexual reproduction occurs when two
hyphae of opposite strains come in close proximity to each other. From these hyphae,
develop short lateral branches, the progametangia, the tips of which grow and ultimately
come in contact. A considerable amount of cytoplasm with numerous nuclei, mitochondria
and food materials migrate into these progametangia. At the end of each progametangium, a
multinucleate segment is cut off by a cross wall from the remainder of the branch. Each such
segment that has densely multinucleate protoplast is called gametangium, and the remainder
of the branch that has more vacuolate protoplast is called suspensor. The wall between the
two gametangia dissolves, their protoplasmic contents mingle and the opposite nuclei fuse in
pairs to form a multinucleate zygospore.

Fig 4. Rhizopus – Different stages in the sexual reproduction

 The nuclei that fail to fuse become disorganized. The resulting zygospore enlarges and
develops a dark, thick waited wall around itself to become a resting structure. It undergoes a
period of dormancy for many months.
 During germination, the outer wall splits and the inner wall grows out to form a hyphae like
germ tube or promycelium. It grows erect to form a sporangiophore, bearing a terminal.-
sporangium. Such a sporangium is also known as germ sporangium or zygosporangium.
Meiosis occurs during the germination of zygospore so that the germ spores, which are
produced in the germ sporangium are all haploid.
 According to Gauger (1961), the germ spores that are produced in the germ sporangia are
either all (+), or all (—), or a mixture of both types (+) and (—). The germ spores on reaching
a suitable substratum germinate to produce new hyphae.
 Sometimes, zygospores are produced parthenogenetically. Such parthenogenetically
produced zygospores are called azygospores. Occasionally, the gametangia fail to fuse. The
gametangia become surrounded by a thick wall resulting in the formation of azygospore.

THE YEAST: LIFE CYCLE

Occurrence
The yeasts are widespread in their distribution. They are frequently found growing saprophytically on
substrates that contain sugar, such as decaying vegetables, ripe fruits and grains, sugary exudates of
trees and nectar of flowers. They are also found in soil containing abundance of humus, in decaying
organic matter, and milk product. Some of the important genera of yeast are Saccharomyces.
Schizosaccharomyces. Saccharomycoides. The yeasts are well known for their ability to ferment
sugar with the production of carbon dioxide and alcohol. Yeasts are also important as a valuable
source of vitamins. A few species are parasitic and cause disease of plant, animals and human
beings. The genus includes a number of species, of which, S. cerevisiae is the most important. Some
common Indian species are: S. cerevisiae, S. apiculatus. S. fructuum and Schizosaccharomyces
octosporus.

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Vegetative structure
 The vegetative body is not composed of hyphae. It is a unicellular fungus, but the cells may
often be united in chains, thus forming filaments or pseudomycelium. The yeast cells are very
polymorphic and are capable of assuming different form and shape, depending upon the
medium in which they grow.

Fig 5. Electron microscopic structure of Yeast

 Single yeast cells are colourless, but when grown on solid media, colonies are formed by
yeast cells that may be white, cream coloured. They are normally spherical, oval or shortly
cylindrical. Each yeast cell is small and ranges in diameter from 5-10 m/. The cell wall is thrn
delicate and is composed of chitin in combination of other compounds such as carbohydrate
mannan and glucan. The cell wall of S.cerevz is made up of two layers an outer dense layer,
about 0.05m/ thick, and an inner dense layer, about 0.2m/ thick, containing microfibrils.
Enclosed within cell wall, is the granular cytoplasm that in the old cells can be differentiated
into an outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. Embedded in the cytoplasm, are the
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. The reserve food materials in the
cytoplasm are in the form of glycogen, oil globules and protein particles. The cell contains a
large central hyaline area and small deeply staining body on one side of it. These two
structures have been differently interpreted by different scientists.

REPRODUCTION
Yeasts reproduce both asexually as well as sexually.

Asexual reproduction
Asexually, they reproduce either by budding, in which numerous buds are given off by mother cells, or
by fission, in which daughter cells of equal size are produced by divisions of mother cells. On this
basis, the yeasts are grouped as: Zygosaccharomyces, the budding yeasts, and
Schizosaccharomyces, the fission yeasts.

