Antenna and Wave Propagation

(EC-324)

Dr. Saurabh Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
NIT Hamirpur, India
[email protected]
1
 About the Course
Course Objectives
• To impart knowledge about the Electromagnetic
radiation, antenna basic parameters, antenna arrays
and their patterns, special antennas, wave
propagation over ground, through troposphere and
ionosphere.

• To introduce the fundamental concepts relevant to

electromagnetic theory and its application to
antennas and wave propagation.

2
3
Books and References
1. Antennas Theory by C.A. Balanis, Willey
Publication.
2. Antennas by J. D. Kraus, McGraw Hill.
3. Antennas and Radio Propagation by R. E.
Collins, McGraw-Hill.
4. Electromagnetic waves & radiating System, E. C.
Jorden and B. C. Balmann, P.H.I.

4
 Wireless communication system diagram

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 Overview of course:

Antenna and Wave Propagation

Electromagnetic Antenna Parameters

Radiation – Directivity, Gain, Bandwidth,
Beamwidth, Polarization etc

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Antenna Arrays Special Antenna

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Overview of the course

Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation Ionosphere Propagation Space Wave Propagation

Text Book
1. J.D. Kraus, "Antennas, "McGraw Hill.
2. C.A. Balanis “Antennas Theory and Design”, Willey

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 Basics of Electromagnetic Field Theory

Applied to
scalar, gives
Vector

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 Applied to
Vector, gives
Scalar

Case(1) Case(2) Case(3)

Case(1)

Case(2)

Case(3)

10
 Applied to
Vector, gives
Vector

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12
 Electromagnetic radiation
Basic Considerations
• Wave propagation all the field quantities have to be time
varying, with the presumption of sinusoidal variation.
• All field quantities involved may be characterized by the term
ejωt.
• The space variation may be characterized by the term e−γz,
where γ is the propagation constant which is normally a
complex quantity (i.e., γ = α + jβ), α = attenuation constant
and β = phase shift constant.
• As long as waves remain confined to free space, the
attenuation can be neglected (i.e., α = 0 ). Thus, the study of
radiation may be confined to only those fields which result in
waves characterized by the term e−jβz. The field emanating
from an antenna is assumed to be progressing in the positive
z direction without attenuation.

13
• Basic Maxwell’s Equations
The relevant equations involving electric field intensity E, electric
flux density D, magnetic field intensity H , magnetic flux density B,
current density J and the charge density ρ

• ε is the permittivity, μ is the permeability, σ is the conductivity and ρ is the

resistivity (ρ = 1/σ) of the media.
• It is to be noted that the symbol ρ involved in third Maxwell's eq. and
resistivity (ρ = 1/σ) represents entirely different quantities.
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Besides the above, the other relevant relations are

V is the scalar electric potential; ρl, ρs and ρv are line, surface and
volume charge densities; and R is the distance between the source
and the point at which V is to be evaluated.

A is the vector magnetic potential, I is the current, K is the surface

current density and J and R are the same as defined earlier.

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 Retarded (Time Varying) Potential
• Some of the relations listed above are derived for the static or dc field
conditions. Since radiation is a time varying phenomena, the validity of
these relations needs to be tested. To start with consider . When
its curl is taken, it is noted that
………………(1)

………………(2)

………………(3)
ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION, JD Kraus
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………………(5)

………………(6-a)
………………(6-b)

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 ………………(7)
………………(8)

………………(9)

………………(10)

As the term ∇2A is defined using

whereas the term ∇·A is yet to be defined.

As per the statement of Helmholtz Theorem, “A vector field is completely defined
only when both its curl and divergence are known”.
There are some conditions which specify divergence of A. Two of these conditions,
known as Lorentz gauge condition and Coulomb’s gauge condition, are given by
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Lorentz gauge condition ………………(11)
Coulomb’s gauge condition ………………(12)

………………(13)
correction
required

………………(14)

………………(15)
………………(16)

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ρ and J become functions of time and this time t is replaced by t’ such that t’ = t − r/υ.
ρ and J can be replaced by [ρ] and [J] respectively. Now

………………(17)

………………(18)

………………(19)

………………(20) 20
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Source of Radiation
(a) Static charge doesn’t radiate

(b) Charge with uniform velocity along a straight

wire doesn't radiate

(c) when charge reaches end of wire and

reverses direction it undergoes
acceleration and radiates. The shorter or
more compact the pulse of charge, the However, if the
stronger the radiation. charge is
accelerated, i.e.,
(d) electric charge moving at uniform its velocity
velocity v along a curved or bent wire is changes with
accelerated and radiates. time, it radiates.

(e) electric charge oscillating hack

and forth in simple harmonic motion
along a wire undergoes periodic
acceleration and radiates.

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23
Consider a pulse of electric charge moving
along a straight conductor in the x direction.
This moving charge constitutes a momentary
electric current I as given by

………………(1)

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 Two-Wires

ac current
1
d

If the separation between the two wires 1 and 2 is sufficiently small (d << λ)
The the fields at the observation point due to these two wires cancel each other

We need spatial arrangement for radiation

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 Radiation mechanism contd…
(a) Two wire transmission line no radiation, bad
antenna

(b) Flared transmission line radiates more as

spacing increased

(c) Linear dipole radiates more effectively

λ/2 Dipole H- Filed

λ/2 Dipole λ/2 Dipole Radiation Pattern

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*Antennas, C.A.Balanis
 29
*Antennas, C.A.Balanis
Dipole

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*Antennas, C.A.Balanis
 FIELDS FROM OSCILLATING DIPOLE

Oscillating electric dipole

consisting of two electric
charges in simple
harmonic motion,
showing propagation of
an electric field line and
its detachment
(radiation) from the
dipole. Arrows next to
the dipole indicate
current (I) direction.

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*Antennas, John.D.Karus
32
Electric field lines of radiation moving out from for λ/2 dipole antenna.

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*Antennas, John.D.Karus
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA

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35
 Solution of Maxwell’s Equations in free space

Coupled Equation

In free space
Jc = 0
ρv =0

Three dimensional
Wave equation

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 Lecture-02 Three dimensional
Wave equation

Coupled Equation

In free space
Jc = 0
ρv =0 x

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 x

Solution of this equation if of the form

Ex = f(z-ct) or f(z+ct)

Travelling Wave

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 At every instant, the ratio of the magnitude of
the electric field to the magnitude of the
magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave
equals the speed of light.

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 x

y
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves (TEM Wave they need no
medium to vibrate in), but are not mechanical waves (need a material
medium for their propagation.)

Therefore, electromagnetic waves can propagate in free space.

At any point, the magnitudes of E and B (of the wave shown)

depend only upon z and t, and not on x or y. A collection of such waves is
called a plane wave.
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 How to write wave Time domain and Phasor form

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Wave Eqn.

Helmholtz equation

Forward Travelling Wave

Backward Travelling Wave

Standing Wave

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 Polarization of Wave
That property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time varying direction and
relative magnitude of the electric field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function
of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space and the sense in which it
is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation

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 Polarized in x-direction

Polarized at some angle

Linear Polarization:
i. Only one component or
ii. Two orthogonal linear components that are in time
Phase or 1800 out of phase

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 RHCP
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 Z-outward to the
paper

??
Z-inward to the
paper

RHCP

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 Radiation from short Dipole

Isotropic Antenna: A hypothetical source that radiates equally in all direction.

