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4 viewsphysics.. unit 2
This document discusses the fundamentals of quantum physics, including the inadequacies of classical mechanics and the introduction of quantum mechanics to explain atomic and subatomic phenomena. It covers key concepts such as wave-particle duality, De Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves, and the significance of Schrödinger's wave equations. The document emphasizes the transition from classical to quantum mechanics and the need for new concepts to understand the behavior of matter at microscopic levels.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 viewsphysics.. unit 2
This document discusses the fundamentals of quantum physics, including the inadequacies of classical mechanics and the introduction of quantum mechanics to explain atomic and subatomic phenomena. It covers key concepts such as wave-particle duality, De Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves, and the significance of Schrödinger's wave equations. The document emphasizes the transition from classical to quantum mechanics and the need for new concepts to understand the behavior of matter at microscopic levels.
Uploaded by
girij.jintikarcomp24Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 32
UNIT - I: QUANTUM PHYSICS|
ce Schrédinget’s wave equations and apply it to problems on the bound states by summarizing fundamentals of
eno
Chapter 3
QUANTUM PHYSICS
_—”ebeRe——_M.Owe-r-
ge QUISTTES
pre
ected to have basic knowledge of
dents a6 xP
sal mechanics and calculus,
ws
eg WORDS
sp aeoies hates Wave uncon, Schrosinger's wave
quo", Rigid box, Tunneling, Qubit, Superposition and
cecongierent
ropic EMPHASIS
ee
te Bogle’ Hypothesis, Derivation of Schrodinger's wave
aqaton, Parte in rigid box, Concept of Qubit,
camarison of classical and quantum computing,
31 INTRODUCTION
+ The most outstanding development in modern science
isthe conception of quantum mechanics. The quantum
mechanics is better and more accurate than Newtonian
classical mechanics in explaining the fundamental
physics
+ There was big development in physics between the
time of Newton and the time of quantum mechanics.
Some of the major developments to be mentioned are,
> Newton showed that the motion of planets and the
{tee fall of an object on earth are governed by the
same law. Thus, he unified terrestrial and celestial
mechanics, This was in contrast to ancient belief
that the world of the earth and heaven is governed
by different laws.
> It was earlier believed that the heat is some
peculiar substance called ‘calorie’, which flows
from a hot object to a cold object. But later it was
Proved that the heat is the random motion or
vibration of constituents of matter. Thus,
thermodynamics and mechanics were unified.
v
For a long time, the phenomena of electricity,
‘magnetism and light were treated as independent
branches and were unconnected.
31)
~ —
> In nineteenth century, Faraday and Maxwell along
with others unified these independent branches of
physics. They proved that all three phenomena are
manifestations of electromagnetic field.
> The simplest example is the electric field of an
electric charge that exerts a force on another
charge when it comes in the range. An electric
current produces a magnetic field that exerts 2
force on magnetic materials.
> Such fields can travel through space, indepe
of charge and magnet, in the form of
electromagnetic wave. The best example of an
electromacnetic waves is light. Finally, Einstein
unified space, time and gravity in his theory of
relativity.
endent
In previous cevelopments in physics, fundamental
concepts were not different from those of everyday
experience, such as particle, position, speed, mass,
force, energy and even field. These concepts are
referred as ‘classical’.
The world cf atoms cannot be described and
understood with these concepts. For atoms and
molecules, the ideas and concepts used in dealing with
objects in day to day life is not sufficient. Thus, it
needed new concepts to understand the properties of
atoms.
A group of scientists, W. Heisenberg, £. Schrédinger,
PAM, Dirac, W. Paul, M. Born and Neils Bohr,
conceived and formulated these new ideas in the
beginning of 20 century. This new formulation, a
branch of physics, was named as ‘quantum
mechanics’
In classical physics, a body which is very small in
comparison with other bodies is termed as ‘particle’
Where, as in quantum mechanics, the body which
cannot be divided further is termed as ‘particle’. ES
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE) (G2)
+ In short the classical mechanics applies same law for
microscopic bodies like an electron and macroscopic
bodies like planets. But principles of quantum
mechanics are applied to only microscopic bodies and
the results are then extended to macroscopic bodies,
+ The other main difference is the quantized and non
zero energy state. In classical physics, an oscillating
body can assume any possible energy. On the contrary,
Quantum mechanics says that it can have only discrete
non-zero energy,
3.1.1_Inadequacy of Classical Mechanics
The classical physics is complete and beautiful in explaining
daily experiences where, big bodies are involved. But it
breaks down severely at subatomic level and failed to
explain some of the phenomenon totally.
The phenomenas which classical physics failed to explain
are black body radiation, photoelectric effect, emission of
X-rays, et
.2_ Need of Quantum Mechanics
* Classical mechanics successfully explained the motions
of objects which are observable directly or by
instruments like a microscope.
* But when classical mechanics is applied to the particles
of atomic levels, it falls to explain actual behaviour.
Therefore, the classical mechanics cannot be applied to
the atomic level, eg, motion of an electron in an atom.
* Other phenomena which classical mechanics failed to
explain are black body radiation, photoelectric effect,
emission of X-rays, etc.
* The above problems were solved by Max Planck in
1900 by the introduction of the formula,
E= nh G1)
whee, n= 01,24,
h = Planck's constant =
63 x 10/5
+ This is known as ‘quantum hypothesis’ and marked
the beginning of modern physics. The whole
microscopic world obeys the above formula.
3.1,3 Wave Particle Duality of Radiation and
Matter
The wave and particle duality of radiation can be easily
Understood by knowing what is a wave and what is a
particle
QUANTUM PHY Sicg
Wave
+ A wave’ originates due to vibrations and itis g
cout over a large region of space. A wave cann
located at a particular place and mass cann,
attached to a wave.
Prag
ty
lot be.
Actually, @ wave is 2 spread out disturbance speci,
by its amplitude a frequency v, wavelength 2, phase;
and intensity
Particle
+ A pparticle’is located at some definite point andi hag
mass, It can move from place to place. A particle gang
energy when it is accelerated and it loses energy when
itis slowed down.
