©Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2022) 21, 555-579

http://www.jssm.org DOI: https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2022.555

` Review article

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Strength and Power Training on

Performance in Cross-Country Skiers

Thomas Stöggl 1,2 and Hans-Christer Holmberg 3,4

1
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, Austria; 2 Red Bull Athlete Performance
Center– Salzburg – Austria; 3 Department of Health Sciences, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden; 4 School of
Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

racing formats, including the shorter sprint and team sprint

Abstract events, have undergone dramatic change and today more
To identify and evaluate current scientific literature concerning than 90% of the races involve mass-start, where rapid ac-
the effect of strength, power and speed training on relevant phys- celerations and high finishing speed are decisive for suc-
iological and biomechanical characteristics and performance of
competitive cross-country skiers (XCS), the databases Scopus
cess (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2014; Stöggl and Müller,
and PubMed were searched systematically for original articles in 2009).
peer-reviewed journals. Of the 599 studies retrieved, 12 met the The biomechanics of XCS are highly complex
inclusion criteria (i.e., assessment of outcome measures with rel- (Smith, 1990), with propulsive forces being produced by
evance for XCS performance; involvement of traditional re- the musculature of both the upper and lower body and
sistance training; application of external resistance to the body; transmitted to the ground via the skis and poles. Because
intervention longer than 4 weeks; randomized controlled trial). of this complexity, along with the wide range of speeds (5
The methodological rigor of each study was assessed using the - 70 kmꞏh-1) and types of terrain (inclines of -20 to 20%)
PEDro scale, which were mostly poor-to-fair, with good method- involved (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2014), elite XCS re-
ological quality in only two articles. All of the
strength/power/speed interventions improved 1RM (0.8 - 6.8 ES),
quires a variety of capabilities, including considerable aer-
but findings with respect to jump performance, ability to generate obic and anaerobic power, strength, speed and endurance,
force rapidly and body composition were mixed. Interventions as well as highly developed technical and tactical skills.
demonstrated moderate-to-high ES on XCS specific performance During recent decades, the novel racing formats al-
compared with control (mean ES = 0.56), but the pattern observed luded to above have contributed to the development and/or
was not consistent. None of the interventions changed anaerobic modifications of both training (Sandbakk and Holmberg,
capacity, while in most studies VO2max was either unchanged or 2017) and skiing techniques (Stöggl and Müller, 2009;
increased. Work economy or efficiency was enhanced by most of Stöggl et al., 2008), resulting in higher production of force
the interventions. In conclusion, present research indicates that (Holmberg et al., 2005; Stöggl et al., 2011; Stöggl and
strength training improves general strength, with moderate effects
on XCS performance, and inconclusive effects on work economy
Holmberg, 2016; Stöggl et al., 2008), greater acceleration
and VO2max/VO2peak. Strength training with high loads, explosive (Wiltmann et al., 2016) and more power and speed (Pelle-
strength training, or sprint interval training seem to be promising grini et al., 2018). For example, to attain high speed with
tools for modern XCS training. Future investigations should in- the double-poling (DP) technique, both peak pole forces
clude long-term (e.g., >6 months) strength training to allow suf- and poling force impulses must be great (Holmberg et al.,
ficient time for increased strength and speed to influence actual 2005; Stöggl and Holmberg, 2011; Stöggl and Holmberg,
XCS performance. Moreover, they should include both sexes, as 2016) and the timing of force generation well-coordinated
well as upper- and lower-body muscles (trained separately and (Stöggl and Holmberg, 2011; Stöggl and Holmberg, 2016).
together) and employ free weights and core training. Methodo-
For elite skiers moving at maximal speed, no more than
logical differences and limitations highlighted here may explain
discrepancies in findings and should be taken into consideration
approximately 0.2 s is available for propulsion while em-
in future research in this area. ploying the DP technique (Stöggl et al., 2011; Stöggl et al.,
2013; Stöggl et al., 2010a; Stöggl and Müller, 2009), which
Key words: 1 repetition maximum; distance performance; jump is comparable to the period of contact between the foot and
performance; randomized controlled trial; sprint; time trial; work ground while running (Weyand et al., 2010), stressing the
economy. importance of rapid force production and attainment of
peak force.
Obviously, strength is important in connection with
Introduction most sports (Wernbom et al., 2007) and several strength
training interventions have been shown to improve both
Cross-country skiing (XCS) has developed extensively short- and long-term endurance. This can be achieved by
since its debut almost 100 years ago at the first Winter optimizing the rate of production of muscle force (Beattie
Olympics in 1924 in Cortina. Improvements in equipment, et al., 2014) through appropriate neuromuscular adapta-
more effective preparation of the tracks and skis, as well as tions (e.g., enhanced stiffness of muscles and tendons, im-
more efficient training based on both experience and sci- proved recruitment and synchronization of motor units,
entific research have led to substantially better perfor- rate coding, intra- and intermuscular coordination, and
mance and higher racing speeds. At the same time, XCS neural inhibition). In theory, a XC skier who improves