Just a concept but important

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 Dipole antenna

Monopole
Folded Dipole
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Dipole Antenna

L
I

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 Hertz potentials

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 Magnetic Vector Potential A

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VECTOR POTENTIAL A FOR AN ELECTRIC CURRENT SOURCE J

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 Infinitesimal Dipole Antenna

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The fields can be divided into three categories depending upon their variation as a function
of distance.
The field which varies as 1/r3 , is called the electrostatic field. This field is
dominant in the close vicinity of the dipole since its amplitude decreases rapidly as
function of distance.
The electrostatic field is inversely proportional to the frequency. As the frequency of the
current approaches zero, this field diverges to infinity. This field is essentially due to the
accumulation of charges on the tip of the antenna. When the current flows in the dipole, the
opposite charges get accumulated on the tips of the antenna giving a dipole. With the
reversal of the current (every half cycle) dipole reverses its polarity giving an oscillating
dipole. The electrostatic field is due to this oscillating dipole. As the frequency decreases,
the accumulated charge for a given current increases and therefore the electrostatic field
increases.

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The field which varies as 1/r2 , is
called the induction field . This field
extends little further than the
electrostatic field but still decays
rapidly as a function of distance.

The Induction field is independent of frequency. This field has same behavior as the
magnetic field obtained from the Biot-Savart law, and hence the name given to the
field.
The field which varies as 1/r is called the radiation field . This is the field which
extends over farthest distance from the antenna and is responsible for the radiation
of power from the antenna
The radiation field is proportional to the frequency. This field is therefore practically
absent at low frequencies. This field is essentially a high frequency phenomenon.
The electrostatic and the induction fields together are called the Near Fields, and the
radiation fields are called the Far Fields.

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 radian distance

The three field become equal in magnitude at a distance of r = λ/2π or r/λ = 1/2π as
shown in Fig. The distance within λ/2π is called the near-field zone and the distance
beyond λ/2π is called the far-field zone.

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Near-Field (kr ≪ 1) Region

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Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region

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 Far-Field Region

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 Antenna Fundamentals
Far- field of Infinitesimal Dipole antenna

“a mathematical function or a graphical representation of

RADIATION PATTERN the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. (Generally in far-field region)”
field pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude
of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in
decibels, as a function of the angular space.

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 Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum
value, yielding normalized field and power patterns

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In the far field,
the radial Er component for
all antennas is zero or
vanishingly small compared
to either one, or both, of the
other two. Some antennas,
depending on their geometry
and also observation
distance, may have only one,
two, or all three components.

Two-dimensional normalized field pattern (linear scale), power pattern (linear scale), and
power pattern (in dB) of a 10-element linear array with a spacing of d = 0.25λ.

• In this and subsequent patterns, the plus (+) and minus (-) signs in the lobes indicate the relative polarization (positive or
negative) of the amplitude between the various lobes, which changes (alternates) as the nulls are crossed.

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 Radiation Pattern Lobes

A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation

A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any
pattern bounded by regions of relatively
direction other than the intended
weak radiation intensity.”
lobe.”
A major lobe (also called main beam) is
defined as “the radiation lobe containing the A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose
direction of maximum radiation. axis makes an angle of approximately 180◦
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
lobe.

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Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

Isotropic Radiator: A hypothetical lossless antenna having equal

radiation in all directions.
Omni-directional Radiator: An antenna having an essentially non directional
pattern in a given plane (e.g., in azimuth, ) and a directional pattern in any
orthogonal plane ( ).
Directional Radiator: An antenna having the property of radiating or receiving more
effectively in some directions than in others.

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Principal Patterns
• For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its principal E- and H-plane patterns.

• The E-plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric-field vector and the direction of maximum radiation”
• The H-plane as “the plane containing the magnetic-field vector and the direction of maximum radiation.”

x-y plane (azimuthal plane;

𝜃 = 𝜋∕2) is the principal H-
plane

infinite number of principal E-planes (elevation

planes; 𝜙 = 𝜙c) and one principal H-plane (azimuthal
plane; 𝜃 = 90◦).
H-plane
E-plane
the x-z plane (elevation
plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the
principal E-plane
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Field Regions

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 • The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.
Radian and Steradian
Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is • One steradian is defined as the solid angle with
C = 2𝜋r, there are 2𝜋 rad (2𝜋r∕r) in a full its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that
circle. is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to
that of a square with each side of length r.

• Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4𝜋r2,

there are 4𝜋 sr (4𝜋r2∕r2) in a closed sphere.

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 RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle.”

The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by

where A0 is the peak value of the power density, θ is the usual spherical coordinate,
and aˆr is the radial unit vector. Determine the total radiated power

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 Radiation Intensity of Isotropic Antenna???

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 BEAMWIDTH

The beamwidth of a pattern is

defined as the angular separation
between two identical points on
opposite side of the pattern
maximum.

The normalized radiation intensity of an antenna is

represented by

a. half-power beamwidth HPBW (in radians and degrees)

b. first-null beamwidth FNBW (in radians and degrees)

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 FNBW

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 DIRECTIVITY

directivity of an antenna defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given

direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions

The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation intensity
(maximum directivity) expressed as

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 Example. Find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose radiation
intensity is

Write an expression for the directivity as a function of the directional angles θ and φ.

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 The beam solid angle ΩA
is defined as the solid angle through which all the power of the antenna would
flow if its radiation intensity is constant (and equal to the maximum value of U) for
all angles within ΩA.

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a. beam solid angle; exact and approximate.
b. maximum directivity

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 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

P Prad

1. Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna

2. I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric)

Generally, we define total efficiency as = Prad/P

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 P Pin (accepted)

Zin

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 Usually ec and ed are very difficult to compute, but they can be
determined experimentally

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 INPUT IMPEDANCE

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 The power delivered to the antenna for radiation

The power dissipated as heat

The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal resistance Rg of the generator

The maximum power delivered to

the antenna occurs when we have
conjugate matching; that is when
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 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY

P Pin (accepted) Prad

The resistance RL is used to represent

the conduction-dielectric losses.

The conduction-dielectric efficiency ecd is defined as the ratio of the

power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr to the power delivered
to Rr and RL.

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 Gain
Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the
intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically.

• In most cases we deal with relative gain, which is defined as “the ratio of the power gain in a given direction to
the power gain of a reference antenna in its referenced direction.”

• The reference antenna is usually a dipole, horn, or any other antenna whose gain can be calculated or it is
known. In most cases, however, the reference antenna is a lossless isotropic source.

Pin
When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in
the direction of maximum radiation

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P Pin (accepted) Prad

According to the IEEE Standards, “gain does not include losses arising from impedance mismatches (reflection
losses) and polarization mismatches (losses).”
The maximum value of the gain is related to the maximum directivity

The other Gain is referred to as realized gain (Gre)/absolute Gain (Gabs), that also takes into
account the reflection/mismatch losses.
Realized gain (Gre)/Absolute Gain (Gabs )

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 Bandwidth (BW)
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified
standard.”

Impedance Bandwidth P Pin (accepted)

Zin

S11 is the input port voltage reflection

coefficient

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 -10 dB impedance bandwidth = 7.5 GHz

In ratio form = Higher : Lower = 18/12 = 1.5 : 1

Antennas with very large bandwidths (like 40:1 or greater) have been designed in recent
years. These are known as frequency independent antennas,

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The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of a center
frequency (usually the resonance frequency for a dipole), where the antenna characteristics (such
as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction,
radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable value of those at the center frequency.