+A pattcle is characterized by mass m, velocity y
momentum p and energy E.
+ Looking at the above facts, it might appear dificult tg
accept wave particle duality of radiation, ie, radiation
is a wave which is spread out over all space and thatt
is also a particle which is localized at a point in space
+ Tthis wave particle duality of radiation has to be
accepted because, sometimes radiation has to be
assigned the behaviour of a wave and at other times
radiation is to be assigned particle nature as discussed
below.
* The phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarization require the presence of two or more waves
at the same time and at the same position. It is very
lear that two or more particles cannot occupy the
same position at the same time, So, one has to
conclude that radiation behaves like waves.
* Spectra of black body radiation, production and
scattering of X-rays, Compton effect, photoelectric
effect, etc. could not be explained on wave nature of
radiation.
* These phenomena established that radiant neta)
interacts with matter in the form of photons or quarts
With this, Planck's quantum theory came into being ©
conclude that radiation behaves like particles.
* Thus, radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and at
some other times as a particle, It is to be noted that
radiation cannot simultaneously exhibit its wave 2nd
particle properties, Now, wave-particle duality of
radiation is universally accepted.
J i ee
etRING PHYSICS (FE)
DE BROGLIE'S HYPOTHESIS OF MATTER
aves [May 17, 18, Nov. 17, 19,
March 23, Dee, 23]]
arte nature of matter is very well established and it
«well known that matter is composed of atoms and
wt electrons, protons and neutrons are the building
pjocks ofall types of atoms,
jne electromagnetic wave theory explained the
phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization
And proved that the radiation or light has wave Nature.
sre wave theory of light filed to explain the spectra of
slack body radiation, scattering of X-rays and Compton
affect, emission of line spectra, photoelectric effect, etc
for which the quantum theory provided both
qualitative and quantitative explanation,
hese two theories coupled together established wave-
particle duality of radiation. But inspite of the success
of this duality of radiation, the two fundamental
postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure
remained unexplained for a long time,
+ In the mean time Einstein's mass-energy relation,
£ = mc, had been verified, establishing that rat
and mass are mutually convertible.
‘+ On this background, in 1924 De Broglie extended the
idea of dual nature of radiation to matter and
proposed that matter possesses particle as well as
wave characteristics. He believed that motion of
electrons within an atom is guided by a peculiar kind of
waves called ‘Pilot waves’.
* While adverting the concept of matter waves,
De Broglie was guided by wave - particle duality of
radiation and the way in which nature manifests herself.
ion
* De Broglie put Forth Following Arguments:
> Nature manifests herself mainly as matter and
radiation and nature loves symmetry. So, wave-
particle duality of radiation points to similar duality
of matter ie, matter-wave.
> The principle of least action in mechanics and the
Principle of least time in optics imply similar
Conditions. This close analogy of these two
principles from two different branches of physics
shows the probability of the behaviour of matter as
a wave is very much likely under suitable
Grcumstances
(33)
QUANTUM PHYSICS
> This close parallelism between mechanics and
optics also indicates similarity between matter and
radiation, ie, if radiation has dual nature then
matter must also have similar wave-particle duality
> Bohr orbits are of definite size and are selected by
quantum rules, The radii of these quantum orbits
ate proportional to the square of integral numbers
[ Reo ,
tn ema? |
orbits for a corsiderable time without radiating
energy,
> Thus, the stable ron-radiating orbits of electrons in
an atom are governed by integer rules. The other
phenomena invoWing integers in physics are those
of interference and modes of vibration of 2
stretched string and both of them have wave
motion. So, there must be a relationship between
Bohr orbits and integers associated with waves.
in these
and electrons stay
From the above arguments one can say that an
electron moving in an orbit around the nucleus must
have wave associated with it and the length of a Bohr
orbit will have integral (whole) number of wavelengths
(equal to the principal quantum number of the orbit) of
the waves associated with electrons moving in that
otbit (See Fig. 3.1),
Fig. 3.1: Electron in an or
Bohr’s orbit of the electron is given by,
h
mvt = 3 32)
So the principal quantum number is,
2erwe
ne 3)
The ‘De Broglie wavelength’ can be obtained by
dividing the circumference 2nr of the n permissible
orbit by its principal quantum number n.
2at
7 Ga)
So, he ES
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE) _ G4)
Substituting the value of n from Equation (3:3),
wo 2nr
therefore, k= Oo vemhy .
h
ae 5)
* According to wave mechanics, electrons move around
the nucleus as wave-packets which are formed in a
somewhat similar manner as standing waves are
formed.
Where, mv = pis the momentum,
h
therefore, A= 5 .. 6)
+ This expression for De Broglie wavelength, agrees with
Planck's constant
momentum of '
the particle
onthe basis of his hypothesis of matter waves.
3.2.1 De Broglie Wavelength by Analogy with
Radiation
the one he postulated, namely A =
By Einstein's mass-energy relation,
we have, B= me @7)
where, E is the energy equivalent of mass m and ¢ is the
velocity of light.
By, Planck's quantum theory of radiation, the energy of @
photon is given by,
E= ho ~ 88)
where, h is Planck's constant and uv is the frequency of
oscillations.
From Equations (3.7) and (3.8),
weget, hy = me
¢
but, veqe
(Since velocity = frequency x wavelength)
hep = me
-tt
or, hehe p G9)
where, p = mc is the momentum associated with the
photon and 2 is its wavelength.
|3.3 DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH FOR PARTICLE|
ACCELERATED TO K.E.E
+ The momentum of a particle of mass m moving with
velocity v is given by, p = mv and the De Broglie
wavelength associated with the particle is given by,
UAI
a QUANTUM Physi
ahh
my “p Big
‘The KE. of the particle is given by,
1
re]
E = > mv
aye pt
pore
2m "2m
p= ame @ny
From Equations (3.10) and (3.11),
ohio
* p afame ~ B12)
wehave, A
In Equation (3:12), De Broglie wavelength i of
moving particle has been expressed in terms of KE, of
the particle.
