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Research trends in brazing and soldering

Article in Welding Technology Review · July 2017

DOI: 10.26628/ps.v89i7.797

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Sebastian Weis, Vasilii Fedorov, Michael Elssner, Thomas Uhlig, Susann Hausner,
Guntram Wagner, Bernhard Wielage przeglad

Welding Technology Review

Research trends in brazing and soldering

Trendy badawcze
w procesach lutowania miękkiego i twardego

Abstract Streszczenie
Brazing has a long tradition at the Institute of Material Tradycje związane z tematyką lutowania twardego w Insty-
Science and Engineering of the University of Chemnitz, tucie Materiałoznawstwa i Inżynierii Uniwersytetu w Chem-
Germany. During the last years, comprehensive and innova- nitz (Niemcy) są długie. W ciągu ostatnich lat wygenerowano
tive knowledge in brazing and soldering technologies were kompleksową i innowacyjną wiedzę dotyczącą technologii
generated. Originating from high-temperature brazing, to- lutowania miękkiego i twardego. Zajmowano się problematyką
pics like metal-ceramic and light metal brazing, ultrasound badawczą wywodzącą się od lutowania wysokotemper-
assisted joining processes through to brazing of metal ma- aturowego, taką m.in. jak: lutowanie twarde metali lekkich
trix composites were examined. In addition, new topics like z ceramiką i wspomaganie procesu spajania ultradźwiękami
joining by nanoparticles or corrosion behavior of brazed w lutowaniu kompozytów metalowych. Obecnie przed-
heat exchangers are in the focus of research. Prof. Bern- miotem badań są nowe zagadnienia, takie jak: spajanie
hard Wielage managed the institute for 22 years. Today, nanocząsteczkami oraz zachowanie odporności korozyjnej
Prof. Guntram Wagner introduces new topics like friction wymienników ciepła lutowanych na twardo. Profesor Bernhard
stir welding and continues the activities in brazing. Wielage zarządzał Instytutem przez ostatnie 22 lata. Obecnie,
nowy Dyrektor Instytutu Profesor Guntram Wagner zajmuje
się takimi zagadnieniami, tjak np. zgrzewaniem tarciowym
z wymieszaniem materiału zgrzeiny (FSW) i kontynuuje prace
badawcze związane z lutowaniem twardym.

Keywords: brazing; soldering; heat exchangers; brazing Słowa kluczowe: lutowanie twarde; lutowanie miękkie;
of metal-ceramic joints; soldering with diamond particles wymienniki ciepła; lutowanie materiałów różnoimiennych
metal-ceramika; lutowanie miękkie z cząstkami diamentu

Introduction
This work gives an overview of the research fields in Bra- for turbine components, and, as a consequence, a rise of
zing and Soldering at the Institute of Material Science the brazing temperatures. On the contrary extreme low jo-
and Engineering of the University of Chemnitz, Germany. ining temperatures as necessary in electronic equipment
In the last years, scientists were dealing with brazing of alu- are needed. Therefore, nowadays topics like high-temperatu-
minum heat exchangers, brazing of metal-ceramic joints, re brazing of Co-based superalloys, arc brazing of aluminum
soldering with diamond particles, magnesium soldering etc. matrix composites (AMC), induction brazing of dissimilar
Innovative and suitable joining technologies are a key factor materials and joining by nanoparticles are in the focus of re-
to enlarge fields of application of modern materials or ma- search. Additionally, the investigation of the corrosion beha-
terial combinations. In industrial applications, brazed com- vior of brazed heat exchangers is a special field of interest.
ponents have to meet increased requirements such as me- To verify corresponding properties, investigations with ap-
chanical, thermal, corrosive resistance under specific ope- plication-related test methods are available. This is shown
rating conditions. This leads to different tendencies in filler by the testing bench for brazed heat exchanger in portable
and process development. One requirement on high strength and industrial water. All the previously mentioned investiga-
joints is the rise of service temperatures, for example tions are described in more detail in this work.