Received: 14 July 2022 / Accepted: 09 October 2022 / Published (online): 01 December 2022
556 Strength training in cross-country skiers

his/her strength will move more economically at submaxi- strength (strength-speed and speed-strength) training
mal speeds (reduced relative force required), with en- designed to improve the rate of force development (RFD)
hanced endurance-specific muscle power that can generate and allow more rapid attainment of maximal power output
the elevated power output and more rapid velocities de- through medium-to-high-load, high-velocity exercise (i.e.,
manded by modern XC skiing techniques (see above). squat jumps, Olympic lifts); 4) reactive strength training
Several cross-sectional and correlative studies have that targets stiffness of the muscles and tendons and the
reported positive associations between the level of strength stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) through the use of low-
and performance of XC elite skiers (among others, Mik- load, high-velocity exercise (i.e., jumps, drop jumps, hops,
kola et al., 2010; Niinimaa et al., 1978; Sandbakk et al., bounds, sprints); and 5) sport-specific sprint interval or
2011; Stöggl et al., 2011; Wiltmann et al., 2016). More re- speed endurance training (sprints ≤30 s in duration) in-
cently, retrospective investigations have provided addi- tended to maximize acceleration and/or speed/power.
tional details concerning the manner and schedule by
which elite skiers train strength (Sandbakk, 2017; Sand- Inclusion criteria
bakk, 2018; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2014; Sandbakk and The criteria for inclusion of a publication in this analysis
Holmberg, 2017; Solli et al., 2017; Solli et al., 2019). In were as follows: 1) assessment of outcome measures re-
comparison, fewer researchers have utilized a randomized lated to XCS performance; 2) an experimental design in-
control trial (RCT) to evaluate the potential effects of volving traditional resistance training and/or applications
strength and/or speed training instead of or in addition to of external resistance to the body and/or sprint interval
routine training. training, with a control group and randomization (random-
Therefore, the aim of the current systematic review ized controlled trials); and 3) interventions longer than 4
was to provide comprehensive and critical commentary on weeks. The outcomes reported in all studies that fulfilled
the available scientific literature describing the effects of these criteria were summarized.
strength, resistance and/or speed training on the physiolog-
ical determinants, technical aspects and performance of Study selection
competitive XC skiers. Data were extracted in accordance with the Preferred Re-
porting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
Methods (PRISMA) (Moher et al., 2009). First, the search results
were imported into EndNote X20 (Clarivate Software,
Approach Philadelphia, US) for removal of duplicates before being
To identify articles that assess the effect of strength train- exported to Rayyan QCRI software (Rayyan Systems Inc.
ing on the performance of competitive cross-country ski- MA, USA). Thereafter, each study was first evaluated in-
ers, we searched for relevant titles, abstracts and keywords dependently by both authors on the basis of the title of the
in the databases PubMed and Scopus on December 20, journal in which it was published, then using the abstract
2021, employing the following profile: TITLE-ABS-KEY and, finally, by complete review, following which articles
( ("cross country skiing" OR “XC ski*” OR "cross-country fulfilling the inclusion criteria were analysed. Discrepan-
skiing" OR "Nordic skiing" OR "classic style" OR "skating cies were resolved by discussion. The PRISMA flowchart
technique" OR "skate* technique" OR "Nordic combined" in Figure 1 illustrates schematically the protocol employed
OR biathlon) AND (strength OR "strength training" OR for data extraction.
“resistance training” OR "heavy load" OR "heavy strength"
OR “weight training” OR power* OR force* OR "power The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro)
output" OR "strength endurance" OR weightlifting OR The 11-item scale of the Physiotherapy Evidence Database
"explosive strength" OR “concurrent training” OR "speed (PEDro), designed for assessing the methodological qual-
training" OR "maximal strength" OR "maximal force" OR ity of randomized controlled trials (Maher et al., 2003), was
isometric* OR isokinetic* OR "jump training" OR applied by the principal investigator to the articles included
“plyometrics” OR "lean body mass" OR "lean mass" OR for analysis. The factors rated included randomness of al-
"muscle mass" OR "muscle hypertrophy" OR "hypertro- location; concealment of allocation; comparable character-
phy" OR "intramuscular training" OR "fibre distribution" istics of the experimental and control groups at baseline;
OR "body composition" ) AND NOT ( "ice hockey" OR blinding of participants, researchers, and assessors; analy-
"ice skating" OR "ice speed skating" OR "speed skating" sis with intention to treat; and adequacy of follow-up. One
OR "short track" )). These search terms were modified as point was allocated for each criterion fulfilled and studies
needed to meet the requirements or fit the specific nature scoring 9 - 10 were considered to be methodologically ex-
of these two databases. cellent (excellent internal validity), with those with scores
Strength training was defined as activity involving of 6 - 8 being considered good, 4 - 5 fair, and <4 poor. The
a load equal to at least body weight and/or free-weight Pedro scores for the experimental design studies assessed
and/or machine-based exercise. The sub-categories consid- are shown in Table 1.
ered were 1) maximal strength training designed to max- Our database search recovered 599 journal articles
imize force development through high-load, low-velocity of potential relevance. After removing 177 duplicates, the
exercise (i.e., 90 - 100% 1RM or supramaximal load aim- titles and abstracts of the remaining 422 articles were
ing to promote intramuscular coordination); 2) muscle hy- screened with respect to the inclusion criteria. Full-text re-
pertrophy training in the form of maximal strength training view of the 78 articles thus found to be eligible resulted in
meant to increase muscle cross-sectional area; 3) explosive removal of 70 more (8 review articles, 55 which lacked a
Stöggl and Holmberg 557