YA DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH FOR
‘CHARGED PARTICLE ACCELERATED BY
PD (POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE) V
If a charged particle acquires velocity v on accelerating
it through a potential difference of V volts, then the
work done on the particle is qV, q being charge of the
particle.
This work is converted into kinetic energy of the
electron,
1
ie, E= mv =qv 3.13)
If q is in coulombs, m in kg, V in volts, then velocity
v will bein m/s.
but, 4 = T= (from Equation 3.12)
ame
From Equation (3.13),
h
= Bmev
Ignoring relativistic correcton, we can take m = Mo
. B.4)
oe! a5
** Bmoev
For an electron, we the values,
h = 6.625 x10 J-s
e= 16x10%C
my = 9.1x10""kg._ eftiNG PHYSICS (FE)
aul a
uting these values in Equation (3.15),
6.625 x 10°"
2x91%10 X16 x10 KY
pst
yD
we get xe
- (3.16)
PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES.
jxter waves are generated by a moving matter particle. If
pertcle of Mass M moves with velocity v, then the
qoensth of matter waves associated with itis given by
2
) and these waves travel with velocity y = =
mv ve
ain this, properties of matter waves can be stated as:
Lighter the particle, greater would be the wavelength
of the matter waves associated
with it.
(em forv constant}
m
smaller the velocity of the particle, greater would be
the wavelength of the ~—matter-_— waves,
fa «2 form constant]
For v = =, & becomes zero and for v = 0, A becomes
infinity ie, the wave becomes indeterminate when
v = 0. This simply means that matter waves are
produced by particles moving with finite velocities.
Matter waves are different from electromagnetic waves,
because matter waves can be produced by a moving
particle which may be charged or uncharged, where as
electromagnetic waves are produced only by a moving
charged particle.
he
As the De Broglie wavelength A = 77 is independent of
charge, it is evident that matter waves are not
electromagnetic waves.
The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity
©) and it is not
Matter waves travel faster than light, because. the
Particle velocity v cannot exceed the velocity of light c.
of the particle generating them (u
constant.
2.
So, the velocity of matter waves u = {is greater
than ¢
= sy
QUANTUM PHYSICS
* A wave is spread out in space and it cannot be
localized at any point. So, the wave nature of rnatter
introduces a certain uncertainty in the position of the
particle,
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1: What is the De Broglie wavelength of an
electron when accelerated through a p.d. of 10,000 volts?
Data: V = 10,000 volts
Formula: he a
Solution: a
= [01227 A]
Problem 3.2: Compute the wavelength of the De Broglie
waves associated with a proton moving with 5 % of the
velocity of light. Proton has 1836 times the mass of one
electron.
Data: m = 1836 x 9.1 x 10°31 kg, h = 6.63 x 10-™* Joule-sec.,
V = [oy x 3x 108 m/sec,
Formula: 2 = h/mv
63 x
Solution:
5
1836 x 9.1 x 10 Fog x3 10°
= es x10 ml
Problem 3.3: Compute the kinetic energy and velocity of an
electron in terms of those of a neutron, when their De Broglie
wavelengths are equal to 1 A® Take neutron mass as
1€35 times the mass of an electron.
Ma = 1835 me
Data: An = Ae = 1 A°;
a
2m
h h
For neutron, de Ta Va = Nim ts
do My Vn
Taking ratios, 57 Tmeve = 1 given)
Mo | Me 2
Me heve: Ve ~ my > 1835 FR
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE)
or Ve = 1835¥4
Ime
and \S Dime be
ee
‘Problem 3.4 De Broglie wavelength of electrons in a
monocnergetic beam is 7.2 x 10°" meters. Calculate the
momentum and eneray of electrons in the beam in electron
volts.
= [0916 x10 kg - m/sec
916 x10?
2x91x10!
0.0461 x 10)
_ 9.0461 x 1075
16x10"
0.0289 x 10 ev
E = 289 eV)
ev
Problem 3.5: What is the De Broglie wavelength associated
with o 5000 kg car having a constant speed of 20 m/sec?
Data: m = 5000 kg, h = 66x 10™J-sec, v = 20 m/sec.
Formula: aet
mv
: 66x10 —s
Solution: 2 = Foo 20 = 66x10 ml
‘As can be seen, the De Broglie wave associated with a
macroscopic body is too small to be significant.
Problem 3.6: The spacing between the atoms of a certain
crystal is 1.2 A® At what angle will the first-order Bragg
reflection occur for thermal neutrons?
Kinetic energy = 0.025 eV, Mass of neutron is 1.67 x 10%” kg
Data: d = 1.2 A%,n = 1, £ = 0.025 eV = 0.025 x 16x 10")
Formulae: and 2d sin @ = nA
Solution:
= 18,057 x10 m
= 1.8057 A?
(3.6)
QUANTUM, PHYS
A 1.8057 10"
INO = Fd 2x 12x 10% * 07524
0 = sin”! (0.7524)
= [48.79% = 46%
Problem 3.7: Find the KE. of a neutron whign as ,
wavelength of 3A: At what angle wll such a ney,
undergo first-order Bragg reflection from a calcite crystal fy
which the grating space Is 3.036 A°? Mass of a neutr ,
1.67 x 10° kg.