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 BEAM EFFICIENCY

• If 𝜃1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs, then the beam efficiency will indicate the
amount of power in the major lobe compared to the total power.
• A very high beam efficiency (between the nulls or minima), usually in the high 90s, is necessary for antennas
used in radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received signals through the minor lobes
must be minimized.

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 POLARIZATION
• Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as “the polarization of the wave transmitted (radiated) by
the antenna.
• Note: When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the polarization in the direction of maximum
gain.”
• In practice, polarization of the radiated energy varies with the direction from the center of the antenna, so that
different parts of the pattern may have different polarizations.
• Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as “that property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-
varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric-field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function of
time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and the sense in which it is traced, as observed
along the direction of propagation.”
• Polarization then is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow (vector) representing the instantaneous electric
field. The field must be observed along the direction of propagation.

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 Linear Polarization E = (aˆ x Ex + aˆ y Ey )e− jkz
Vertically polarized electromagnetic
wave: (a) view of the plane
perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation, (b) isometric view

F = qE

Horizontally polarized electromagnetic

wave: (a) view of the plane perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation, (b)
isometric view

The resultant electromagnetic wave (blue)

with linear polarization at an angle of 45°:
(a) view of the plane perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation, (b) isometric
view

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 Circular Polarization

E = E0 (aˆ x  jaˆ y )e− jkz

The resultant electromagnetic wave (blue)
with right-hand circular polarization (as per
the definition used in optics): (a) view of the
plane perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation, (b) isometric view

The resultant electromagnetic wave (blue)

with left-hand circular polarization (as per
the definition used in optics): (a) view of
the plane perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation, (b) isometric view

The superposition of left-hand and right-

hand circularly polarized electromagnetic
waves. The resultant vertically polarized
electromagnetic wave (blue): (a) view of
the plane perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation, (b) isometric view

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Elliptical Polarizations

E = (aˆ x Ex  jaˆ y E y )e− jkz

Projection of the resultant electric field vector (blue) on a

plane perpendicular to the direction of electromagnetic
wave propagation. Elliptical polarization: (a) right-hand,
(b)left-hand

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 Polarization Loss Factor
In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the
polarization of the incoming (incident) wave. This is commonly stated as “polarization
mismatch.”
The electric field of the incoming wave
where ρ̂ w is the unit vector of the wave,

The polarization of the electric field of the receiving

antenna where ρ̂ a is its unit vector (polarization vector)

polarization loss factor (PLF)

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 Antenna Equivalent Areas

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 effective area (aperture)

The ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power
flux density of a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave
being polarization-matched to the antenna. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied

Under conjugate matching condition

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The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident
power density is equal to the scattered or reradiated power

The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the incident
power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through RL

The capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by
the incident power density leads to the total power captured, collected, or intercepted
by the antenna

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Aperture efficiency εap of an antenna, which is defined as the ratio of the maximum
effective area Aem of the antenna to its physical area Ap

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Since the dipole is very short, the induced
current can be assumed to be constant and
of uniform phase. The induced voltage is

For a uniform plane wave, the

incident power density can be
written as

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MAXIMUM DIRECTIVITY AND MAXIMUM EFFECTIVE AREA

If antenna 1 were isotropic, its radiated power density at a distance R would be

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The above equation states that the maximum effective area of an isotropic source is equal
to the ratio of the maximum effective area to the maximum directivity of any other source.
For example, let the other antenna be a very short (l ≪ λ) dipole whose effective area
(0.119λ2) and maximum directivity (1.5) are known.

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This assumes that
(a) There are no conduction-dielectric losses (radiation efficiency ecd is unity),
(b) The antenna is matched to the load (reflection efficiency er is unity), and
(c) The polarization of the impinging wave matches that of the antenna
(polarization loss factor PLF and polarization efficiency pe are unity)

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 Friis Transmission Equation

where et is the radiation efficiency of the transmitting antenna

For a nonisotropic transmitting antenna

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 Since the effective area Ar of the receiving antenna is related to its efficiency er and
directivity Dr by

The amount of power Pr collected by the receiving antenna

For reflection and polarization-matched antennas aligned for maximum directional

radiation and reception

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If reflection and polarization factors are also included, then the ratio of the received to
the input power is

The term (λ/4πR)2 is called the free-space loss factor, and it takes into account the
losses due to the spherical spreading of the energy by the antenna.

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An engineer is designing a communications link at 3 GHz where the receiver sensitivity is such
that 1μW of power is needed to overcome receiver noise. The receiving antenna gain is 8dB,
the transmitter antenna gain is 10dB, the transmitting power level is 25 Watts, and the distance
between the two antennas is 1km. Will the communications link work?

λ = c/f = 3x108 /3x109= 0.1 m

Gt = 10 dBi = 10
Gr = 8 dBi = 6.3
Pt = 25 W
R = 1 Km = 1000 m

Pr = 99.88 nW

Pr = 99.88 nanowatts (nW) which is much less than the needed 1 microwatts needed to
overcome receiver noise.

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Terrestrial telecommunications systems commonly aggregate large numbers of individual
communications links into a single high-bandwidth link. This is often implemented as a
radio link between dish-type antennas having gain of about 27 dBi (that’s dB relative to a
lossless isotropic antenna) mounted on very tall towers and operating at frequencies around
6 GHz. Assuming the minimum acceptable receive power is −120 dBm (that’s −120 dB
relative to 1 mW; i.e., 10−15 W) and the required range is 30 km, what is the minimum
acceptable transmit power?

GT = GR = 27 dBi = 1027/10 ≅501

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 front to back ratio

10
30

Front to back ratio = 10log10 (30/10) dB = 4.771 dB

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 Reciprocity properties of antennas
An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. While using
so, we may come across a question whether the properties of the antenna might change as
its operating mode is changed. Fortunately, we need not worry about that. The properties
of antenna being unchangeable is called as the property of reciprocity.

Properties under Reciprocity

The properties of transmitting and receiving antenna that exhibit the reciprocity are −

• Equality of Directional patterns.

• Equality of Directivities.

• Equality of Effective lengths.

• Equality of Antenna impedances.

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 Let us see how these are implemented.

Equality of Directional patterns

The radiation pattern of transmitting antenna1, which transmits to the receiving antenna2 is equal to
the radiation pattern of antenna2, if it transmits and antenna1 receives the signal.

Equality of Directivities
Directivity is same for both transmitting and receiving antennas, if the value of directivity is same for
both the cases i.e. the directivities are same whether calculated from transmitting antenna’s power or
receiving antenna’s power.

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 Equality of Effective lengths
The value of maximum effective aperture is same for both transmitting and
receiving antennas. Equality in the lengths of both transmitting and receiving
antennas is maintained according to the value of the wavelength.

Equality in Antenna Impedances

The output impedance of a transmitting antenna and the input impedance of a
receiving antenna are equal in an effective communication.

These properties will not change though the same antenna is operated as a
transmitter or as a receiver. Hence, the property of reciprocity is followed.

1/14/2025 133
 INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE

Far-Field Region

1/14/2025 134
 Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is l = λ/50.

Since the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole is about 0.3 ohms, it will present a
very large mismatch when connected to practical transmission lines, many of which have
characteristic impedances of 50 or 75 ohms. The reflection efficiency (er) and hence the
overall efficiency (e0) will be very small.