control group that performed endurance exercise only or and control groups, as follows:
were cross-sectional correlative studies, 5 involving no
training of strength, jumping or speed, and 2 with no sprint- 𝐼𝐺 𝐼𝐺 𝐶𝐺 𝐶𝐺
𝐸𝑆
interval training), as well as inclusion of 4 additional arti- 𝑆𝐷
cles referred to in one or more of those 70 publications.
Finally, 12 articles were subjected to the PEDro scale anal- where IG is the intervention group, CG the control group,
ysis, while 19 others identified as cross-sectional and cor- pre and post the mean values pre- and post-intervention,
relative are only taken up in the Discussion (Figure 1). respectively, and SDpre the pooled standard deviation for
The results are presented as the percentage differ- the control and intervention groups at baseline calculated
ences between the pre- and post-intervention values for all as
variables related to strength, performance during a time-
trial and/or actual competition, time to exhaustion, peak 𝑆𝐷 .
power output, maximal speed, VO2max, power/velocity at
VO2max, blood lactate response and anaerobic capacity, In addition, we applied a random-effects model to the
work economy or gross efficiency, body composition and standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g). Dispersion
biomechanical parameters for each of the groups individu- was evaluated utilizing Q statistics, I² statistics, and the
ally, along with the associated p-values. prediction interval. ES values <0.2 were considered trivial,
Effect sizes for the group x time interactions were 0.2 - 0.5 small, 0.5 - 0.8 medium and >0.8 large (Cohen,
calculated as the post- minus pre-intervention value for the 1988). In some cases, data required for the calculation of
intervention group minus the corresponding difference for percentage differences or effect sizes (ES) were missing.
the control group divided by a pooled standard deviation The forest plot was generated with the R-Studio program
for the corresponding baseline values for the intervention (2021.09.0 Build 351).
Initial Search