Budding
When food supply is abundant, the yeast cells reproduce rapidly by a peculiar process, known as
budding. During this process, the nucleus of mother cell divides mitotically, but according to some
scientists, the process is amitotic. Soon, a small protuberance appears on the surface of the
vegetative cell in the form of a bud, and into this, passes one of the nuclei. It is then separated from
mother cell by the formation of a wall between the two cells, thus forming a new individual, and the
process may be repeated indefinitely. Under conditions of rapid growth, the daughter cell may itself
begin to bud while still attached to the parent cell. In this way short chains of cells loosely jointed
together may be formed. These chains of cells are called pseudomycelium. Sometimes, the
pseudomycelium also branches.

Fission
In Schizosaccharomyces, during reproduction the parental cell elongates and its nucleus divides to
produce two daughter nuclei. Gradually, a partition wall is formed just in the middle of cell, dividing it
into equal or nearly equal halves. The two daughter nuclei so formed may remain linked together for
some time and repeat the process or they may separate soon and then divide.
Endospore formation

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Under certain conditions, when there is scarcity of food in surrounding medium, or there is a danger of
desiccation, spores are formed from the mother cells. During the process, the protoplasm of
vegetative cell divides, usually into four portions, each of which later becomes surrounded by a
comparatively thicker wall. These structures are called as endospores. These spores are capable to
withstand the adversities of surroundings. On commencement of suitable atmosphere, these
germinate to produce chains of cells.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 The sexual reproduction takes place when the food supply is scanty. For the purpose of
sexual reproduction, no specialized sex organs are formed. It occurs by conjugation of either
two similar or dissimilar haploid vegetative cells or gametangia - the process is called holo
gamy. This result in the formation of diploid zygote which functions directly, as an ascus and
produce ascospores.
 The number of ascospores per ascus varies with the species. The shape of the ascospore is
also variable. They are generally globose or ovoid as in Saccharomyces,
Schizosaccharomyces and Saccharomycodes.

LIFE CYCLE
 There is considerable variation in the overall life cycle pattern. There may be long haploid
stage with a transient diploid stage, a long diploid stage with a transient haploid stage, or a
haploid and diploid stage of about equal length. These variations can be observed by
studying the life cycles of three yeasts. The three types of life cycle are referred to as: (i)
Haplontic, (ii) Diplontic, and (iii) Haplodiplontic.
 Haplontic life cycle: This type of life cycle is represented by Schizosaccharomyces
octosporus. In sexual reproduction, two haploid somatic cells behave as potential
gametangia. Two adjacent cells of similar size put out short beak like protuberances that
come in contact and fuse forming a continuous passage. This passage is called as
‘conjugation tube. The nucleus from each cell passes into the conjugation tube so formed,
and there they fuse. Gradually, the two uniting cells along with the conjugation tube form
zygote.

Fig 6. Haploblontic life cycle of S. octosporus

 The diploid zygote nucleus undergoes three successive divisions, of which the first is meiotic,
producing usually eight haploid nuclei, around which ascospores become organized. The
zygote cell at this stage becomes the ascus.
 The ascospores are liberated by the rupture of the ascus wall. These ascospores behave as
somatic cells and begin to reproduce by budding or fission, producing indefinite numbers of
cell generations. In this type of life cycle, the diploid phase is very short and is confined only

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to zygote that undergoes meiosis immediately after karyogamy, while haploid phase is very
much elaborated
 Diplontic: In this type of life cycle that is represented by Saccharomyces ludwigii, the diploid
phase is long while haploid phase is very short.

Fig 7. Diplobiontic life cycle of S. ludwigu

 The vegetative cells are diploid in these forms which multiply extensively by budding,
producing number of diploid cells. These diploid somatic cells enlarge and function as asci.
After some time, the diploid cell divides meiotically to produce four haploid nuclei around
which four ascospores are developed. These ascospores are the only haploid cells in the life
cycle. The four ascospores do not come out of the ascus, but fuse in pairs to produce two
diploid zygotic cells. Each diploid cell germinates by producing a germ tube that pushes out
through the ascus wall and acts as a sprout mycelium. From sprout mycelium diploid cells are
budded off.
 Haplodiplobiontic: In this type of life cycle, the haploid and diploid phases are equally well
represented showing distinct alternation of generations. This type of life cycle is represented
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Fig 8. Haplodibiontic life cycle of S. cerevisiae

 During the life cycle, the two haploid cells unite to form a diploid cell. The diploid cells multiply
by budding and produce a large number of diploid cells. Each of the diploid cells behaves as
an ascus; its nucleus divides meiotically to produce four haploid nuclei. Each of these nuclei
organizes into an ascospore. Ascospores on liberation from ascus multiply by budding to
produce haploid cells.