Dr Sebastian Weis, Vasilii Fedorov, Michael Elssner, Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Uhlig, Dr Susann Hausner, Prof. Guntram Wagner,
Prof. Bernhard Wielage – Chemnitz University of Technology.
Autor korespondencyjny/Corresponding author: [email protected]

PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017 37

High-temperature brazing
with newly developed Co-based fillers
The main requirements on the Co superalloys are good amounts of B, is used as a benchmark [13]. All joints are produ-
high-temperature strength as well as resistance against cor- ced by induction brazing in vacuum at a pressure of < 10-2 Pa,
rosion and creep [1÷3]. To produce complex structures, it is a temperature of 1225 °C and a holding time of 120 s. MAR
necessary to join these alloys. Especially in case of gaps M 509 is used as a base material [14]. At room temperature
exceeding a thickness of 50÷80 µm, the nickel based fillers the rupture stresses of the Ni-alloyed filler CoTiZrTaC-Ni re-
form brittle intermetallics in the center of the joint. Because ach values comparable to the commercially available filler
of their higher tolerance on gap geometry, expensive noble B-Co1 as well as the base material, figure 2. The better duc-
metal based fillers are preferred in some industrial processes tility of the joint, caused by the austenitic lattice structure
[4÷6]. Nevertheless, especially gold-based fillers behave dis- of the filler, is the reason for the significantly higher attaina-
advantageous due to erosion effects at the grain bounda- ble stress levels. Joints brazed with fillers CoTiZrTaC and
ries of the base materials and the local difference in electro- CoTiZrTaC-Sn fail at much lower stresses. This can be expla-
chemical potential [7]. The use of brazing fillers of the same ined by the hcp lattice of these two fillers at room tempera-
base material improves the corrosion resistance and the ho- ture, which leads to a brittle failure during the tensile tests.
mogenization of mechanical properties within the joints.
Therefore, alternative Co-based brazing fillers were develo- 700

ped [8]. The alloying concept is based on results of Shurin

600
et al. from the 1990s [9,10]. The published data indicates that RT

there is the lowest melting composition within the quasi-ter- 500

850 °C

nary system Co-ZrC0.81-TaC0.82 at 1250 °C. The alloys are

Stress [MPa]
prepared by melting in an electric arc furnace and the mel- 400

ting behavior is investigated by DSC (Differential Scanning

300
Calorimetry). The near eutectic composition with a carbide
content of 9 wt% (Zr,Ta)C melts at 1350 °C, figure 1 [8]. 200

1500 100

0
B-Co1 CoTiZrTaC CoTiZrTaC-Sn CoTiZrTaC-Ni
1450
Fig. 2. Rupture stresses of filler alloys determined by monotonic
Temperature [°C]

Tsol tensile tests at room temperature (RT) and elevated temperature

1400 of 850 °C [11]
Tliq Rys. 2. Pęknięcia naprężeniowe stopów kobaltu wyznaczone
w statycznej próbie rozciągania w temperaturze pokojowej i
1350 podwyższonej temperaturze 850 °C [11]