Data: A=3 A°=3x10%m, n=1, d= 3.036
Ae = 3.036x 107m, m= 167x 10" kg
h
Formulae: () =
2dsin@= nd
Solution:
@
= [la9x107 J |
a 3x1 |
Wi sn@ = 34 = acsgaeios = |
sin“? (0.49407)
29.6085° = 29° 36)
SS
Problem 3.8: An electron initially at rest is accelerated
through a p.d. of 5000 V. Compute (i) the momentum, |
(i) the De Broglie wavelength and (i) the wave number of
the electron, Also calculate the Bragg angle for its first-order
reflection from (111) planes of nickel which are 2.04 A*|
os
Data: V = 5000 V,n = 1, d = 2.04 A® = 204 x 10! m
|
Formulae: (i) p
RAE,
ii) 0 = t,
(iv) 2dsin@=na
2x91 x10 x 16x 10" x 5000
= [81S x10 kg - msec] |
Solution: (i) p gine PHYSICS (FE)
we
0.17352 x 10" mn]
e number
wave nu
sasing = nk
A 03735210"
sin® = 24 = 2x 20x 19% = 9.0425
@ = sin? (0.0425) = [2.43° = 2°26)
=n +3.9: Electrons from a heated filament accelerated
10 kV are passed through a thin film of a metal
sre atomic spacing is 0.55 A, What is the angle of
the first-order maximum?
ad. o
U
w
aon of
jon: We have the relation,
th
d= av = \famev
1227
Vio x 10°
om Bragg’s law,
2D.
“Ww
0.122 A°|
2dsin@ = na
_ mk _1x0122
= 2d = 2x055 7 O42
a7
QUANTUM PHYSICS
Problem 3.11: Proton and alpha particles are accelerated
through same potential difference. Compute the ratio
De Broglie wavelengths
of their
Solution: For proton,
do aaa
For alpha particle,
ue —t
Yam ev
But, ma=4mp and ex = 2ep
h
da Tempe
& fh
dy ~ a[16m, enV h
Problem 3.12: Find the De Broglie wavelength of an
electron accelerated through a potential difference of
100 volts.
Data: V = 100 volts
Formula:
12.27
Solutic A=
lution: 00
a= 1.227 As]
0.1227 ‘|
_ 66x 10%
P= 0122710"
[p = 5.378 x 10 kg-m/sed
Problem 3,13: What potential difference must be applied to
an electron microscope to obtain electrons of wavelength
03a”
Data: A = 0.3 A°
Formula:
12.27
Ww
Solution:
40.9
a
V_= 16728 volts]
Problem 3.14: Calculate the velocity and De Broglie
wavelength of an a-particle of energy 1 keV.
Data: € = 1 keV, ma = 4.Mp a
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE) (3.8)
h
Formula: \ =
ame
A= 4514x107 m
A= 0.00481 A‘|
Problem 3.15: Which has @ shorter wavelength of 1 eV
photon or T eV electron? Calculate the value and explain.
Data: E; = LeV, Ee=1eV
h
Formula: Ae TS
Solution; = =
2 af2m, Ep
; 66x10
© (2x 167x107 x1x 16x 10%
dy = 2.855 x 10m = [0.2855 A"
h
Me Bimote
de = 6.6 x 1074
© 2x 9.1 x 107x116 x 10%
= 1223x10%m
= [1223.4"]
de > Ap
Because lighter the particle, greater will be the wavelength
1
n:
Problem 3.16: An electron has Kinetic energy equal to
rest mass energy. Calculate De Broglie's wavelength
associated with it
of the matter waves (@ «
Data:
Formula: »_
Pome
Solution: _ AL 66x10
Y fam? ~ 91x 10/2
i= 5129%10% m
Problem 3.17: Find the De Broglie's wavelength associated
with a monoenergetic electron beam having momentum
10 kg m/s
Data: p = 10° kg m/s
h
het
Fe la:
‘ormula: if
QUANTUM Prive
Solution:
6.63 x10"
=e
he
= 3.63%10" m
a 63 A?)
SSS
Problem 3.18: Find the energy of a neutron in unit of 5
electron volt whose De Broglie wavelength is 14°
(Given: My = 1.674 x 10” kg).
or,
Data: Mn = 1.674 x 10°”, 2= 1A°
h
Formula: d= one
te
Solution: E aad
63x10
E = x67 x 107 x(1 x 10
E = 1316x107)
8.225 x 10 eV|
E
Problem 3.19: Calculate the De Breglie wavelength
10 keV protons in eV.
Data: E = 10 keV, m = 167 x 10” kg
fame
6 34
Solution: 4 = —8 0310 ___
[2x 167 x 107 x 10x 10° x 16 x 108
1 = 2.868 x 10 m
Formula: =
= 2.868 x10? A’!
Problem 3.20: Calculate the wavelength of a photon and an
electron, both having an energy 1.0 eV.
(Given: Planck's constant h = 6.63 x 10% J-s, Mass of
electron = 9.1 x 10” kg).
Data: £ = 10 eV
Formulae: (i) For electron,
(ii) For photon, E = hv
af
ie, FE e8sING PHYSICS (FF)
oy election. d= ire 6.63 x10" _ :
for Ax 81x10 x1 x16 xi9e
1,228 x 10° m = [12.28
_ 66310 x 3x 10"
1x 16x 10
A= 1.243x10%m
for photon
= [2243049
3.23
ated with T MEV proton (mp = 1.6710 kg)
, £=1MeV
mp = 167 x10” kg
h
ame
la: a
t 1 6.63 x10
_slton: 2x 1.67 x 107% 1x 10° 1.6 x10
A = 286 x10"4m
: he
86 x 10-4 A®
Calculate the De Broglie wavelength
39) QUANTUM PHYSICS
= 6,64 7 10-7" kq-mn/sec
= 0664 7 10°7' kg-m/sec.
Per cent change in momenturn,
. Lao”
_ LN - 0.664
un
7100
7100
= 61%
Percentage of uncertainty in romentumn of electron
9%,
SR
Problem 3.23: What accelerating potential would be
required for a proton with zero initial velocity to acquire a
velocity corresponding to its De Broglie wavelength of
10° m, (Given: my = 1.67 x 10” kg] [May 14, 3M]
Data: m = 1.67 x 10°” kg, 4 = 10m
Formula: a
" “Vamev
(6.63 x 10°"?
Solution: = V= 3x 1.67x 10 x 16x 10 x (10
‘Problem 3.22: The position and momentum of 1 keV
‘decron are simultaneously measured. if its position is
located with 1 A®, Find the percentage of uncertainty in its
momentum.