Scopus (n = 386) PubMed (n = 213)

Hits from Initial search

(n = 599)
Duplicates (n = 177)
Screening

Analysis of title and

abstract (n = 422)

Excluded (n = 344)

Analysis of entire
articles
(n = 78) Studies not meeting
inclusion/exclusion
Eligibility

Additional criteria (n = 70)

studies Reviews (n = 8)
identified from No RCT (n = 55)
reference list of No strength, jump,
original articles speed program (n = 5)
(n = 4) No short‐interval (<30s)
program (n= 2)

Records included
Inclusion

to PEDro scale
analysis (n = 12)

Figure 1. Selection of the articles subjected to evaluation with the PEDro scale and subsequently analysed in
detail. RCT, randomized controlled trial.
 558 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Table 1. Characteristics of the participants involved and study design employed in the articles analyzed, together with PEDro scores.
Subjects Study design
N VO2max and/or (VO2peak DP)
Study Sex Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg) Level of performance PEDro-SCORE Randomized?
(I/C) (Lꞏmin-1 and/or mLꞏmin-1ꞏkg-1)
Paavolainen et al. I: 19.8 ± 1.8 I: 179.5 ± 7.3 I: 71.4 ± 6.1 I: 4.9 ± 0.4/70.0 ± 5.3
15 (7/8) M National-level XC skiers 5 No
1991 C: 20.0 ± 2.0 C: 178.5 ± 6.0 C: 69.2 ± 6.2 C: 5.2 ± 0.4/ 75.0 ± 4.3
I: 17.9 ± 0.3 I: 166.7 ± 1.3 I: 166.7 ± 1.3 I: 3.1 ± 0.1/55.3 ± 2.2
Hoff et al. 1999 15 (8/7) W Regional XC skiers 7 Yes
C: 18.0 ± 0.4 C: 168.7 ± 1.4 C: 168.7 ± 1.4 C: 3.5 ± 0.4/ 55.3 ± 1.6
I: 4.9 ± 0.3/ 69.7 ± 2.3
I: 20.4 ± 4.3 I: 175.7 ± 3.1 I: 70.7 ± 4.5 (4.1 ± 0.4/ 58.7 ± 3.9);
Hoff et al. 2002 19 (9/10) M Well-trained XC skiers 6 Yes
C: 19.2 ± 3.9 C: 183.0 ± 4.1 C: 75.6± 6.4 C: 5.2 ± 0.4/ 69.1 ± 2.3
(4.7 ± 0.4/ 61.1 ± 3.1)
I: 21.0 ± 1.6 I: 182 ± 2.8 I: 77.8 ± 4.9 I: (4.89 ± 0.6/ 63.1 ± 5.8);
Østerås et al. 2002 19 (10/9) M Highly trained XC skiers 5 Yes
C: 24.4 ± 5.0 C: 180 ± 3.8 C: 74 ± 3.5 C: (4.39 ± 0.35/ 59.2 ± 2.8)
IT20-s: 178 IT20-s: 70
20 IT20-s: 21 (19-24) Yes
M=12 (173-184) (62-72) IT20-s: 63.8 ± 9.9 (54.2 ± 10.5)
(IT20-s = 6, IT180-s: 26 (20-33) (stratified for sex
Nilsson et al. 2004 W=8 IT180-s: 176 IT180-s: 69 IT180-s: 61.6 ± 7.1 (53 ± 7.3) Well-trained XC skiers 5
IT180-s = 7 C: 25 (20-29) and level of
(173-179) (62-74) C: 63.4 ± 6.2 (53.7 ± 6.0)
C=7) performance)
C: 180 (169-190) C: 74 (61-92)
M=29 Cir: 15.9 ± 1.1 Cir: 177.2 ± 6.6 Cir: 62.3 ± 6.1
58 (20 drop-outs)
W=29 RB: 16.2 ± 1.1 RB: 174.6 ± 5.2 RB: 59.7 ± 5.0 No
(Cir=16, RB=21,
Nesser et al. 2004 SS: 16.0 ± 1.3 SS: 173.8 ± 4.6 SS: 60.8 ± 4.7 NS Adolescent XC skiers 3 (geographical
SS=13, W=8,
W: 16.1 ± 1.2 W: 174.4 ± 5.7 W: 62.8 ± 5.6 assignment)
C=16)
C: 15.8 ± 1.7 C: 174.3 ± 6.8 C: 56.4 ± 5.9
I: 23.1 ± 3.9 I: 179.3 ± 6.1 I: 179.3 ± 6.1 I: 65 ± 6
Mikkola et al. 2007 19 (8/11) M National-level XC skiers 5 No
C: 23.1 ± 4.5 C: 178.7 ± 4.8 C: 178.7 ± 4.8 C: 66 ± 3
Losnegard et al. M=11 I: 21.2 ± 3.2 I: 176.7 ± 8.9 I: 71.4 ± 10.2 I: 64.7 ± 4.9 (G3/2: 61.6 ± 5.5) No
19 (9/10) Competitive XC skiers 4
2011 W=8 C: 21.7 ± 2.5 C: 173.3 ± 7.0 C: 67.8 ± 10.6 C: 64.6 ± 7.1 (G3/2: 62.0 ± 9.2 (self-selected group)
I: 19 ± 2
Rønnestad et al. I: 180 ± 4 I: 69 ± 4 I: 66.4 ± 1.8 Well-trained Nordic No
17 (8/9) M C: 20 ± 3 5
2012 C: 180 ± 4 C: 69 ± 4 C: 66.0 ± 1.6 Combined skiers (self-selected group)
I: 18 ± 1 Total group: 60 ± 5
Skattebo et al. I: 171 ± 5 I: 61 ± 4 Well-trained junior XC No
16 (9/7) W C: 17 ± 1 3
2016 C: 166 ± 6 C: 60 ± 9 skiers (self-selected groups)
I, Intervention group; C, control group; M; men; W, women; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; ERG; ergometer; ET, endurance running interval training; G2, gear 2 skating technique; G3, gear 3 skating technique; IT20-s: 20-s sprint
interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group; MET, muscular endurance training; NS, not stated; RB, roller board training; SS, ski-specific; STR, strength; STR_TRAD, Strength training traditional; STR_VIB,
Strength training vibration; WT, weight training; XC, cross-country.
 Stöggl and Holmberg 559