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Life Cycle of Penicillium

Fig 9. Penicillium : Life-cycle.

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Life Cycle of Puccinia

Fig 10. Life cycle of Puccinia

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Life Cycle of Agaricus

Fig 11. Life Cycle of Agaricus

Lichens
Lichens are curious plants formed by the close association of two different plants — one of which is
an alga and the other is a fungus. The algal component of the lichen is known as phycobiont (phykos
= algae, bios = life) and the fungal component as mycobiont (mykes = fungus, bios life). The
phycobiont mostly belongs to green algae (Chlorophyceae e.g., Protococcus, Cystococcus,
Trebouxia, etc., (or to blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae e.g., Nostoc, Rivularia, Stigonerna). Likewise
the fungal component of lichens mostly belongs to the Ascomycetes, the ‘sac fungi’. A few lichens
have a fungal partner belonging to the class Basidiomycetes.

Occurrence
Lichens are cosmopolitan in distribution. They are slow growing perennial plants found in a wide
variety of habitats. Many of them are able to grow in situations where no other plants could survive.
They are found in extreme climatic conditions such as on dry exposed rocks and also in snow covered
Arctic and Antarctic regions. Due to this ability they are usually the pioneer plants in a succession
beginning in a habitat of bare rocks. In Indian hills lichens grow abundantly on tree trunks, logs, on the
leaves and on the soil.

Fig 12. A-B. Lichens : External form; A. Crustose lichen, B. Apothecia (Fruiting body).

Structure
Lichens are thalloid plants of green or bluish -green colour. They are usually dull in appearance
because of the transluscent fungal covering over the algal constituents. Many lichens have additional
pigment such as yellow, orange, brown, black, etc.

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External form
On the basis of external form, lichens are of the following three types.
1. Crustose lichens.
Lichens forming crusts closely appressed to the substrate are called crustose lichens (Figs.
IA,B). Their thallus is inconspicuous and flat, and without lobes; e.g., Rhizocarpon, Graphis,
Strigula, etc.
2. Foliose lichens.
These are leaf-like with well branched and lobed thalli (Fig. 2A). They remain attached to the
substratum with the help of thin rhizoid-like structures called rhizines; e.g., Parmelia, Collema,
etc.
3. Fruticose lichens.
These lichens have well branched erect or pendulous thallus which gives them a shrub-like
appearance (Fig. 2B). They remain attached to the substratum by a basal mucilagenous disc;
e.g., Alectoria, Usnea, Cladonia, etc.

Fig 13. A-B. Lichens External form; A. Foliose lichen, B. Fruticose lichen.

Internal structure
Vertical section of a well developed foliose lichen shows following structures (Fig. 3).
1. Upper cortex.
It is the outermost tough protective covering made of compactly interwoven hyphae. It is
usually covered with a thick layer of cuticle. In some foliose lichens the upper cortex has
loosely interwoven hyphae at certain points through which gaseous exhange takes place.
These areas appear as small pores on the surface and are known as breathing pores. In
addition to these pores, there are other structures concerned with gaseous exchange. These
are called cyphellae.
2. Algal layer.
Inner to the upper cortex is a distinct region of loose fungal tissue in which many algal cells
are embedded (e.g., Parmelia). In some lichens the algal cells are uniformly distributed
throughout the thallus (e.g., Collema). The algae belong to the class Chlorophyceae (e.g.,
Cladophora, Pleurococcus, Trebtuxia) or Cyanophyceae (e.g., Rivularia, Nostoc, etc).
3. Medulla.
The medulla forms the bulk of the thallus. It is made of a loose mass of irregularly interwoven
hyphal threads. In crustose lichens the lower cortex is absent and the fungal hyphae of
medulla region penetrate the substrate to fix the thallus.
4. Lower cortex.
Like upper cortex, it is also made of compactly arranged hyphae. Some of the hyphae of
lower cortex extend beyond the surface of the thallus and form rhizines. These serve as
organs for attachment.

Reproduction
The algal constituent of a lichen usually reproduces solely by cell division regardless of whether the
alga has any other means of reproduction in the free state. The fungal constituent, however, carries
on its normal sexual cycle.
Lichens reproduce by asexual and sexual methods.