1/14/2025 135
 Directivity

maximum effective aperture

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SMALL DIPOLE

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138
139
140
141
 FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE

Current Distribution

This distribution assumes that the antenna is

center-fed and the current vanishes at the end
points (z’ = ±l/2)

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 For Infinitesimal Dipole

Summing the contributions from all the infinitesimal elements, the summation reduces,
in the limit, to an integration

element factor
pattern multiplication space factor

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1/14/2025 144
1/14/2025 145
 HALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE

1/14/2025 146
147
1/14/2025 148
the imaginary part(reactance) associated with the input impedance of a dipole is a function
of its length (for l = λ/2, it is equal to j42.5). Thus the total input impedance for l = λ/2 is
equal to

Depending on the radius of the wire, the length of the dipole for first resonance
is about l = 0.47λ to 0.48λ; the thinner the wire, the closer the length is to 0.48λ.
Thus, for thicker wires, a larger segment of the wire has to be removed from λ/2 to
achieve resonance

1/14/2025 149
 Finite Length Dipole

1/14/2025 150
 Finite Length Dipole
Current Distribution

1/14/2025 151
 Current distributions along the length of a
linear wire antenna

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Three- and two-dimensional amplitude patterns for a thin dipole of l = 1.25λ and sinusoidal
current distribution.

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1/14/2025 154
Three- and two-dimensional patterns of a λ ∕ 2 dipole (a) three-dimensional pattern of a
λ ∕ 2 dipole. (b) comparison of two-dimensional patterns for a λ ∕ 2 dipole

155
Image Theory

Horizontal electric dipole

156
157
158
159
160
 Mono-Pole Antenna

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1/14/2025 162
1/14/2025 163
1/14/2025 164
1/14/2025 165
1/14/2025 166
1/14/2025 167
1/14/2025 168
1/14/2025 169
 Scattering Matrix

Г = b1/a1

b1 = S11a1 +S12a2
b1 / a1 = S11 + S12a2/a1
When a2 = 0
Г = b1/a1 = S11 > Port two is matched

Returnloss

1/14/2025 170
 Antenna Arrays

Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive characteristics.
Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily increasing the
size of the individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical
and geometrical configuration. This new antenna, formed by multi elements, is referred to as
an array
1/14/2025 171
In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that can be used to
shape the overall pattern of the antenna. These are:

1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular,

spherical, etc.)
2. the relative displacement between the elements
3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. the excitation phase of the individual elements
5. the relative pattern of the individual elements

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 copy
TWO-ELEMENT ARRAY

The total field radiated by the two elements, assuming no coupling between the elements, is equal to the sum of the two and in the y-z
plane it is given by

Assuming far-field observations

where 𝛽 is the difference in phase excitation between the

elements. The magnitude excitation of the radiators is
identical.

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 copy

Field of single element

Array Factor = AF

Normalized form

This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of identical elements,

and it is analogous to the pattern multiplication for continuous sources.

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Numerical Prob.: Given the array, find the nulls of the total field when d = λ/4 and
a. β = 0
b. β = +π/ 2
c. β = -π /2
a. β = 0

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1/14/2025 176
1/14/2025 177
 notes

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1/14/2025 179
1/14/2025 180
1/14/2025 181
 N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM AMPLITUDE
AND SPACING copy

An array of identical elements all of identical magnitude and

each with a progressive phase is referred to as a uniform array.

AF = 1 + e+j (kd cos θ+β) + e+j2(kd cos θ+β) + · · · + ej (N-1)(kd cos θ+β)

Far-field geometry of N-element array of

isotropic sources
1/14/2025 positioned along the z-axis. 182
 copy

Since the total array factor for the uniform

array is a summation of exponentials,
it can be represented by the vector sum of N
phasors each of unit amplitude and
progressive phase ψ relative to the previous
one. Graphically this is illustrated by the
phasor diagram.

phasor diagram of
N-element array of
isotropic sources
positioned along
the z-axis.

1/14/2025 183
If the reference point is the physical center of the array, the array factor of reduces to

For small values of ψ, the above expression can be

approximated by
copy

For ψ = 0, the array factor has a 0/0 form. Therefore, applying L’Hospital’s rule

1/14/2025 184
 copy

For n = 0, N, 2N, 3N, …, (AF)n attains its maximum values because it reduces to a
sin(0)/0 form. The values of n determine the order of the nulls (first, second, etc.). For a
zero to exist, the argument of the arccosine cannot exceed unity. Thus the number of
nulls that can exist will be a function of the element separation d and the phase
excitation difference 𝛽. 185
copy
The array factor has a principal
maximum if both the numerator
and the denominator
simultaneously go to zero, which
occurs under the following
condition

The array factor has periodic maxima at

intervals of 2π . The lobe containing the
principal maximum corresponding to m
= 0 is the main lobe and all other lobes
containing principal maxima are called
the grating lobes.

Between the two principal maxima, the

array factor can have several nulls.
The nulls of the array factor occur if the
numerator alone goes to zero

186
187
For large N, this
expression behaves
like a sinc function.

188
The 3-dB point is where the power of
the array factor drops to half of its
maximum value.
In linear terms, this means the
magnitude drops to 0.707 of the peak.
This defines the beamwidth of the
main lobe (how narrow or broad the
main beam is).

From sinc theory, the value 0.707

occurs at approximately ±1.391 for the
normalized sinc argument.

189
For the array factor of (AF)n, there are secondary maxima (maxima of minor lobes)
which occur approximately when the numerator of (AF)n attains its maximum value.
That is,

190
191
192
 Broadside Array

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1/14/2025 194
195
 Ordinary End-Fire Array

To have only one end-fire maximum and to avoid any grating lobes, the maximum spacing
between the elements should be less than dmax < λ/2.
1/14/2025 196
197
198
199
200
 Lecture-16 copy
N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: DIRECTIVITY
Broadside Array

which for a small spacing between the elements (d << λ) can be approximated by

The radiation intensity can be written as

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 The average value U0 of the intensity reduces to

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For a large array (Nkd/2 → large)

The directivity can now be written as

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 where L is the overall length of the array

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 Ordinary End-Fire Array
For an end-fire array, with the maximum radiation in the θ0 = 0◦ direction, the
array factor is given by

which, for a small spacing between the elements (d <<λ), can be approximated by

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1/14/2025 206
 For a large array (Nkd → large)

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 Given a linear, end-fire, uniform array of 10 elements (N = 10) with a separation of
λ/4 (d = λ/4) between the elements, find the directivity of the array factor

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N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

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Array Factor

210
211
Binomial Array

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 Lecture-17
Binomial Array

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1/14/2025 214
1/14/2025 215
1/14/2025 216
1/14/2025 217
1/14/2025 218
1/14/2025 219
 Special Antennas
notes

Hertz Antenna: One of the simplest, yet widely used antennas invented early in
1886, is the “Hertz”. It is named after its inventor, German Physicist Dr. Heinrich
Rudolph Hertz. Essentially, a Hertz is any antenna that is one-half wavelength long,
or any ‘even’ or ‘odd’ multiple of a half wavelength long. The “Basic” Hertz is a
single wire antenna, center fed with a total physical wire length equal to one half of
the electrical wavelength.
The Hertz antenna, is also know as a “Dipole”, “Doublet”, “Half-wave” or
“Ungrounded” antenna. It can be mounted in a vertical, horizontal, or slanting
(sloping) position.

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 notes
Marconi antenna

Vertical Antenna that is quarter wavelength long and is fed against an infinitely large
perfect electric conductor plane is called a quarter wave-monopole or Marconi antenna.