(Given: h = 6.64 x 10° J-sec, m = 9.1.x 107 kg)
Data: h = 6.64 x 10" J-sec, m= 9.1% 10" kg,
dx = 1A* = 1x10" m.
h h
Formulae: pz and A= 3,
V= 0.082 V
Problem 3.24.: Calculate the De Broglie wavelength of
proton when it is accelerated by potential difference of
TOKV. [May 15, 3M]
Data: V = 10 kV, mp = 1.67 x 107” kg,
h
Formula: a
af2mev
”
Solution: = =—881
(2x 167 x10" x16 x 10 x 10000
= 2.868 x 10? m
= 2.868 x 107 Ae
Problem 3.25.: Calculate the De Sroglie wavelength of
electron of energy 1 keV. [Nov. 15, 3M]
Data: E = 1 KeV
Formul b
mula:
= 17x10 Vame
34
= 171x107 kg-m/sec. Solution: Se
, 29.1 x 107 108 x 16x 10
Now, 2
1 Pk = *
ax = 387x10%m
6.64 x10" 5
=a n= 0387 A’
aa - re ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE)
Problem 3.26.: Calculate the De Broglie wavelength for a
proton moving with velocity 1 percent of velocity of light
[May 16, 3M)
Data: m, = 1.673 ¥ 10°” ko
Vey \ 10" nvsec
Formula: ood
Solution, A = seb ie”
1.673 x 107” x 799 x 3 x 10°
= [132x107 m
Problem 3.27: Calculate the energy (in eV) with which a
proton has to acquire De Broglie wavelength of 0.1A
[May 17, 3M]
Da O1A, mp = 167% 1077 kg
h
Formul A= ome
Solution: E = h/2mi? = 1.3160 x10")
= [B225 ev
Problem 3.28: Calculate the De Broglie wavelength for a
10 keV proton. (m, = 1.67 x 10” kg, h = 663 x 10° J,
e= 1.6 x10) [Nov. 17, 3M]
Data: £ = 10 keV, m = 1.67 x 10” kg
h
Formula: = Ene
Seen 6.63 x 10
1/2 x 1.67 x 10°?” x 10 x 10? x 16 x 10°
868 x 10° m
868 x10 A®
Problem 3.29: Calculate the first energy eigen value of an
electron in eV trapped in rigid box of length 1 AU.
(= 1.6 x 10°C, h = 6.63 x 10% J-sec, me = 9.1 x 10%" kg)
[May 18, 3M]
Solution: Given: V = 10,000 volts
(3.10)
QUANTUM PHY Sieg
Problem 3.30:A proton and an alpha particle,
accelerated by the same potential difference.
Find the ratio of their De Broglie wavelength (mx = 6 68 g-»
charge on alpha particle = 2 x charge on electron
my = 1.673 x 10” kg) [May 18, 3m)
Solution: Given: My = 4 Mp, eu = 2 &p
h
= \Bmev
For proton,» = Trev
ha = |
© af2meeev
but, ma =4 mp and ex = 2e |
h
Oe af16m,e,V
h 2x 1.673 x10" x eV
hh *r
+16 x 1.673 x 10” x eV h
eo Lt
“sfao14 ~ 8
Problem 3.31: in a TV set electrons are accelerated by a
potential difference of 10 KV. Calculate the De Broglie
wavelength matter waves associated with these electrons.
(me = 9.1 x 107" kg, h = 6.63 x 10 Js, e = 1.6 x 10°C)
INov. 18, 3M]
Data: V = 10,000 volts
Formulae: (i) 4
Solution: (1)
A= 01227 AY
m 66x10
ay P= Q4227x10
p= 5.378 x 10 kg-mv/sec|
h_ 1227
he = A Problem 3.32: An electron initially at rest is accelerated
2mev Wv
Ww through a potential difference of 3000 V. Calculate for the
2g electron wave the following parameters. [May 19, 3M)
Meee (0 The De Broglie wavelength and
= [01227 A" __ (id The momentum (h: 6.63 x 10™ Js) pine FING PHYSICS (FE)
eT
= qamev
~ = 0.223 A* 3000
= ~2meV q?x 9.1% 10
x 16 ~ 10" 3000
= 2989x107 Kam/s
291x 16x 1079)
h
Ae
V2me
66 x 10-4
= SSI
V2x9.1x 10 291 x 16x 10%
= [0.717 a2
~
"
whose De Broglie wavelength is 1 A° (Mj, = 1.67 x 10” kg).
Solution: Given: A, = 1A° = 1x 10m
My = 1.67 x 10°77 kg
h = 663x104 Jsec
h
Jame
| he 6.63 x 104?
Eo oma? = 2x 167 x 107 x (1x10)
E = 13160x 10)
| E = 6225x107 eV|
(3.11)
QUANTUM PHYSICS
1228
Formula: Ree
Wv
12.2!
Solution; 9, = 422% - 27450
2000
Problem 3.37: Find De Broglie wavelength of 10 kev
electrons.
Data: E = 10 keV = 10x 10'x16%107)
h
formulas = DS
ame
solu , 66x10
olution: © Vax 91 x10 x 10x 16% 10%
= 122x107" m = [012209
Problem 3.38: Protcn and deuteron are accelerated by the
same potential. Compare their De Broglie wavelengths.
Assume mass of deuterium to be twice the mass of a proton.
Data: my = 2mp
h
= Bmev
Solution: For proton,
Formula:
h
be
PO 2 mev
for deuteron, ty = == «7
US Namaev ~sf4 mpev
de _ WAR meV *,
ds Ala mp eV
dy tag = V2 1
“Problem 3.35: Find the De Broglie wavelength of an
electron accelerated through a potential difference of
100 volts
_ Data: V = 100 volts
Formula: 9, an Ki
Solution, 4, = 227
afio0
1227 A)
— en. _
Problem 3.36: An electron beam is accelerated from rest
‘9h a potential difference of 200 V. Calculate the
Ssociated wavelength, [Dec. 16, 3M]
Paty = 2000y oe
3.6 WAVE FUNCTION AND PROBABILITY
DENSITY
* A wave motion appears in almost all branches of
physics. A wave motion is defined as a periodic
disturbance travelling with finite velocity through a
‘medium or space.