1300 At temperatures of 850 °C, which is within the application

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 range of Co-based superalloys, all investigated fillers exhibit
wt% (Zr,Ta)C similar strength values of about 290 to 320 MPa, figure 2.
The lowest deviation occurs when the filler CoTiZrTaC-Ni is
Fig. 1. Melting behavior of CoZrTaC-alloys as a function of carbide used. The rupture stresses of the joints are close to literatu-
content, determined by DSC [8] re data about the yield strength of MAR M 509 in this range
Rys. 1. Temperatura topnienia stopów CoZrTaC w funkcji zawartości (290 MPa at 870 °C) [15]. The strong difference of strength
węglików Zr i Ta, określona metodą DSC [8] values at the room temperature and high temperature can
be explained by the lattice structure of Co. The transition
of ε-Co (hcp) to α- Co (fcc) occurs at 422 °C [12] for pure
Because of the discrepancy to literature data, it is ne- Co and can be influenced by the Ni-content. At the testing
cessary to reduce the melting temperature of the Co-based temperature of 850 °C all joints passed this transition. Inde-
brazing fillers. Hence, alloying with the elements Al, B, Sn pendent on the composition their lattices are in the ductile
and Ti was carried out [11]. Alloying with Ti leads to the most austenitic (fcc) state. As can be seen in the room tempera-
promising results. An almost linear decrease of the liquidus ture tests, this leads to a higher tolerance against rupture.
temperature and solidus temperature occurs with increasing
Ti-content without influencing the near eutectic texture.
The wide melting range of these alloys indicates that a liqu-
idus temperature below 1200 °C can be reached. This is achie- Arc brazing of aluminum
ved by additional adjusting of the Zr-, Ta- and C-contents. matrix composites using AlAgCu filler
The adapted composition CoTi8Zr8Ta4C0.16 has a melting
temperature of 1163 °C. Further improvement of the me- In the automotive industry or heat exchanger industry,
chanical properties is achieved by alloying the filler with Sn the requirements in lightweight design lead to an increasing
and Ni. The Sn alloyed composition CoTiZrTaC-Sn with an demand to combine dissimilar materials like aluminum al-
about 20 K lower melting temperature affects the wetting loys and stainless steel. High performance materials like
and flow behavior positively. The Ni alloyed composition aluminum matrix composite (AMC) are used to provide new
CoTiZrTaC-Ni is used to generate a partial austenitic lattice solutions for engineering applications. In comparison to co-
structure according to the binary system Co-Ni [12]. This leads nventional aluminum alloys, the AMC have a higher specific
to a better ductility of the joint. The commercially available strength, an increased wear resistance and a lower coeffi-
filler B-Co1, containing high amounts of Si and considerable cient of thermal expansion [16÷18]. The thermal stability