221
 notes

For some applications a single long-wire antenna is not very practical because
(1) Its directivity may be low,
(2) its side lobes may be high, and
(3) its main beam is inclined at an angle, which is controlled by its length

222
 notes

V Antenna

Most V antennas are symmetrical (θ1 = θ2 = θ0 and l1 = l2 = l). Also V antennas

can be designed to have unidirectional or bidirectional radiation patterns

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To achieve the unidirectional characteristics, the wires of the V antenna must be non
resonant which can be accomplished by minimizing if not completely eliminating
reflections from the ends of the wire.
The reflected waves can be reduced by making the inclined wires of the V relatively thick.

In theory, the reflections can even be eliminated by properly terminating the open ends of
the V leading to a purely traveling wave antenna

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 Terminating resistance can also be divided in
Resistor equal in value to notes half and each half connected to the ground
the open end characteristic
impedance of the V-wire
transmission line,

Terminated V antennas
If the length of each leg of the V is very long (typically l > 5λ), there will be sufficient
leakage of the field along each leg that when the wave reaches the end of the V it will
be sufficiently reduced that there will not necessarily be a need for a termination.

1/14/2025 225
 Rhombic Antenna notes

Two V antennas can be connected at their open ends to form a diamond or rhombic antenna

the antenna is usually terminated at one end in a resistor, usually about 600–800 ohms, in order
to reduce if not eliminate reflections

However, if each leg is long enough (typically greater than 5λ) sufficient leakage occurs
along each leg that the wave that reaches the far end of the rhombus is sufficiently reduced
that it may not be necessary to terminate the rhombus

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Let us assume that it is desired to design a rhombus such that the maximum of the
main lobe of the pattern, in a plane which bisects the V of the rhombus, is
directed at an angle ψ0 above the ground plane. The design can be optimized if
the height h is selected according to

with m = 1 representing the minimum height.

The minimum optimum length of each leg of a symmetrical rhombus must be selected
according to

The best choice for the included angle of the rhombus is selected to satisfy

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 Helical Antenna (Broadband Antenna)
The geometrical configuration of a helix consists
usually of N turns, diameter D and spacing S
between each turn.

The total length of the antenna is L = NS while

The total length of the wire is Ln = NL0 = N√(S2 +

C2) where L0 = √( S2 + C2 ) is the length of the wire
between each turn and

C = πD is the circumference of the helix

Typically the diameter of the ground When α = 0◦ ----------→ Loop Antenna

plane should be at least 3λ/4 when α = 90◦ --------→ Wire antenna

1/14/2025 228
 The radiation characteristics
The general polarization of the antenna is elliptical. However circular and linear
polarizations can be achieved over different frequency ranges.

notes
copy

The helical antenna can operate in many modes; however the two principal ones are
the normal (broadside) and the axial (end-fire) modes

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 Normal Mode

To achieve the normal mode of operation, the dimensions of the helix are usually small
compared to the wavelength (i.e., NL0 << λ0).

1/14/2025 230
 By varying the D and/or S the axial ratio attains values of 0 ≤ AR ≤ ∞.
The value of AR = 0 is a special case and occurs when E𝜃 = 0 leading to a linearly
polarized wave of horizontal polarization (the helix is a loop). When AR = ∞, E𝜙 = 0
and the radiated wave is linearly polarized with vertical polarization (the helix is a
vertical dipole). Another special case is the one when AR is unity (AR = 1), When
the dimensional parameters of the helix satisfy the above relation, the radiated field
is circularly polarized in all directions other than 𝜃 = 0◦ where the fields vanish.

When AR = 1

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 Axial Mode
To achieve circular polarization, primarily in the major lobe, the circumference of the helix
must be

1/14/2025 232
 Design Procedure
The terminal impedance of a helix radiating in the axial
mode is nearly resistive with values between 100 and
200 ohms

All these relations are approximately valid provided 12◦ < α < 14◦, 3/4 < C/λ0 <
4/3, and N > 3.

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 Design a 10-turnhelix to operate in the axial mode. For an optimum design
Determine the:
a. Circumference (in λo), pitch angle (in degrees), and separation between turns (in λo)
b. Half-power beamwidth of the main lobe (in degrees)
c. Directivity (in dB)
d. Axial ratio (dimensionless and in dB)

For an optimum design

1/14/2025 234
 Loop antennas
Loop antennas take many different forms such as a rectangle, square, triangle, ellipse,
circle, and many other configurations
• Loop antennas are usually classified into two categories,
• electrically small (C < λ/10 ) and
• electrically large (C ∼ λ )
• Most of the applications of loop antennas are in the HF (3–30 MHz), VHF (30–300
MHz), and UHF (300–3,000 MHz) bands. When used as field probes, they find
applications even in the microwave frequency range.
• Loop antennas with electrically small circumferences or perimeters have small
radiation resistances that are usually smaller than their loss resistances. Thus they are
very poor radiators, and they are seldom employed for transmission in radio
communication. When they are used in any such application, it is usually in the
receiving mode, such as in portable radios and pagers, where antenna efficiency is not
as important as the signal-to-noise ratio.
• Electrically large loops are used primarily in directional arrays, such as in helical
antennas, Yagi-Uda arrays, quad arrays and so on.

1/14/2025 235
 notes
SMALL CIRCULAR LOOP
(very thin)

1/14/2025 236
 Since the radiated fields are usually determined in spherical components,

1/14/2025 237
 It should be emphasized that the source coordinates are designated as primed (𝜌′, 𝜙′, z′) and
the observation coordinates as unprimed (r, 𝜃, 𝜙)

The distance R, from any point on the loop to the observation point, can be written as

1/14/2025 238
Since the spatial current Iφ is constant, the field radiated by the loop will not be a function of
the observation angle φ. Thus any observation angle φ can be chosen; for simplicity φ = 0

1/14/2025 239
 Small Loop and Infinitesimal Magnetic Dipole
a magnetic dipole of magnetic moment Iml is equivalent to a small electric loop of radius a
and constant electric current I0 provided that

where S = πa2 (area of the loop).

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 Power Density and Radiation Resistance

The radiation resistance of the loop

1/14/2025 241
 If the loop antenna has N turns wound so that the magnetic field passes
through all the loops, the radiation resistance is equal to that of single turn
multiplied by N 2. That is

1/14/2025 242
The total ohmic resistance for an N-turn circular-loop antenna with loop radius a, wire
radius b, and loop separation 2c

1/14/2025 243
1/14/2025 244
 Lecture-20
FOLDED DIPOLE

To achieve good directional pattern characteristics and at the same time provide good
matching to practical coaxial lines with 50- or 75-ohm characteristic impedances, the
length of a single wire element is usually chosen to be λ/4 ≤ l < λ

The most widely used dipole is that whose overall length is l ≈λ/2, and which has an
input impedance of Zin = 73 + j42.5 and directivity of D0 = 1.643
In practice, there are other very common transmission lines whose characteristic
impedance is much higher than 50 or 75 ohms. For example, a “twin-lead” transmission
line (usually two parallel wires separated by about 5/16 in. and embedded in a low-loss
plastic material used for support and spacing) is widely used for TV applications and has
a characteristic impedance of about 300 ohms.

notes and
1/14/2025
copy 245
 s < 0.05λ

it serves as a step-up impedance transformer (approximately by a factor of 4 when l = λ/2)

of the single-element impedance
Thus when l = λ/2 and the antenna is resonant, impedances on the order of about 300
ohms can be achieved, and it would be ideal for connections to “twin-lead” transmission
lines.
A folded dipole operates basically as a balanced system, and it can be analyzed by
assuming that its current is decomposed into two distinct modes: a transmission-line
mode and an antenna mode. This type of an analytic model can be used to predict
accurately the input impedance provided the longer parallel wires are close together
electrically (s ≪ λ).
1/14/2025 246
The input impedance at the terminals a - b or e - f , looking toward the shorted ends, is
obtained from the impedance transfer equation

1/14/2025 247
the current for the antenna mode is given by Ia =V /2Zd

where Zd is the input impedance of a linear dipole of length l and diameter d

1/14/2025 248
 The equivalent radius ae is related to the actual wire radius a

The total current on the feed leg (left side)

or that the impedance of the folded dipole is four times greater than that of an isolated
dipole of the same length as one of its sides.