* The simplest form of vibration is Simple Harmonic
Motion (S.H.M,) and a particle executing S.H.M. acts as
a source which radiates waves.
* The wave motion provides a way for energy and
Momentum to move from one place to another
without material particles making that journey ie,
energy is transmitted, but not the medium SS
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE)
The waves can be classified according to their broad
physical properties into mainly three categories:
1, Electromagnetic Waves: The FM waves are the
electric field and magnetic field oscillations which
are generated by dipole oscillation and need not
require any medium to propagate
2, Mechanical Waves: The mechanical waves are
simplest one to understand because they are
produced by some sort of mechanical vibrations
which we can see.
3. Matter Waves: Matter waves are the waves which
give the probability amplitude of finding a particle
at a given position and time
When @ mechanical waves passes through a medium,
the medium particles perform an SHM. given by
equation,
y = Acos wt 3.17)
where, 4 is the amplitude of the oscillation and
© = 2mv, where, vis the frequency,
This equation is applicable to all individual particles
affectell by the wave. Suppose the wave is progressing
forward with velocity v.
If P is the origin of the wave, then a particle at Q at a
distance x from P will receive the wave x/v sec later
than P did.
4
if x——
y >
v
P a
to
,
Fig. 3.2: Progressive wave moving with velocity v
Hence, its displacement at time t and distance x from
the origin will be,
| + tna stung, we can represent the wave disturbar
|
(3.12) QUANTUM, Poste
:
by
the transverse displacement of y. Similarly, fey
} for sig, |
waves the field vectors E and B vary in space ary.
for sound waves pressure P varies in space aa ira
the same way, for matter waves, the viave furey.
y varies in space and time, m
+ Sow in wave mechanics is analogous to electic fig
E in electromagnetic waves or to pressure P in 1, |
sound waves. However, itself unlike & and P has y,
direct physical significance, but gives a measure of ty
probability of finding a particle at a particular poston |
Hence, it is called ‘probability amplitude’, |
* However, a probability is always real and posite
where, as y can be positive or negative. Therefore, ys
taken which is always positive. In general, y is compley
therefore, one takes [y[? instead of y2, where, |yl?
denoting the complex conjugate of y. In any case
the product y" w is always real and positive,
* If dvis a volume element located at a point, then the
probability of finding the particle in the volume
element at time t is proportional to wrydv. By analogy
with ordinary mass density, the square of the wave
function y'y is called the ‘probability density
ie, ‘probability per unit volume’.
3.6.1 Physical Significance of the Wave
Function y
[May 17, 18, 19, Nov. 19, Aug. 22, March 23]
‘+ Schrédinger interpreted y in terms of charge density.
Ais the amplitude of an electromagnetic wave, then
the energy per unit volume, ie, energy density is equa
to A? Also, the photon energy hv is constant. So, the
number of photons per unit volume, ie, the photon
2
. A
density is equal to -5 and it is proportional to the
amplitude square.
imilarly, if y is the amplitude of matter waves at any
point in space, the particle density at that point may be
taken as proportional to ly). So, yl? is a measure of
y Acoso(t- ~ (3.18) particle density and on multiplying this by the chargé
f the Y. ‘ity. Thus
The wave equation of such a wave is, Se cane Sal ge he charge dene
IP is a measure of ‘charge density’.
Sy
dt = Yow (3.19) | * According to Max Born, the value of | y/’ at a point at @
| | given time is related to the probability of finding the
‘And the solution of Equation (3.19) is given by, body described by its wave function y at that point t }
y= Aeon (3.20) that instant. |
| enone
cL
NG PHYSICS (FE)
= 3.13)
sige value of IWF means a strong possibility of the
once of the body, while a small value of ly? means
mont possibility of its presence. As long as jy? is not
stually zero somewhere, there is a definite chance,
never small, of detecting the body there,
sannough the wave function y of a particle is spread
jut in space, this does not mean that the particle itself
«aso spread out. When an experiment is performed
to detect a particle, an electron for instance, the whole
siectron is either found at a certain place and time or it
isnot
there is nothing like 20% of an electron. However, it is
certainly possible that there is 20% chance that the
electron will be found at that place and time and its | «
likelihood that is specified by [yi or wy*, y* being the
complex conjugate of y.
The ly? or wy" is taken as the probability density, ie,
the probability of finding the particle in unit volume.
So, the probability of the particle being present in a
volume element dx-dy-dz is Iwi? dx dy dz. Then, the
wave function y is called the ‘probability density
amplitude’. 5
Since, the particle is certainly to be found somewhere
in space, we must have,
ff IwP dx dy dz = 1 (3.21)
the triple integral extending over all possible values | +
of xyz
A function w satisfying this relation is called a
‘normalised wave function’ and Equation (3.21) is
known as the ‘normalisation condition’. Thus, y has
to be a normalisable function.
Besides being normalisable, y must also satisfy the
following conditions:
> Y must be a single valued function, because y is
related to the probability of finding the particle at
given place and time and the probability can
have only one value at a given point and time,
y
W must be finite, because the particle exists
Somewhere in space and so integral over all space
—tnust be finite.
pe
QUANTUM PHYSICS
ay ay aw
> w and its derivatives ee ‘ay’ az Must be
continuous everywhere in the region where, w is
defined.
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
SCHRODINGER’S WAVE EQUATION
Schrédinger started with De Broglie's idea of matter
waves and developed it into a mathematical theory
known as ‘wave mechanics’. The wave function
described by the Schrédinger equation contains all
possible information about the quantum system.
Solving the equation can determine properties like the
probability of finding a particle in a certain location, its
energy, momentum, etc.
The Schrdinger equation forms the basis for much of
modern physics, chemistry and material science. It is
used to understand the electronic structure of atoms
and molecules, the behaviour of solids and
semiconductors, chemical bonding, etc.