38 PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017

of the AMC is limited by the solidus temperature of the alumi- between reaction zone and braze metal, indicates the pre-
num matrix. In addition, the interface of matrix and particles sence of FeAl3 (892 HV1) [24,25]. Near to the stainless ste-
is affected by the heat input. The consequence is a thermal el, the hardness and EDXS results indicate the formation
induced damage that leads to ineligible porosities and in- of AlFe (470 HV1) [25]. Cracks in the joints of aluminum
homogeneities [19]. Furthermore, the formation of IMC can and stainless steel mainly occur in the brittle intermetallics.
occur so that the properties of these joints can be insuffi- In some cases, cracks can be observed in the area between
cient [20]. Therefore, a suitable joining technique is required. FeAl3 and AlFe. In a previous work, which deals with the wet-
In comparison to welding, brazing offers the possibility ting behavior, a smaller reaction zone consisting of different
to reduce the joining temperature because of the lower liqu- layers was detected [22]. Therefore, the aim of the future
idus temperature of the fillers. A filler based on the ternary work is the improvement of the joining process to reduce
system Al-Ag-Cu with the eutectic composition of 40 wt% Al, the amount of IMC.
40 wt% Ag and 20 wt% Cu (named Al40Ag20Cu) is develo-
ped. The melting temperature of the filler, measured by diffe-
rential scanning calorimetry (DSC), is 506 °C [21]. Mixed jo-
ints of AMC and stainless steel are produced by arc brazing
an inert atmosphere (Ar) using a TIG welding source with
an alternating current (AC) of 40 A [21,22]. The microstructu-
res of the arc brazed joints are observed at the AMC / braze
metal and the stainless steel / braze metal interface.
An additional alloying of the eutectic filler Al40Ag20Cu
with 1.5 wt% Si improves the wetting on stainless steel
and prevents the formation of IMC. The liquidus temperatu-
re is 498 °C [22]. Before brazing, the eutectic filler consists
of the phases Ag2Al, Al2Cu, a solid solution of Al and additio-
nal Si, analyzed by XRD. An alloying of the braze metal takes
place, figure 3. As a result the braze metal is enriched with Al.
The phases Ag2Al, Al2Cu and a solid solution of Al are de-
tected using XRD analysis. The content of Ag (up to 5 at%,
measured by EDXS) in the solid solution of Al is higher
than the solubility in Al in equilibrium state (< 2 at%) [23]. Fig. 4. Interface of stainless steel / braze metal (SEM) [22]
Therefore, the hardness increases in direction to AMC due to Rys. 4. Struktura na granicy połączenia stal nierdzewna / lutowina
the precipitated Ag-rich intermetallics [24]. No cracks can be (SEM) [22]
detected at the interface to AMC. Furthermore, the influence
of this alloying on the mechanical properties of the joint will
be investigated. Induction brazing of aluminum / stainless
steel mixed joints
Another approach to join dissimilar materials is the in-
duction brazing of aluminum to stainless steel. To avoid ero-
sion and to improve the mechanical properties of the joints,
cold rolled interlayers are used. The roll bonding process is
carried out to clad the base material with a filler. In operating
conditions, the joints should be able to endure high pressu-
res in a corrosive environment. The use of filler cladded sta-
inless steel improves the corrosion resistance of the com-
ponents [26,27]. The joint design requires the knowledge
of mechanical properties, especially the fatigue behavior.
Thus, the potential lifetime of the aluminum / stainless steel
and stainless steel / stainless steel joints produced by in-
duction brazing using a filler cladding on the stainless steel
is determined. The microstructure of the aluminum / stain-
less steel brazed joints is shown in figure 5. The resulting
braze metal consist of a primarily solidified solid solution
of Al and an eutectic. Additionally, an IMC layer is formed
at the interface to the stainless steel due to the diffusion
Fig. 3. Interface of AMC / braze metal (SEM) [22] and the reaction of Fe, Al and Si. The results of the EDX analy-
Rys. 3. Struktura AMC / lutowina (SEM) [22] ses indicate that the IMC layer correlates the Al7Fe2Si phase.
The thickness of this IMC layer is about 1 µm. This thin IMC
layers are the results of the short brazing time and the local
At the interface to the stainless steel the microstructures heat input into the joint during induction brazing [28].
of the diffusion zone and the braze metal appear differen- In further investigations, the mechanical properties of
tly in comparison to that of the AMC, figure 4. The eutectic the joints are examined by tensile tests. For aluminum / fil-
part of the filler is not recognizable anymore in the braze ler cladded stainless steel mixed joint, the achieved joining
metal. The EDXS shows a reduction of the content of Al strength is 83 MPa. For stainless steel / filler cladded stain-
in the reaction zone from the braze metal to the stainless ste- less steel joint, a joining strength of 96 MPa was determined.
el. The increased hardness in this zone is probably a result After the monotonic tensile test, fatigue tests were carried
of the formation of intermetallics of the system Fe-Al. The hi- out up a fatigue limit of 2 × 106 cycles. All tests were perfor-
ghest hardness (870 HV0.005), which occurs at the interface med at a load ratio of R = 0.1 [29]. The aluminum / stainless

PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017 39

Fig. 5. a) Microstructure of the brazed aluminum / stainless steel joint (OM),
b) Interface to stainless steel (SEM) [29]
Rys. 5. a) Mikrostruktura złącza lutowanego aluminium / stal nierdzewna (OM), b) struktura na granicy stali nierdzewnej (SEM) [29]

steel brazed joints reach the fatigue life of 2 × 106 cycles at stigated [31]. For joining with nanoparticles, the nanopar-
a stress amplitude of 6.5 MPa. The stainless steel / stain- ticles are suspended in solvents and through the addition
less steel brazed joints reach the fatigue life of 2 × 106 cycles of dispersing agents surrounded with an organic shell [31,32].
at a stress amplitude of 4.5 MPa [30]. In further investiga- This shell leads to repulsive forces between the particles, so
tions, the initiation and the propagation of cracks depending that agglomerations can be avoided [42,43]. A commercially
on the number of cycles will be observed. available Ag nanopaste of the company Harima Chemicals, Inc.
(Japan) is used for the experiments [44,45]. The particle size
distribution has a maximum at 6÷7 nm, figure 6 [31]. A paste
Low temperature joining of copper application of 20 µm was applied for the joining experiments.