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Asexual reproduction
1. Fragmentation.
This is one of the common methods of multiplication in foliose and fruticose lichens. The adult
thallus may breakdown accidently into pieces and each of them is capable of growing into a
new thallus in favourable conditions.
2. Soredium.
It is a small specialized part of the lichen thallus which consists of a few cells of the alga
surrounded by a layer of mycelium. Many such soredia develop within the thallus but later
grow out through the surface. Eventually they become detached as little balls and form a
powdery mass on the surface of the thallus. They are blown away by wind. Under favourable
condition the soredium germinates and develops into a thallus.
3. Isidia.
These are small finger—like projections measuring 0.01—0.3 mm in diameter and 0.5—3.0
mm is length. Isidia develop on the upper surface of the thallus. They have the same general
structure of the thallus — the outer cortical layer encloses the algal cells. Thus structurally,
each isidium represents a small thallus which on falling over suitable substratum germinates
and grows into a new thallus.

Fig 14. Lichens : Asexual reproductive bodies; A. Soredium, B. lsidia.

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction in lichen is performed only by its fungal component. Therefore, the structure of
the reproductive parts is dependent upon the type of their fungal partner. In most of the lichens the
sexual reproductive parts are similar to those of Ascomycetes since the fungal partner belongs to this
class.
1. Male reproductive structures.
The male reproductive structures are flask shaped spermogonia. They are embedded in the
thallus and each spermogonium opens on the surface of the thallus by a small pore called
ostiole. Each spermogonium has large number of conidia — like male cells called spermatia
(sing = spermatium).
2. Female reproductive structures.
The female reproductive structures are known as carpogonia. Each carpogonium is
differentiated into two parts— the basal coiled part called ascogonium and upper long tube —.
like trichogyne.
3. Fertilization.
The male and female reproductive parts develop close to each other. At the time of
fertilization many spermatia (male cells) get attached to the projected part of the trichogyne.
The wall between spermatium and trichogyne dissolves forming a pore through which nucleus
of the spermatium enters the trichogyne. It eventually moves down to the ascogonium and
fuses with the female nucleus. The trichogyne disintegrates after fertilization.
4. Fruiting body.
The fruiting body, formed after fertilization, is called ascocarp. They are projected on the
surface of the thallus. The ascocarps may be cup shaped (apothecium) or flask-shaped
(perithecium). The bottom of the ascocarp is lined by a tissue called hymenium. It consists of
upright asci (sing. = ascus) interspersed with slender paraphysis (sterile hair-like structures).

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The wall of the ascocarp is composed of vegetative part of the thallus, consisting of algal and
fungal layers. Each ascus has eight ascospores.
The ascospores, on liberation from the mature ascocarp, germinate to form fungal mycelium.
This mycelium when comes in contact with a suitable alga, their combined growth eventually
results in the development of a lichen thallus.

Fig 15. Lichen : Fruiting body; Cup-shaped fruiting body (apothecium).

Relationship between Algae and Fungi

Components of Lichens
The relationships between the components of lichens are debatable. There are two major groups of
thought.

1. Symbiosis (consortium).
The relationship between algal and fungal partners of lichens is usually described as
symbiotic, i.e., an association in which both the partners are equally benefitted. In lichens the
alga provides organic food to the fungus and in exchange the fungus makes water and
minerals available to the alga. Besides, the fungus also protects alga from desiccation.
2. Helotism (master and slave relationship).
Some lichenologists., however, believe it to be a master (fungi) and slave (algae) relationship
rather than symbiotic. This view is based on the fact that the alga found in the thallus of a
lichen can and does live in free state, entirely independent of any association with fungus.
The fungus on the other hand, is unable to survive in the absence of an algal partner.
Besides, the fungus sometimes produces haustoria which penetrate and eventually kill some
of the algal cells. Thus it is clear that the fungus benefits from its association with the alga but
the benefit to the alga is debatable.

Economic Importance of Lichens

I. Pioneers in plant succession

Lichens are pioneer plants in succession as they are the earliest settlers on barren rocks.
They have an important role in the disintegration of rocks. Dead organic remains of thalli
along with the disintegrated rock particles make the substratum suitable for the growth of
higher plants. Some other uses of lichens are listed below.
II. Lichens as food
The lichens contain a substance lichenin which is similar to carbohydrate. It is nutritive and
thus edible. The lichens rich in this substance are Evernia, Cetraria islandica, Umbilicaria
esculenta, Parmelia sp., Lecanora esculenta, etc.