The Schrddinger equation is to quantum mechanics
what Newton's laws are to classical mechanics. It forms
the basis for understanding the dynamics of quantum
systems.
The equation describes the evolution of the wave
function, which encodes all the information about a
system. The wave function's magnitude squared gives
the probability density of finding a particle in a given
state or position.
By solving the Schrédinger equation, one can predict
the behavior of particles, including their energy levels,
position probabilities and other physical properties.
This is essential for understanding atomic and
molecular structures.
The equation naturally leads to the concept of
quantized energy levels in bound systems, such as
electrons in an atom. This explains why atoms emit or
absorb light at specific wavelengths.
Also in chemistry, the Schrédinger equation helps
explain how atoms and molecules interact, bond and
react. This has profound implications for understanding
chemical reactions and the properties of materials.
There are two types of Schrédinger’s wave equations:
1. Schrédinger’s time independent wave equation,
2. Schrédinger’s time dependent wave equation. ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE)
3.7.1 Schrddinger’s Time Independent Wave
Equation [Nov, 17, May 19, Aug. 22)
* According to De Broglie’s theory, a particle of mass m
moving with a velocity v has a wave associated with it
h
and its wavelength is given by A= 1,
+ The waves are produced only when something
oscillates. Though we do not know the quantity that
vibrates to produce the matter waves, but we can
indicate that quantity by v.
© The periodic changes in y produce the wave system
associated with the particle, just as the periodic
changes in the displacement y of a string produce a
wave system along the string.
auantum mechanics, y corresponds to the
displacement y of wave motion in a string. However, wy,
unlike y, is not itself a measurable quantity and it may
be complex.
'* Consider a system of stationary waves associated with
2 particle. Let (x y, z) be the coordinates of the particle
and let y denote the wave displacement of matter
waves at time t.
+ The Schrédinger’s wave equation can be considered
analogous to classical wave equation.
Therefore, we can derive it from wave equation,
By analogy with the wave equation,
a. yet
ve
where, V? is particle or group velocity.
* The above equation is of one-dimensional wave for
three-dimensional wave with a wave velocity u it can
be written as
eye vt oy » 2)
a “Lae * ay! * at
or, a euVvy (3.22)
where, V? = & + a + = is the ‘Laplacian operator’.
* The solution of Equation (3.22) is y (% y, 2, t). We
assume that it is product of two functions, one
depends only (x, y, z) and the other only on t. The first
represent the amplitude of the wave at the point
considered.
Therefore, the solution can be written as,
YHYZN= Woy zee (3.23)
(3.14)
QUANTUM PHY sig
+ Partially Differentiating Equation (3.23) twice yy
respect to time t,
a
we get, a = -imyo(ne'”
a
an, = iw woel=-wy og 7
Comparing Equation (3,22) and (3.24) we get,
vv y= -oy
@
vive ye 8.25,
But, @=2nv and u=va
Equation (3.25) becomes,
4
Vy tary =0 2.26,
+ The De Broglie wavelength of the waves associateg
with the particle is given by,
as
a - (3.27)
Substituting Equation (3.27) in (3.26),
arp
weget, Vy+—pa w=0 8.28)
+ The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its
mv? and potential energy V.
Ai 2
m+ Vj rr +V
This gives, p? = 2m(E-V) ww (3.29)
Substituting equation (3.29) in (3.28),
2, em
we get, Vey +S SS yao (330)
* Equation (3.30) is called 'Schrddinger’s time
independent wave equation’
h
Taking, = H= 52, Equation (3.30) becomes,
viys2mEaY yg 031)
3.7.2. Schrédinger’s Time Dependent Wave
Equation [Nov. 19, March, Dec. 23)
+ Schrédinger's time independent wave equation is,
oak
y+ e-Vv) y=0
+ The time dependent wave equation is obtained by
eliminating E from the time independent equation. 1 wonal wave motion can be written as,
ine’ °
(oy 2, ay
(ae tay t ev ey 333)
# @
dy? + at |S the ‘Laplacian operator’
ion of Equation (3.33) is,
at
wee ©
spe sot
vyZ = Voy 2) ele 834)
ere vo OY. 2) i the amplitude of the wave at the
oint considered.
pyfeentiting Equation (3.34) with respect to time &
weaet,
ay
at = CIM Woe =- joy 335)
E
Now, @= 2mv and Exhvorves
. 2mE
orn
puting this value of ein Equation (3.35),
a 2ne
ves See i Rew 336)
Mutiplying both sides of Equation (337) by i
2x
h EY
we
Fin 37)
From Equations (3.32) and (3.37),
82m (ih a
weet, Vey + (%-vy)
fa
Mutiplying both sides of this equation by 372 p,
We get,
te h
® svyeo
wt ol
am Ve
= (3:38)
-+ B39)
"uation (3.39) is called ‘ Schrddinger's time
C
~Stendent wave equation’
ICS (FE)
ptt PIES) as) ‘QUANTUM PHYSICS
e
Fader a system s Satonary tis associated with , ( Ww gev)
+ saice. Let O Ye coordinates of the particle Taking, =H = ( ren” rv) “lay 7*¥)
vy denote the wave displacement of the matty .
am ic at time t as ‘Hamiltonian operator’
waves
Me he wave veloc then the equation fora thre: | and, it as ‘tigen operator:
Equation (3.39) becomes, Hy = Ey
3.8 ENERGY OF A PARTICLE ENCLOSED IN A
RIGID BOX [May 18, Aug.22, Dec. 23)
* Consider a particle confined to a rigid box and
restricted to travelling along the x-axis between x = 0
and x = L. Such a box has infinitely hard walls and a
Particle does not lose energy when it collides with such
walls. So, the total energy E of the particle remains
constant, The case under discussion is also called
‘infinite potential well
* As shown in Fig. 33, the potential energy V of the
particle is infinite on both sides of the box, while V is
constant (say V = 0 for convenience) inside the box.