Table 1. Continue.
Subjects Study design
N VO2max and/or (VO2peak DP) PEDro-
Study Sex Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg) Level of performance Randomized?
(I/C) (Lꞏmin-1 and/or mLꞏmin-1ꞏkg-1) SCORE
No (participants attending
Vandbakk et al. I + C: 18 ± 1 I + C: 166 ± 5 I: 56.1 ± 2.9 two different schools).
17 (8/9) W I + C: 60 ± 7 Highly-trained XC skiers 3
2017 C: 53.8 ± 4.7 Group allocation based on
school attended
29
STR VIB: 78.1 ± 8
STR VIB = 11, STR VIB: 24 ± 6 STR VIB: 182 ± 8 STR VIB: 67.3 ± 4.4
Øfsteng et al. STR TRAD: 76.8 No
STR TRAD = M STR TRAD: 23 ± 2 STR TRAD: 184 ± 8 STR TRAD: 69.5 ± 6.0 Well-trained XC skiers 4
2018 ± 5.8 (self-selected)
10, C: 27 ± 7 C: 183 ± 7 C: 66.3 ± 7.9
C: 77.0 ± 7.8
C=8
I, Intervention group; C, control group; M; men; W, women; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; ERG; ergometer; ET, endurance running interval training; G2, gear 2 skating technique; G3, gear 3 skating technique; IT20-s: 20-s sprint
interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group; MET, muscular endurance training; NS, not stated; RB, roller board training; SS, ski-specific; STR, strength; STR_TRAD, Strength training traditional; STR_VIB,
Strength training vibration; WT, weight training; XC, cross-country.