1/14/2025 249
 Comparing the folded dipole to the ordinary dipole, it is apparent that the currents of the
two closely spaced and identical arms of the folded dipole are equal to the one current of
the ordinary dipole, or

where If is the current of the folded dipole and Id is the current of the ordinary dipole.
Also the input power of the two dipoles are identical, or

1/14/2025 250
1/14/2025 251
 Lecture-21
NOTES
Another very practical radiator in the HF
(3–30 MHz), VHF (30–300 MHz), and
COPY
This radiator is exclusively designed to
operate as an end-fire array and it is
UHF (300–3,000 MHz) ranges is the Yagi- accomplished by having the parasitic
Uda antenna elements in the forward beam act as
directors while those in the rear act as
reflectors. Yagi designated the row of
directors as a “wave canal
To achieve the end-fire beam formation,
the parasitic elements in the direction of the
beam are somewhat smaller in length than
the feed element

Typically the driven element is resonant

with its length slightly less than λ/2 (usually
0.45–0.49λ) whereas the lengths of the
directors should be about 0.4 to 0.45λ.

1/14/2025 252
 The separation between the directors is typically
0.3 to 0.4λ, and it is not necessarily uniform for
optimum designs

It has been shown experimentally that for a Yagi-

Uda array of 6λ total length the overall gain was
independent of director spacing up to about 0.3λ

A significant drop (5–7 dB) in gain was noted for

director spacing's greater than 0.3λ. For that
antenna, the gain was also independent of the
radii of the directors up to about 0.024λ

Thus, properly spaced elements with lengths slightly less than their corresponding
resonant lengths (less than λ/2) act as directors because they form an array with
currents approximately equal in magnitude and with equal progressive phase shifts
which will reinforce the field of the energized element toward the directors. Similarly,
a properly spaced element with a length of λ/2 or slightly greater will act as a reflector.

1/14/2025 253
 Usually most antennas have about 6 to 12 directors
However, many arrays have been designed and
built with 30 to 40 elements. Array lengths on the
order of 6λ have been mentioned as typical. A
gain (relative to isotropic) of about 5 to 9 per
wavelength is typical for such arrays, which
would make the overall gain on the order of about
30 to 54 (14.8–17.3 dB) typical.

The radiation characteristics that are usually

of interest in a Yagi-Uda antenna are the
forward and backward gains,
input impedance,
bandwidth,
front-to-back ratio, and
magnitude of minor lobes

1/14/2025 254
The Yagi-Uda array can be summarized by
saying that its performance can be considered in
three parts:
1. the reflector-feeder arrangement
2. the feeder
3. the rows of directors

It has been concluded, numerically and experimentally, that the reflector spacing and
size have
(1) negligible effects on the forward gain and
(2) large effects on the backward gain (front-to-back ratio) and input impedance,
and they can be used to control or optimize antenna parameters without affecting the gain
significantly.
▪The feeder length and radius has a small effect on the forward gain but a large effect on
the backward gain and input impedance.
▪Its geometry is usually chosen to control the input impedance that most commonly is
made real (resonant element).
▪The size and spacing of the directors have a large effect on the forward gain, backward
gain, and input impedance, and they are considered to be the most critical elements of
the array.

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 Optimization

1/14/2025 256
1/14/2025 257
Normalized amplitude antenna patterns of initial, perturbed, and optimum six element
Yagi-Uda arrays

1/14/2025 258
 Input Impedance and Matching Techniques

1/14/2025 259
 Lecture-22 Horn Antennas

The horn is widely used as a feed element for large

radio astronomy, satellite tracking, and
communication dishes found installed throughout the
world. In addition to its utility as a feed for reflectors
and lenses, it is a common element of phased arrays
and serves as a universal standard for calibration and
gain measurements of other high-gain antennas. Its
widespread applicability stems from its simplicity in
construction, ease of excitation, versatility, large gain,
and preferred overall performance

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1/14/2025 261
1/14/2025 262
 Frequency Independent Antennas

LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNAS

1/14/2025 263
 width of the antenna slot by

we define the geometric ratio of the log-periodic structure by

The geometric ratio τ defines the period of operation. For example, if two frequencies f1 and f2
are one period apart, they are related to the geometric ratio τ by

1/14/2025 264
 Dipole Array

While the geometrical dimensions of the Yagi–Uda array elements do not follow any set
pattern, the lengths (ln’s), spacings (Rn’s), diameters (dn’s), and even gap spacings at dipole
centers (sn’s) of the log-periodic array increase logarithmically as defined by the inverse of
the geometric ratio 𝜏. That is,

1/14/2025 265
Another parameter that is usually associated with a log-periodic dipole array is the
spacing factor σ defined by

1/14/2025 266
 Types of Antennas

1 – Wire Antennas 2 – Aperture Antennas

Pyramidal
Conical
Horn
Half Wave Loop Horn
Helical
Dipole Antenna Antenna
Antenna

267
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
 Types of Antennas

3 – Microstrip Antennas 4 – Array Antennas

Circular Yagi-Uda Array Microstrip patch Array

Rectangul
ar Patch Patch 268
 Types of Antennas

5 – Reflector Antennas 6 – Lens Antennas

269

Parabolic Reflector with

front feed

Lens with index of n>1

Parabolic Reflector with

cassegrain feed

Lens with index of n<1

Corner
Reflector
 Planar Antenna Technology

Microstrip Antenna

➢ The substrate thickness in the range of 0.01–0.05

free-space wavelength (λ0).

➢ The substrate material relative dielectric constant

(εr ) in range of 1.0–10.

➢ with εr >10,significantly reduce the antenna’s

radiation efficiency.

270
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
 Lecture-22
Microstrip Antennas

1/14/2025 271
 Microstrip Antenna

Advantages Disadvantages

➢ Low profile, makes it lightweight and it ➢ Low efficiency

occupies very little volume of the structure for
mounting. ➢ Low power
➢ Low cross-polarization radiation ➢ High Q
➢ Conformable to planar and nonplanar ➢ Poor polarization purity
surfaces
➢ Poor scan performance
➢ Simple and inexpensive to fabricate using
modern printed-circuit technology ➢ Spurious feed radiation
➢ Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid ➢ Very narrow frequency bandwidth
surfaces

➢ Compatible with MMIC designs

➢ Can be mounted on the surface of high-

performance aircraft, spacecraft satellites,
missiles, cars, and even handheld mobile
telephones
272
1/14/2025 273
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1/14/2025 283
1/14/2025 284
1/14/2025 285
The actual length L of the patch is found
using

Finally the effective length is

1/14/2025 286
 Lecture-23

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1/14/2025 288
1/14/2025 289
1/14/2025 290
1/14/2025 291
 Field configurations (modes) for rectangular microstrip patch

1/14/2025 292
1/14/2025 293
 FRACTAL ANTENNAS

One of the main objectives in wireless communication systems is the design of wideband,
or even multiband, low profile, small antennas. Applications of such antennas include, but
are not limited to, personal communication systems, small satellite communication
terminals, unmanned aerial vehicles, and many more. In order to meet the specification that
the antenna be small, some severe limitations are placed on the design, which must meet the
fundamental limits of electrically small antennas discussed in the previous section

294
 Fundamental limits of ESA
╬ Work carried out from Wheeler,1946 [1] through McClean,1996 [6]
obtained exact expressions for antenna Q over an expanded size range.
These efforts led to the equation for the minimum Q.