using Ag nanoparticles
and steel by Ni nanoparticles 35
Relative frequency hn (d) [%]

30
Due to their large surface-to-volume ratio, nanoparticles
exhibit a reduced melting and sintering temperature with de- 25
creasing particle size in comparison to the corresponding 20
bulk material. After melting and sintering of the particles,
15
the material behaves like the bulk material (Gibbs-Thomson
effect) [31,32]. Thus, high-strength and temperature-resi- 10
stant joints can be produced at low temperatures, which is 5
of great interest for various joining tasks. Previous publi-
0
cations are mostly concerned with joining of components 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
in power electronics. Especially the joining of copper with Ag
Particle diameter [nm]
nanoparticles as a substitute for soldered joints was inve-
stigated [33÷39]. With low joining temperatures, structural Fig. 6. TEM image of the nanoparticles and particle size distribution
damage, e.g. abnormal grain growth or undesirable phase of the Ag nanopaste [32]
Rys. 6. Obraz TEM rozkładu nanocząsteczek i wielkość cząstek
transformation, can be avoided. Consequently, it would be
w nanopaście Ag [32]
also of great interest for the joining of materials with diffe-
rent coefficients of thermal expansion such as carbide-me-
tal joints and ceramic-metal joints, to reduce the often criti- A modified hydraulic press was used for the joining expe-
cal thermally induced residual stresses of the joints [40,41]. riments. The heating of the samples was carried out in air
There is also an increasing demand for novel hybrid compo- by means of induction. The desired pressure was applied
und joints, for example between fiber-reinforced composites on the entire joining surface of the sample with a punch.
and metals, where low joining temperatures are required. For The investigations of the strength behavior show, that it is po-
the joining of power electronics components, it is important ssible to produce joints even at lower temperatures (of approx.
to reduce the temperature and the necessary pressure, be- 300 °C) with good strength properties and high temperatu-
cause they only have a limited thermal and mechanical lo- re stability. The variation of the process parameters reveals
ading capacity. In previous publications, only the parameters that in particular the joining pressure exerts an essential
temperature, pressure, holding time and particle size were influence on the achievable strengths. Without pressure,
varied and investigated. However, the quality of joints is in- the strengths are even lower than the strengths of soldered
fluenced by a complex interplay of much more process para- joints. With increasing pressure, the strength increases si-
meters, most of which are systematically. The strength be- gnificantly, figure 7. In addition, temperature, holding time
havior as a function of the mentioned parameters and other and thickness of paste application have a considerable effect
process parameters like heating rate, thickness of paste on strength behavior. In contrast, the pre-drying process, he-
application, surface pre-treatments of the substrates, a pre- ating rate, surface pre-treatment and subsequent heat treat-
-drying process and a subsequent heat treatment are inve- ment exhibit hardly any influence on joint strength [31].

40 PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017

 100 the joining seams and the substrates, which were not expec-

Tensile shear strength [MPa]

90 ted for the low temperatures, figure 8 and figure 9. It is in-
80 teresting that the diffusion behavior differs for both steels.
70
60
When using the unalloyed quality steel DC01, in particular Fe
50 diffuses into the Ni joining seam, figure 8. At the beginning
40 of the joining process, the seam has a nanoporous struc-
30
20
ture (high number of defects) which is compacted during
10 the joining process (sintering process). Nevertheless, the re-
0 sulting sintered structure inevitably exhibits lattice defects.
Cu
3 Pa Pa Pa Cu An increasing number of defects results in an increasing dif-
Sn
M M M Ag
:0 40 80 fusion coefficient [51] so that the large numbers of defects
re e: e:
ssu s ur ur lead to the diffusion of Fe into the seam.
re es ss
,p pr re
e , ,p
st te te
Pa as as
g- -P -P
A Ag Ag