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III. Lichens as fodder

The bitter substances present in lichens are removed before being used as fodder. Lichens
form favourite food for reindeers, cattles, etc. Cladonia rang(fera, Lobaria pulmonaria, Ram
alma fraxinea, Stereocaulon, etc., are some common lichens used as fodder.
IV. Lichens as medicine
Usnic acid obtained from Usnea and Cladonia sp.,, is used as broad spectrum antibiotic. It is
effective against Gram positive bacteria. Parmelia per/ala is used in the treatment of snake
and scorpion bite. Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in tuberculosis and
other lung diseases. Cladonia pyxidata is useful in whooping cough.
V. Lichens as source of dyes
Dyes of different colours have been obtained from lichens but not in commercial quantities: (i)
Litmus paper, an important acid-base indicator, is pçepared by soaking the paper in the
extract of Roccella tinctoria, (ii) Orchil, used in dying woollens, is obtained from Ochro/echia
androgyna and 0. tartaria.
VI. Lichens in tanning industry
Cetraria islandica and Lobaria pu/rn onaria have two colouring substances — lecanoric acid
and erythrin which are used in tanning industry.
VII. In perfumery
Species of Evernia and Ramalina are the sources of essential oils which are used in soaps
and other cosmetics.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

Subjective

Prob 1. What happens if gametangia of Rhizopus fails to fuse after their formation?
Sol. If gametangia of Rhizopus fails to fuse after their formation, they metamorphoses into a
‘Parthenospore’ or ‘azygospore’ by developing a thick wall around them.

Prob 2. Give the botanical names of a homothallic and a heterothallic species of Rhizopus.
Sol. Homothallic species : Rhizopus sexualis
Heterothallic species: Rhizopus stolon

Prob 3. Enunciate the nutrition in Rhizopus.

Sol. Rhizopus shows saprophytic mode of nutrition But some species may function as weak
facultative parasites.

Prob 4. How does Rhizopus reproduces vegetatively?

Sol. Rhizopus reproduces vegetatively by fragmentation. Each ‘fragment of mycelium grow into
a new myceliurn by forming rhizoids.

Prob 5. What are Chlamydospores ? How do they form in Rhizopus?

Sol. Multinucleated asexual spores produced during unfavourable conditions are called
Chlamydospores These are formed by the localized accumulation of protoplasm which
secrete a wall around them.

Prob 6. Define Columella in Rhizopus.

Sol. Dome shaped central part of the sporangium of Rhizopus is called Columella.

Prob 7. Define Progametangium, gametanglum and suspensor In Rhizopus

Sol. Progametangium: A copulating branch produced by a zygophore is called progametangium
Gametangium : The terminal cell of progametangium with dense multinucleate protoplasm
is called gametangium.
Suspensor : The lower cell of the progametangium behind the gametangium is called
suspensor.

Prob 8. Differentiate between sporangiospores and chlamydospores of Rhizopus.

Sol. Sporangiospores : They are small, spherical or oval, thin walled multi nucleated spores
produced within the asexual sporangium during favourable conditions.
Chlamydospores : They are multinucleated, thick walled spores produced during
unfavourable conditions.

Prob 9. What is Promycelium ? From where it develops in Rhizopus?

Sol. Promycelium is a small, stout vertical hypha that emerges from the germinating spore. It
develops from spore.

Prob 10. Distinguish between “zygospore” and “azygospore”.

Sol. Zygospore is formed as a result of sexual reproduction and it is the only diploid phase in the
life cycle. Azygospore is formed when gamete fails to fuse by developing thick wall around
it.