1 + 2(kr )2 𝑘𝑟 ≪ 1 1
Q= ≃ 3

(kr ) 1 + (kr ) 
3

2 

(kr )

“r ≤ λ/2π ” is the radius of a sphere enclosing the antenna.

“k” = 2π/λ. A lowest order single mode (TM or TE) is

implied.

╬ Q is independent of the geometrical configuration of the antenna within the sphere

of radius r.

╬ The shape of the radiating element within the bounds of the sphere only determines
whether TE, TM, or TE and TM modes are excited.
[6] McClean, " A Re-examination of the Fundamental Limits on the Radiation Q of Electrically Small Antennas," IEEE Trans AP, v44, pp.
672-675, May 1996. 7Constantine
 Fundamental limits of ESA
• What is Q for an Antenna:
╬ Q is a parameter that describes energy transfer in oscillating systems.
╬ Q= 2p x (standing peak energy per cycle/average power lost per cycle)
╬ For an antenna, the following definition for radiation quality factor Q is
generally accepted:

2𝜔𝑊𝑒
𝑊𝑒 > 𝑊𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑄= For a tuned antenna at resonance We = Wm
2𝜔𝑊𝑚
𝑊𝑚 > 𝑊𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

We and Wm : Electric and Magnetic stored energy

Prad : Radiated power by the antenna

╬ Evaluation energy stored outside the sphere gives a Qmin.

╬ The energy stored in the sphere will contribute in increasing the antenna Q.
 Fundamental limits of ESA
╬ The fractional bandwidth is related to the Q
of the system by:

• Fractional Bandwidth = FBW

∆𝑓 1
• = = 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄 ≫ 1
𝑓0
•
• where
• 𝑓�0 = center frequency
• ∆𝑓 = bandwidth
• For values of Q < 2, it is not accurate.

Fundamental limits of Q versus

antenna size for single-mode
antennas of various radiation
efficiencies[7]

[7] Constantine A. Balanis, Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 3rd ed., 2012(Reprint).
 Fundamental limits of ESA
• This indicates that ,
• FBW of the Goubau antenna > Dipole enclosed within the
same radius sphere.
• Concluded that “the bandwidth of an antenna (which can be
closed within a sphere of radius r) can be improved only if the
antenna utilizes efficiently, with its geometrical configuration,
the available volume within the sphere”. Goubau multi-element
monopole antenna

Dipole configurations and associated qualitative bandwidths (BW).

(a) classic (narrow BW) (b) biconical (intermediate BW) (c) tapered (intermediate BW) (d) hemispherical (wide BW)
 Fundamental limits of ESA
Monopole configurations and associated qualitative bandwidths (BW):

(a) classical (narrow BW) (b) conical (intermediate BW) (c) tapered (intermediate BW) (d) hemispherical (wide BW)

Another antenna that can meet the requirements of

utilizing the available space with in a sphere of radius r
more efficiently is a fractal antenna:
• Fractal antennas are based on the concept of a fractal, which is a recursively
generated geometry that has fractional dimensions.

300
FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS OF ESA
╬ It is apparent that the higher iterative geometries exhibit lower resonant frequencies(i.e. size
reduction ).

╬ It is apparent that each of the Koch dipoles, Fractal and 3D Fractal tree dipole exhibits lower
Qs/higher bandwidths, compared to the classic linear dipole, as the order of iteration
increases.

Resonant frequency for first five iterations of Koch, Quality factor Q for Koch dipole of up to
tree, and 3D-tree fractal dipoles. five iterations as a function of kh (h is
maximum length/height of dipole)
Lecture-25 WEAVE PROPAGATION
What is propagation? How radio waves travel between two points?
• Directly from one point to another
• Follow the curvature of the earth
• Become trapped in the atmosphere and traveling longer distances
• Refracting off the ionosphere back to earth.

1/14/2025 302
1/14/2025 303
 Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
• Can Propagate considerable distances
• Frequencies up to 3 MHz
• Example
– AM radio
At frequencies up to about 3 MHz, the
most important method of propagation
is by ground waves which are
vertically polarized. They follow the
curvature of the earth to propagate far
beyond the horizon. Relatively high
power is required.

But there are different uses of the terminology and the surface wave is often called the
ground wave, or sometimes the Norton ground wave or Norton surface wave, after Norton
who developed tractable methods for its calculation

1/14/2025 304
Attenuation of the surface wave arises through the forward tilt of its electric field. The rate of
attenuation becomes more marked as the tilt angle increases. It is possible to show the ratio of
electric field components to be simply related by

Kr is the complex dielectric permittivity of the ground. It varies with frequency and the electrical
properties of the ground.

1/14/2025 305
It may then be shown that the amplitude of the vertical component of electric field is given by

1/14/2025 306
 notes
Spherical finitely conducting earth

1/14/2025 307
 notes

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b; elevation angle 311
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notes 319
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 If the

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Skip Distance
The measurable distance on the surface of the Earth from transmitter to receiver,
where the signal reflected from the ionosphere can reach the receiver with minimum
hops or skips, is known as skip distance.

Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)

The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular transmission and which has
been predicted to be used over a particular period of time, over a path, is termed
as Optimum Working Frequency (OWF).
Inter Symbol Interference
Inter symbol interference (ISI) occurs more commonly in communication system. This is the
main reason for signal multipath also. When signals arrive at the receiving stations via different
propagation paths, they cancel out each other, which is known as the phenomenon of signal
fading. Here, it should be remembered that the signals cancel out themselves in vector way.
Skin Depth
Electromagnetic waves are not suitable for underwater propagations. However, they can
propagate under water provided we make the frequency of propagation extremely low. The
attenuation of electromagnetic waves under water is expressed in terms of skin depth. Skin
depth is defined as the distance at which the signal is attenuated by 1/e. It is a measure of
depth to which an EM wave can penetrate. Skin depth is represented as δ (delta).

1/14/2025 332
Duct Propagation
At a height of around 50 mts from the troposphere, a phenomenon exists; the temperature increases
with the height. In this region of troposphere, the higher frequencies or microwave frequencies tend to
refract back into the Earth’s atmosphere, instead of shooting into ionosphere, to reflect. These waves
propagate around the curvature of the earth even up to a distance of 1000km.
This refraction goes on continuing in this region of troposphere. This can be termed as Super
refraction or Duct propagation.
The above image shows the process of Duct Propagation. The main requirement for the duct
formation is the temperature inversion. The increase of temperature with height, rather than the
decrease in the temperature is known as the phenomenon of temperature inversion.

1/14/2025 333
 Brief Introduction to Antennas

“A metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving

radio waves.”