* Consider a particle of mass m confined to move in a
‘one-dimensional box with perfectly rigid and
impenetrable walls located at x = 0 and x = L. The
Fotential energy V(x) is given by: V (x) = 0 in the region
O L. We
now find the wave function y of the particle within the
box, ie, in the region 0 < x < L We can Schrddinger's
time independent wave equation and solve it for this,
purpose.
Region
I
Region,
ha
Region
Vee
Fig. 3.
# Schrédingers time independent wave equation is,
Infinite potential well
8x'm
Vy+ oa (E-V)y=0
(3.40)
eee ee
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (FE)
Now, the motion of the particle is along x-axis. So, V*y
dy
can be replaced by the total derivative Gz In one
dimension. Also Vix) = 0 inside the box. So, for this
problem, Schrddinger's Equation (3:40) becomes,
°
ie, =0 84)
arime
where, e. TF B42)
Equation (3.42) is a total differential equation of second
order with imaginary roots +i k and its general solution
will involve two arbitrary constants. So, the solution of
Equation (3.41) can be taken as,
y@ = Aes Beike .. (3.43)
We can apply boundary conditions, namely y(0) = 0
and y(L) = 0. So, from Equation (3.43),
From first boundary condition, y(0)
WO) = A+B=0 ie, B=-A
and from second boundary condition, y(L) = 0.
wl) = Adtt+ Bei =0
Taking, Be-A
0
Multiplying and Dividing by 2i,
kb
2i
we get, Aei*t—Aen'kt
2i-A
Or, 2iAsinkL = 0
As, A#0, we infer from Equation (3.44) that,
sinkL = 0
ie, kL= nz,
aoe
key (3.45)
B44)
where, n = 1, 2, 3,....
From Equations (3.42) and (3.45),
BemME nee
rT
neh
8m?
we have, k?
or, Ey = (3.46)
Equation (3.46) gives the energy values of the particle
and it is evident that the energy of the particle can
have only certain specific values as specified by
Equation (3.46). These energy values are called ‘Eigen
values’.
(3.16)
QUANTUM PHY Sic
Thus, the energy of a patticle confined to a rigid boy
quantized, It cannot have an arbitrary energy :
of its confinement leads to restrictions on its vaye |
function that permit it to have only those energies 4,
specified by Equation (3.46),
The integer n corresponding to the energy level E, j,
called its ‘quantum number’. n = 0 is rot possi
because the particle cannot have zero energy, and if
did, the particle wave function y would have to be zere
everywhere in the box and this means that the particle
cannot be present there. Classically, all energies
including zero, are presumed possible,
the facy
Wave Function of a Particle in a Rigid Box
‘The wave function y (x) of a particle inside a rigid box
of width L is given by,
vw = 2iAsinkx G47)
armen
where, k 7 L (48)
From Equations (3.47) and (3.48),
om
yo) = 2iAsin“D x 8.49)
Equation (3.49) gives Eigen functions corresponding to
energy Eigen values,
rl
ame
The complex conjugate of y(x) is,
Ey - (3:50)
om
vo) = -2iAsinDx
To evaluate the constant A, we use the normalization
condition,
u
ie, S wt ax =
0
t
San? sin? Fic dx
0
This gives, 2A?L= 1 or Aah
at
Putting this value of A in Equation (3.49), we get, the
normalized wave function of the particle as,
2i ne
Vo = yee
2m
= N/E sin Ex
The normalized wave functions yi, ye and ys together
with the corresponding probability densities |ysl’ Vat
and yal? is shown in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b) respectively.
as) FE}
nen PHYSICS (FE) a7)
aw
Xe A (ws) VV
wh NX
NS Yay 2
—™ «a
- wy)
wi
| 4. Probability of finding the
particle depends on the
Principle number and hence on
| energy
5. Probably s zero al the walls
of the potential well,
QUANTUM PHYSICS
ical Mechanical
4. Probability offing the
particle is indegandant of
energy level
Quantum Mechanical a
5. Probabilty is mavimum atthe
walls ofthe potential wal
i, at the boundaries
3.9 QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELING
[Nov.19]
% xsl x=0 x2U2 ek
fig, 34 (a): Wave Fig. 3.4 (b): Probability
function densities
while vo may be negative as well as positive, Wal? is
_eys postive. tis Seen from Fig, 3.4 (by that,
> In every case lye? = 0 at x = 0 and x = L the
boundaries of the box,
> The probability of the particle being present at a
particular point in the box may be different for
different quantum numbers. eg. For n = 1, the | *
probability is maximum at x = 5
> For n= 2 there is zero probability of the particle
L
being present at x = 5 and there are two maxima
aL
and x = “J. Classical physics predicts the
same probability for the particle to be present any
where, in the box.
The wave function shown in Fig, 3.4 (a) resembles the
possible vibrations of a string fixed at both ends, This is,
0 because the waves in a stretched string and the
waves representing a particle obey wave equation of
the same form and when similar restrictions are placed
upon each kind of wave, the solutions are identical
Table 3.1: Comparison of Quantum Mechanical
The phenomenon of the particles penetrating the
potential barrier is called the ‘tunnel effect’ or
‘tunneling’. The examples of tunneling are tunnel
diode alfa decay, tunneling microscope, etc. The kinetic
energy of a-particle is only few MeV, but still it can
escape from a nucleus whose potential is 25 MeV, due
to tunneling.
Consider a particle approaching the potential barrier
from the left ie, from F* region. If the particle has
energy less than height of potential barrier Vo
ie, E < Vo, classically, the particle will be always
reflected back and hence will not penetrate the barrier
However, by quantum mechanics, there is some
probability of penetrating to region Il. The probability
of penetration increases if (Vo E) and Lie, height and
width of potential barrier, are smaller.
On the other hand, if E > Vo classical mechanics
predicts that the particle will aways be transmitted, But
quantum mechanics says that there is a finite
probability of transmission and hence it is not certain
that the particle will penetrate the barrier.
Let us consider the one-dimensional potential barrier,
where, the height of the barrier is Vo and width is L. The
potential function is defined as Vix) = 0 for x < 0 and
x2 Land V(x) = Vo for 0