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Objective

Prob 1. Deuteromycetes are called ‘Imperfect fungi’ as

(A) They have no cell wall (B) No mycelium
(C) No sexual reproduction (D) All of these
Sol. (C). Perfect stage in fungi means sexual stage and as there is no sexual reproduction in
deuteromycetes class, hence this class of fungi is called imperfect fungi.
Prob 2. Rhizoctonia is the association between
(A) Fungus + Roots of higher plants (B) Fungus + Stem
(C) Fungus + Roots of orchids (D) Fungus + Lichens
Sol. (C). Rhizoctonia is an common fungus associated with roots of orchids.
Prob 3. Yeast is an important source of
(A) Vit. C (B) Vit. B
(C) Vit. A (D) Vit. D
Sol. (B). Yeast is rich source of vitamins i.e. Vit. B, & Vit. B2.
Prob 4. The flagella on the zoospores of Albugo are
(A) Unequal lateral (B) Equal lateral
(C) Unequal terminal (D) Equal terminal
Sol. (A). Zoospores in Albugo are reniform with two lateral unequal flagella. Posterior is
whiplash and anterior is tinsel type.
Prob 5. Powdery mildew of crops is caused by
(A) Ascomycetes (B) Basidiomycetes
(C) Phycomycetes (D) Bacteria
Sol. (A). Powdery mildew is caused by Erysiphe, which belongs to ascomycetes class of fungi.
Prob 6. Pseudomycelium is characteristic feature of
(A) Mushroom (B) Mucor
(C) Bread mould (D) Yeast
Sol. (D). Buds produced in yeast form a filamentous structure called pseudomycelium.
Prob 7. How many types of hyphae are present in Rhizopus?
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
Sol. (C). Three types of hyphae are produced. They are 1. Stolons, 2. Rhizoids and
3. Sporangiophores
Prob 8. Suspensor is the stalk of
(A) Germ sporangium of Rhizopus (B) Asexual sporangium of Rhizopus
(C) Progametangium of Rhizopus (D) Pileus of Agaricus
Sol. (C). Suspensor is the lower cell of progametangium produced during sexual reproduction of
Rhizopus.
Prob 9. Only diploid phase in Rhizopus life cycle is
(A) Mycelium (B) Zygospore
(C) Embryo (D) Spores
Sol. (B). Zygospore is the only diploid phase. Thus the sexual cycle of Rhizopus is haplontic.
Prob 10. Life cycle of homothallic species of Rhizopus.
(A) Physiological anisogamy (B) Anisogamy
(C) Isogamy (D) Oogamy
Sol. (C). Isogamy is the fusion of structurally and physiologically similar gametes.

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ASSIGNMENT

Subjective

Very short answer type questions

1. Give the systematic position of Rhizopus.
2. Why Rhizopus is called ‘bread mould’ and black mould?
3. Why Rhizopus is called ‘pin mould’ and ‘weed of laboratory’?
4. Define coenocytic hyphae with one example.
5. Differentiate between sporangiospores and chlamydospores of Rhizopus.
6. Give the names of homothallic and heterothallic species of Rhizopus.
7. Distinguish between zygophore and zygospore of Rhizopus.
8. Define heterothallism. Who discovered in which species of Rhizopus?
9. Define homothallism. In which species of Rhizopus it is seen?
10. Distinguish between algae and fungi.

Short answer type questions

11. Write about the three types of hyphae seen in mycelium of Rhizopus.
12. Describe the structure of hypha of Rhizopus.
13. Write about germination of zygospore of Rhizopus.
14. Describe the sexuality of Rhizopus.
15. Write the differences between ‘sporangiosporangium’ and ‘germsporangium’ of Rhizopus?
16. Distinguish between homothallism and heterothallism in Rhizopus?
17. What are heterotrophic thallophytes? Give their characteristic features.
18. Describe the asexual reproduction by chlamydospores in Rhizopus.

Long answer type questions

19. Explain the mode of asexual reproduction of Rhizopus.
20. Elucidate the sexual reproduction in Rhizopus.

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Objective

LEVEL – I
1. Ultimate bottle shaped structures of conidiophores of Penicillium are known as:
(A) Sterigmata (B) Metulae
(C) Paraphysis (D) None of these
2. In fermentation of cheese, the fungus used is:
(A) Aspergillus flavus (B) Penicillium camemberti
(C) Penicillium chrysogenum (D) Mucor mucedo
3. Bracket fungi, puff balls and toad stools are included in:
(A) Phycomycetes (B) Ascomycetes
(C) Basidiomycetes (D) Deuteromycetes
4. Fungi of oomycota are called:
(A) Sac fungi (B) Club fungi
(C) Toad stools (D) Egg fungi
5. The blue mould on cheese is included in:
(A) Phycomycetes (B) Ascomycetes
(C) Basidiomycetes (D) Actinomycetes
6. Yeast is not used in preparation of:
(A) Wine (B) Bread in bakery
(C) Toddy (D) Penicillin
7. The fungus that causes huge economical losses of our timber resources is:
(A) Puccinia (B) Polyporus
(C) Morchella (D) Aspergillus
8. A chemical substance produced by one micro-organism that inhibits or destroys the growth of
other micro-organism is called:
(A) Antibiotic (B) Antibody
(C) Aflatoxin (D) Antiallergic
9. The fungus without mycelium is:
(A) Puccinia (B) Phylophihora
(C) Rhizopus (D) Saccharoinyces
10. The ‘witches broom’ of legume is caused by:
(A) Virus (B) Bacteria
(C) Fungus (D) Mycoplasma
11. Apple scab disease is caused by:
(A) Ustilago (B) Puccinia
(C) Erysiphe (D) None of these
12. Common form of food stored in fungal cell is or in fungi the food material is stored in the form
of:
(A) Glucose (B) Sucrose
(C) Glycogen (D) Starch
13. Loose smut of wheat is caused by
(A) Ustilago tritici (B) Cystopus
(C) Puccinia (D) Aspergillus
14. A widely but periodically occurring plant disease is called:
(A) Endemic (B) Epiphytotic
(C) Epidemic (D) Sporadic
15. Bordeuax mixture used extensively for treatment of plant diseases was discovered by:
(A) J.H. Millardet (B) Lister Jospelly
(C) Louis Pasteur (D) Beijerinck
16. Scientist famous for his researches on the wheat problems in India:
(A) K.C. Mehta (B) Subramaniyam
(C) M.O.P. Iyengar (D) Desikachary
17. Aflatoxins are produced by:
(A) Bacteria (B) Fungi
(C) Viruses (D) Nematodes