334
*Antennas, John.D.Karus
 Brief Introduction to Antennas
An antenna is the transitional structure between free-space
and a guiding device.

Transmission line

Generator/
Transmitter

Guided (TEM) wave

1D wave
Transition region or Free space wave
antenna Radiating in 3D
335
Radiation mechanism
(a) Static charge doesn’t radiate

(b) Charge with uniform velocity doesn’t radiate

(c)

(d) Charge with acceleration radiates

(e)

336
 Radiation mechanism contd…

(a) Two wire transmission line no radiation, bad

antenna

(b) Flared transmission line radiates more as

spacing increased

(c) Linear dipole radiates more effectively

λ/2 Dipole λ/2 Dipole H- Filed λ/2 Dipole Radiation Pattern

337
*Antennas, C.A.Balanis
Fundamental Parameters of
Antennas
RADIATION PATTERN

RADIATION POWER DENSITY

RADIATION INTENSITY

BEAMWIDTH

DIRECTIVITY

GAIN

BANDWIDTH

POLARIZATION: Linear, Circular, and Elliptical

Polarizations

ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY

338
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
 Fundamental
Current Parameters
distribution of
of Dipole
Antenna
Antennas
RADIATION PATTERN

“A mathematical function or a graphical

representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function
of space coordinates”
Coordinate system for antenna analysis

Field regions

339
 Fundamental Parameters of
Antennas
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

The total antenna efficiency e0 is used

to take into account losses at the
input terminals and within the
structure of the antenna

ANTENNA RADIATION
EFFICIENCY

The conduction–dielectric efficiency ecd is

defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the
radiation resistance Rr to the power delivered to
Rr and RL.

340
 Types of Antennas

1 – Wire Antennas 2 – Aperture Antennas

Pyramidal
Conical
Horn
Half Wave Loop Horn
Helical
Dipole Antenna Antenna
Antenna

341
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
 Types of Antennas

3 – Microstrip Antennas 4 – Array Antennas

Circular Yagi-Uda Array Microstrip patch Array

Rectangul
ar Patch Patch 342
 Types of Antennas

5 – Reflector Antennas 6 – Lens Antennas

343

Parabolic Reflector with

front feed

Lens with index of n>1

Parabolic Reflector with

cassegrain feed

Lens with index of n<1

Corner
Reflector
 Planar Antenna Technology

Microstrip Antenna

➢ The substrate thickness in the range of 0.01–0.05

free-space wavelength (λ0).

➢ The substrate material relative dielectric constant

(εr ) in range of 1.0–10.

➢ with εr >10,significantly reduce the antenna’s

radiation efficiency.

344
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
 Microstrip Antenna

Advantages Disadvantages

➢ Low profile, makes it lightweight and it ➢ Low efficiency

occupies very little volume of the structure for
mounting. ➢ Low power
➢ Low cross-polarization radiation ➢ High Q
➢ Conformable to planar and nonplanar ➢ Poor polarization purity
surfaces
➢ Poor scan performance
➢ Simple and inexpensive to fabricate using
modern printed-circuit technology ➢ Spurious feed radiation
➢ Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid ➢ Very narrow frequency bandwidth
surfaces

➢ Compatible with MMIC designs

➢ Can be mounted on the surface of high-

performance aircraft, spacecraft satellites,
missiles, cars, and even handheld mobile
telephones
345
Need of Next Generation Wireless
Communication systems
To overcome the disadvantages of microstrip antenna and to enhance its
performance, we requires :

POLARIZATION
INDEPENDENCY

BROADBAND AND DUAL-

BAND NATURE

COMPACT SIZE
(MINIATURIZATION)

HIGH EFFECIENCY(GAIN ,
DIRECTIVITY, etc.)
346
*Modern Antenna Handbook , C.A.Balanis
DUAL-POLARIZATION AND CIRCULAR-
POLARIZATION TECHNIQUES

Dual Polarization Circular Polarization

Patch with a single Patch with a single feed and

Patch with two
feed and truncated a slot
orthogonal feeds
corners

Two orthogonal feeds for dual

polarizations

Circular patch with a single feed

Patch (slightly rectangular)
and (a) two indents and (b) two
with a single feed
pads
347
BROADBAND AND DUAL-BAND
TECHNIQUES
BROADBAND

State of art
Probe-fed dual-stacked patches
Aperture-coupled slot-fed dual-stacked
patches

Thick substrate augmented with an L-

shaped probe
Patch fed by a U-slot for wide bandwidth.
348
BROADBAND AND DUAL-BAND
TECHNIQUES
DUAL-BAND
DUAL-BAND

Two orthogonal Square patch with two Multilayer approach

feeds orthogonal feeds (higher frequency
patches are situated
on top of the lower
frequency patch)

349
 ANTENNA MINIATURIZATION
TECHNIQUES
Loading the Substrate with
High-Dielectric-Constant Patch Folding Technique
Material and slots

A miniaturized UHF circular patch with high- Size reduction by folding a half-wave or a quarter-
dielectric-constant substrate material and slots. wave patch.

350
 ANTENNA MINIATURIZATION
TECHNIQUES

Inverted-F and
Back-to-Back Patch.
Shorting-Pin Methods

Size reduction by using an inverted-F patch

Back-to-back patch for omnidirectional

pattern.
Size reduction of a circular patch by using a 351
shorting pin.
TECHNIQUES FOR EFFICIENCY
ENHANCEMENT

EBG GROUND
PLANE
*(1)

SUBSTRATE
REMOVAL
*(2)

MULTILAYER
LAMINATED PATCH
*(3)

GROOVED GROUND
PLANE *(4)

*((1) MOTL , wiley, 2013; (2) Jour.of Elect. Ana. & App., 2011; (3) IEEE Ant. & Pro. Mag , 2012; (4) IEEE AWPL, 2012. 352
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Electromagnetic Band-gap (EBG)/
Photonic Band-gap (PBG) Structures

• Periodic arrangement of dielectric materials

• Can be 1-D, 2-D or 3-D (periodicity/2)

Forbids propagation of EMW in certain frequency range called Bandgap (BG)

Bandgap depends on periodicity, filling ratio of materials their dielectric contrast

353
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
EBG materials
USING in MicrowaveMATERIALS
ARTIFICIAL frequency range

Artificial periodic objects that prevent the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a

specified band of frequency for all incident angles and all polarization states.

Mushroom EBG Uniplanar EBG

354
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Electromagnetic Band-gap (EBG) Structures in Antenna Engineering

Microstrip Patch
Antenna
on dielectric substrate

Excitation of surface
wave
in substrate reduces
efficiency

EBG substrate can

suppress surface waves
and hence enhance
efficiency
More directional beam

355
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Patch Antenna surrounded by EBG.

More efficiency and better

directionality

356
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Light is one-handed with conventional materials …..
Only electric ‘hand’
Nature photonics1, 41 (2007)
Metamaterials
Meta (beyond) + materials → beyond conventional materials

Artificial structures having negative values of ε and μ

•negative refraction

RH

LH

•phase velocity opposite to Poynting vector

357
 PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Basic structure

E negative
Wire lattice permittivity

negative
permeability
SRR lattice

SRR: split ring resonator

Artificial magnets

358
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Realization

SRR + Wires

Metal stripe pairs Science 312, 892 (2006)

359
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Directivity enhancement

360
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Meta-material Cover can improves the Directionality of Antennas

361
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
USING ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Meta-material Cover improves the Directionality of patch antenna

Without meta-material With meta-material 362

363