Fig. 7. Tensile shear strength of soldered and brazed joints in com-

parison to samples joined with Ag nanopaste at different pressures
(temperature: 300 °C, holding time: 10 min) [32]
Rys. 7. Wytrzymałość na ścinanie połączeń lutowanych na miękko
i na twardo w porównaniu z próbkami lutowanymi nanopastą Ag
przy różnych ciśnieniach (temperatura 300 °C, czas wygrzewania
10 min) [32]

This demonstrates the great potential of joining with na-

noparticles for highly stressed structural components
as an alternative for brazing processes. A possible applica-
tion is the joining of high-performance materials respecti-
vely materials with an adapted and optimized microstruc-
ture. High joining temperatures can result in undesirable
structural damages and therefore to a loss of the previously
optimized properties. For example, grain growth of fine-gra- Element
Ni Fe Mn O
[wt%]
ined steels or recrystallization of monocrystalline Ni-based
superalloys lead to strong losses of strength and toughness
[46,47]. However, brazing of copper and steel can result 1 87 13 – –
in strength losses by grain growth [48,49]. In this context,
a reduction of the joining temperature using a Ni nanopaste, 2 54 46 – –
investigated by Hausner et al., is of great interest to reta-
in the initial microstructure. The nanopaste was produced
3 5 74 2 19
by themselves. The particle size of Ni nanoparticles is about
of 10 nm to 100 nm. The joining processes were carried out
on the same experimental device like for the joining of cop- 4 3 96 1 –
per using Ag nanoparticles. Two different steels were used
as substrates: the unalloyed quality steel DC01 (EN: 1.0330)
and the stainless steel X5CrNi18-10 (EN: 1.4301). For the jo- Fe content inside Ni content
Depth [µm] the joining seam in the substrate
ining experiments, the influence of the process parameters
[wt%] [wt%]
joining temperature and joining pressure on the strength be-
havior and the resulting microstructure of the joints was inve-
stigated. Furthermore, different surface treatments respecti- 2 46 3
vely the application of coatings on the stainless steel were
examined to achieve an improved adhesion. The variation 10 13 0
of the process parameters joining pressure and joining tem-
perature shows, that the joining temperature exerts a signifi- Fig. 8. Microstructure (SEM) and EDX analyses of a joint with DC01
cantly stronger influence on the achievable strengths in com- at a joining temperature of 850 °C and a joining pressure of 20 MPa
parison to the joining pressure. A comparison with results (holding time: 10 min) [50]
for the joining of copper with an Ag nanopaste [31,32], where Rys. 8. Mikrostruktura (SEM) i analiza EDX złącza DC01 w tem-
the pressure has a much greater influence on the strength peraturze spajania 850 °C i ciśnieniu 20 MPa (czas wygrzewania:
behavior than the temperature, shows that it is not possi- 10 min) [50]
ble to transfer the results of one material system to ano-
ther when joining with nanosuspensions. The investiga-
tions shown that high tensile shear strengths can already In contrast, when using the stainless steel X5CrNi18-10,
be achieved at temperatures between 650 °C and 850 °C Ni exhibits a significantly higher diffusion coefficient into
[50]. In comparison to the joints with the substrate DC01, the Fe substrate than vice versa, figure 9. This can be attri-
the strengths joints with the austenitic stainless steel are buted to the different structural modifications of the steels:
significantly decreased. This may be a result of the pas- Also [52] determined a much higher diffusion coefficient
sivating oxide layer of the stainless steel. The oxide layer of Ni in austenite than in ferrite. For a more detailed explana-
presumably limits the diffusion of Ni into Fe (and vice ver- tion of this phenomenon, which is probably a complex inte-
sa). Pronounced diffusion zones can be observed between raction of many factors, further studies are required.

PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017 41

 Fig. 10. LME along the grain boundaries (OM) [58]
Rys. 10. LME wzdłuż granic ziaren (OM) [58]

The corrosion behavior is also influenced by the residual

stresses within the heat exchanger plates. During the forming
Element
Ni Fe Cr process of the corrugated PHE plates, different degrees of de-
[wt%]
formation emerge depending on the position at the corruga-
tion. When the plates are brazed, the liquid copper can infil-
1 93 5 2 trate the grain boundaries. Cracks mostly occur in the high-
deformed areas of the plates originating from the eroded
2 65 28 7 grain boundaries [59]. This phenomenon is known as a liqu-
id metal embrittlement (LME). Furthermore, the dissolution
Fig. 9. Microstructure (SEM) and EDX analyses of a joint with X5Cr- of corrosion products of brazing filler and base material into
Ni18-10 at a joining temperature of 850 °C and a joining pressure the water must be taken into account. The migration of heavy
of 20 MPa (holding time: 10 min) [50] metal ions in potable water has to be avoided. Legally fixed
Rys. 9. Mikrostruktura (SEM) i analiza EDX złącza X5CrNi18-10 maximum values for the concentrations of these ions are exi-
w temperaturze spajania 850 °C i przy ciśnieniu 20 MPa (czas sting. Besides the expectable leaching of copper ions, investi-
wygrzewania: 10 min) [50] gations indicate a nickel enrichment of the potable water [60].
This leads to the assumption that the corrosion of the steel
plates and the consequent dissolution of the corrosion pro-
ducts in the potable water cause the leaching. With respect
Brazing of heat exchangers to the influence of LME on the corrosion resistance, the so
called grain boundary engineering (GBE) is one possibility
Brazed plate heat exchangers (PHE) are used to transfer to improve the properties of copper brazed heat exchangers.
thermal energy from one fluid to another without a direct This approach is based on a thermomechanical treatment
contact of the media. They mainly consist of corrugated of the stainless steel, which leads to the formation of coinci-
stainless steel plates that are arranged diametrically op- dent grains. They form the so called coincidence site lattice
posed creating channels for the liquids. Due to the small (CSL). The grain boundaries in CSL are regarded as low ener-
sheet thickness and high thermal conductivity of the steel gy grain boundaries. If their frequency is high, the resistance
in association with the large surface, these heat exchan- to intergranular corrosion in acids remarkably rises [61,62].
gers exhibit a very high efficiency. Joining the plates toge- Furthermore, literature data on the LME of stainless steels
ther is carried out by pressing, welding and brazing. In case by copper based brazing fillers and the influence of thermal
of pressing there is a need to use rubber sealing gaskets, pretreatments indicate the possibility of reducing the LME
which limit the applicable pressure. Welding requires lots [63]. Therefore, the influence of thermomechanical treatments
of process steps due to the many stacks of plates. The adv- on the liquid metal embrittlement of copper-brazed plate heat
antage of brazing is the possibility to produce all the joints exchangers is investigated. Experiments are carried out using
in one process step. This offers the possibility to produce steel sheets in the as delivered and normalized condition.
big batch sizes very cost-efficient [53]. The brazing process During the normalizing process, the grain size increases ap-
is commonly carried out in vacuum furnaces. Because proximately fivefold. In the normalized state, there is a si-
of their good formability and the low raw material cost, pure gnificant influence of the rolling reduction rate and the heat
copper foils are used as filler metal [54]. The difference treatment temperature on the number and the depth of the infil-
in the electrochemical potentials of copper and stainless trations. The lowest values as well as deviations are deter-
steel in contact with electrolytes leads to corrosion effects mined after a heat treatment at 1020 °C. In the as delivered
[55]. Investigations indicate different reasons for leakages state, the minimum infiltration depth values are determined
and failures: intergranular attack in the braze metal and after heat treatment at 940 °C. In comparison to the norma-
gap corrosion between braze metal and steel [56]. The lized state, the number of infiltrations is higher. This can be
chromium oxide layer on the stainless steel surface causes explained by the smaller grain size, which unavoidably leads
the anodic dissolution of the copper filler [57,58]. Additio- to a higher number of grain boundaries. The residual stres-
nally, the brazing process induces the precipitation of chro- ses within the sheets in the as delivered state lead to a rela-
mium carbides at the grain boundaries of the steel, which xation at lower temperatures, which decreases the ten-
is known as a sensitization, figure 10. The subsequent dency to LME [64]. In further investigations, the possibility
reduction of the chromium content of the grains causes to combine the heat treatment with the subsequent brazing
further local differences in the electrochemical potential. process will be considered.