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18. Plasmogamy refers to:

(A) The fusion of two haploid hyphae with simultaneous nuclear fusion
(B) The fusion of two haploid hyphae without simultaneous nuclear fusion
(C) Fusion of egg cell with sperm
(D) Fusion of sperm cell with polar nuclei
19. The symbiotic association between a fungus and a gym nospermic plant is known as:
(A) Ectomycorrhiza (B) Endomycorrhiza
(C) Commensalism (D) Helotism
20. Ergot is obtained from:
(A) Claviceps purpurea (B) Rhizopus arrhizus
(C) Puccinia graminis (D) Uslilago tritici

LEVEL – II
1. Apple scab disease is caused by:
(A) Colletotrichum (B) Venturia
(C) Puccinia (D) Uslilago
2. On the stem and leaf sheaths of wheat, brown pustules are formed, fusing later to form bigger
pustules are typical symptoms of disease caused by:
(A) Puccinia graminis (B) P recondita
(C) P striformis (D) Ustilago tritici
3. Algae like fungi belong to the class:
(A) Basidiomycetes (B) Deuteromycetes
(C) Ascomycetes (D) Phycomycetes
4. The fungus which causes black rust of wheat belongs to?
(A) Phycoinycetes (B) Basidiomycetes
(C) Ascomycetes (D) Deuteromycetes
5. Phytoalexins are toxins like antifungal substances produced by the host as a defensive
measure against infection are generally:
(A) Proteins (B) Lipids
(C) Glycoproteins (D) Phenolic compounds
6. Penicillin was discovered in the year:
(A) 1909 (B) 1919
(C) 1929 (D) 1939
7. When yeast ferments glucose the products are:
(A) Ethanol and CO (B) Water and CO
(C) Ethanol and water (D) Methanol and CO
8. Organisms which usually live as parasites but can grow saprophytically in the absence of their
hosts plants are called:
(A) Obligate parasites (B) Facultative parasites
(C) Obligate saprophytes (D) Facultative saprophytes
9. In fungi in a dikaryon cell:
(A) There are two dissimilar haploid nuclei in the same protoplasm
(B) There are two similar nuclei in the same protoplasm
(C) There are two diploid nuclei in the same cell
(D) There are diploid zygotes
10. Which of the following is an example of symbiosis?
(A) Utricularia (B) Agaricus
(C) Lichen (D) Mango
11. Puccinia forms:
(A) Uredia and pycnia on barberry leaves
(B) Uredia and aecia on wheat leaves
(C) Uredia and telia on wheat leaves
(D) Uredia and aecia on barberry leaves
12. The cell walls of bacteria and fungi have:
(A) N-acetyl glucosamine (B) N-acetyl muramic acid
(C) Cellulose (D) Chitin
13. Lichens represent symbiotic relationship between:
(A) Algae and fungi (B) Viruses and algae
(C) Algae and bacteria (D) Viruses and bacteria

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14. Lichens are used:

(A) In controlling air pollution
(B) In re-vegetation of wastelands
(C) As indicators of geo-resources such as gold and copper
(D) As bio indicators for monitoring air and water pollution
15. Wheat rust spreads from barberry to wheat plants by:
(A) Uredospores (B) Teliospores
(C) Basidiospores (D) Aeciospores
16. Which of the following is correctly matched?
(A) Ringworm—fungus (B) Typhoid—virus
(C) Herpes—bacteria (D) None of these
17. Gibberellins were first discovered in fungal genus:
(A) Mucor (B) Rhizopus
(C) Agaricus (D) Fusarium
18. Yeast is an important source of:
(A) Vitamin-C (B) Riboflavin
(C) Sugars (D) Proteins
19. Which of the molecules listed below is a product of fermentation of glucose by yeast?
(A) (C6H10O5)n (B) C2H5OH
(C) C6H12O6 (D) CH3OH
20. The micro-organism grown on molasses and sold as a food flavoring substance is:
(A) Saccharomyces (B) Rhizopus
(C) Acetobacter (D) Lactobacillus

LEVEL – III
1. Reserve mod material (RFM) in fungi is:
(A) Glycogen (B) Starch
(C) Sucrose (D) Maltose
2. In Rhizopus, sexual reproduction occurs by:
(A) Aplanospore (B) Sporangiospores
(C) Conjugation between two different strains (D) Hypnospores
3. Mycelium of Mucor is:
(A) Septate and unicellular (B) Septate and multicellular
(C) Aseptate and uninucleate (D) Coenocytic
4. Adhesive pad of fungi penetrates the host with the help of
(A) Mechanical pressure and enzymes (B) Hooks and suckers
(C) Softening by enzymes (D) Only by mechanical pressure
5. After reproduction in Rhizopus, the stage formed is:
(A) Zygospore (B) Ascospore
(C) Oospore (D) None of these
6. Brewer’s yeast is rich in vitamin:
(A) B12 (B) B7
(C) B9 (D) B2
7. LSD is:
(A) A narcotic obtained from Papaver somn
(B) A hallucinogenic obtained from Claviceps purpurea
(C) A drug obtained from Erythroxylon
(D) A drug obtained from Acacia catechu
8. Kingdom ‘Mycota’ includes:
(A) Penicillium and cyanobacteria (B) Penicillium and yeast
(C) Yeast and cyanobacteria (D) None of the above
9. In Rhizopus if conjugation fails, gametangia behave zygospore. It is called as:
(A) Conidia (B) Gametangia
(C) Parthenospore (D) Sporangiospore
10. Various fungi are known to accumulate considerable quan tities of divalent metal such as:
(A) Cadmium (B) Zinc
(C) Lead (D) All of these
11. Powdery mildews of crops are caused by:
(A) Bacteria (B) Ascomycetes
(C) Phycomycetes (D) Basidiomycetes

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12. Cell wall of Mucor is made up of:

(A) Chitin (B) Cellulose
(C) Pectin (D) Mucilage
13. In which ‘torula condition’ is found?
(A) Spirogyra (B) Mucor
(C) Riccia (D) Ulothrix
14. Black rust of wheat is caused by:
(A) Phytophthora (B) Puccinia
(C) Ustilago (D) Pythium
15. Which of the following divisions of fungi includes ‘club fungi’?
(A) Zygomycota (B) Ascomycota
(C) Deuteromycota (D) Basidiomycota
16. In Rhizopus, if conjugation fails, then gametangia behave as zygospore called:
(A) Conidia (B) Gametangia
(C) Parthenospore (D) Sporangiospore
17. Rhizopus belongs to which of the following class?
(A) Phycomycetes (B) Ascomycetes
(C) Zygomycetes (D) Deuteromycetes
18. The zygospore in Rhizopus develops into:
(A) Zygospore (B) Progametangium
(C) Promycelium (D) Gametangium
19. A group of fungi with septate mycelium in which sexual reproduction is either unknown or
lacking is classified under:
(A) Phycomycetes (B) Deuteromycetes
(C) Ascomycetes (D) Basidiomycetes
20. Wart disease caused by Synchytrium endobioticum is found in:
(A) Cabbage (B) Potato
(C) Peas (D) Groundnut

ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT
Objective
Level  I
1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D 5) B
6) D 7) B 8) A 9) D 10) C
11) D 12) C 13) A 14) B 15) A
16) A 17) B 18) B 19) A 20) A

Level  II
1) B 2) A 3) D 4) B 5) D
6) C 7) A 8) D 9) A 10) C
11) C 12) A 13) A 14) B 15) D
16) A 17) D 18) B 19) B 20) A

Level  III
1) A 2) C 3) D 4) A 5) A
6) D 7) B 8) B 9) C 10) D
11) B 12) A 13) B 14) B 15) D
16) C 17) C 18) C 19) B 20) B

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