42 PRZEGLĄD SPAWALNICTWA Vol. 89 7/2017

Conclusions
Newly developed Co-based fillers are developed by decreasing of the melting temperature of the ternary eutectic in the
quasiternary system Co-ZrC0.81-TaC0.82. Alloying with Ti and adapting the Zr, Ta and C contents lead to near eutectic compo-
sition CoTi8Zr8Ta4C0.16 that melts at 1163 °C. Additionally, a Sn containing and a Ni containing composition are used for the
brazing experiments. Sn improves the wetting, Ni improves the ductility. The mechanical properties of the joints at room tem-
perature as well as elevated temperature are comparable to the commercially available filler B-Co1 as well as the base material.
During arc brazing of AMC and stainless steel alloying of the filler material takes place. The formation of Al-Fe interme-
tallics at the interface to the stainless steel occurs. A remarkable diffusion zone emerges at the interface braze metal / sta-
inless steel. The hardness values and XRD analyses indicate the phases FeAl3 and AlFe. The IMCs may cause cracks during
cooling down. The smoother hardness profile at the interfaces of braze metal to the AMC prevents cracks. That is a result
of the formation of a solid solution of Al in the braze metal and Cu precipitates in the AMC. The determination of the me-
chanical properties with respect to process parameters and the resulting microstructure are the purpose of the future work.
The design of brazed joints requires the knowledge of mechanical properties, especially the fatigue behavior. The po-
tential lifetime of the aluminum / stainless steel and stainless steel / stainless steel joints produced by induction brazing
using a filler cladding on the stainless steel is determined. The aluminum / stainless steel brazed joints reach the fatigue life
of 2 × 106 cycles at a stress amplitude of 6.5 MPa. The stainless steel / stainless steel brazed joints reach the fatigue life
of 2 × 106 cycles at a stress amplitude of 4.5 MPa.
Due to their large surface-to-volume ratio, nanoparticles exhibit a reduced melting and sintering temperature in comparison to
the corresponding bulk material. The investigations joints of copper using Ag nanoparticles show that it is possible to produce
joints even at lower temperatures (of approx. 300 °C) with good strength properties and high temperature stability compared to
conventional brazed joints. It is of great interest for various joining tasks. For joining of steels, a reduction of the joining tempe-
rature using a Ni nanopaste is of great interest to retain the initial microstructure and therefore the mechanical properties. The
investigations prove that the nanopaste offers a great potential for joining at low temperatures. The high joint strengths can
already be achieved at temperatures of 650÷850 °C in comparison to conventional Ni-based brazing filler metals.
Copper-brazed plate heat exchangers made of stainless steel can be damaged by corrosion in contact with potable wa-
ter because of the difference between the electrochemical potential of braze metal and base material. The braze metal
infiltrates the stainless steel along the grain boundaries and causes a liquid metal embrittlement. The performed investiga-
tions show the possibility to reduce the liquid metal embrittlement of stainless steel by copper filler during thermomecha-
nical treatment, grain boundary engineering. The lowest values as well as deviations are determined after a heat treatment
at 1020 °C in the normalized state.

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