Results The interventions designed to improve strength and/or power involved activities described
as 1) maximal (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Østerås et al., 2002) or heavy strength
Data extraction training (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Skattebo et
The participants and characteristics of the training interventions involved in the 12 articles al., 2016), 2) explosive strength training (Mikkola et al., 2007), 3) sprint interval (Nilsson
finally analyzed here, all published between 1991 and 2018, are shown in Table 1. Alto- et al., 2004; Vandbakk et al., 2017), 4), explosive strength, heavy resistance strength and
gether, these studies included 12 control and 17 intervention groups of XC skiers: juniors sprint training combined (Paavolainen et al., 1991) and 5) circuit, roller-board, ski-specific
in two investigations (Nesser et al., 2004; Skattebo et al., 2016), at the regional level in or weight training (Nesser et al., 2004).
one, well-trained in five, and highly-trained or national/international in 6 (including Nor- Five of the interventions employed only exercise on machines (Hoff et al., 2002;
dic Combined skiers in one case). A total of 263 skiers (on average, 9.9 ± 3.7 (range 6 - Hoff et al., 1999; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås et al., 2016; Skattebo et al., 2016). One
21), of whom 65% were men) completed the programs. Their group mean VO2max values study utilized a DP ergometer (Nilsson et al., 2004), two a combination of free weights
(reported in all but one case (Nesser et al., 2004)) ranged from 53.7 - 75.0 mLꞏkg−1ꞏmin−1. and bodyweight resistance (Mikkola et al., 2007; Paavolainen et al., 1991), two a machine
The racing events ranged from sprint to distance. and free weights combined (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ronnestad et al., 2012), and one either
circuit, roller-board, ski-specific training or weights (Nesser et al., 2004). Most of the in-
Methodological quality and risk for bias terventions involved a single exercise (seated poling) (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999;
As documented in Table 1, the mean PEDro score for these studies, employed here as an Østerås et al., 2002), two exercises (seated and standing poling together with triceps ex-
indicator of methodological quality, was 4.6 ± 1.2 (range 3 - 7). This score indicated that tension) (Ofsteng et al., 2018; Skattebo et al., 2016) or squats (Losnegard et al., 2011;
two of the studies were of high-quality, seven of medium-quality, and the remaining three Ronnestad et al., 2012)), whereas two involved more than 10 different exercises (Carlsson
of low methodological quality. None concealed the group allocations (Item 3) or blinded et al., 2017; Mikkola et al., 2007). Of the exercises, seated pulldown was used in seven
the subjects (Item 5) or therapists (Item 6) and only one blinded the assessor (Item 7). It (58%) cases (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Losnegard et al., 2011; Ofsteng et al.,
should be noted, however, that blinding of participants in this type of intervention is dif- 2018; Østerås et al., 2002; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Skattebo et al., 2016) and standing
ficult. 67% of the studies listed eligibility criteria (item 1); analysis of intention-to-treat pulldown in four (33%) (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Ronnestad et al.,
(Item 9) was fulfilled by all; and eight did not randomize the assignment of participants to 2012; Skattebo et al., 2016).
the two groups. The average intervention period was 8.8 ± 1.9 (range 6-12) weeks, and the average
number of strength sessions per week 2.7 ± 0.4 (range 2-3). More specifically, training of
Interventions for improving strength and/or power (Table 2) strength and/or power was scheduled twice (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ronnestad et al., 2012;
 560 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Vandbakk et al., 2017), two or three times (Skattebo et al., 2016) or three times (Hoff et loads, specified as approximately 85% of maximal load or until repetition failure (Hoff et
al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004; Nilsson et al., 2004; al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Østerås et al., 2002). The sprint interval training consisted of
Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås et al., 2002) each week. In one of the interventions, the extent 20-s sprints (Nilsson et al., 2004) with 2-min intervals of rest; 10-15-s (Mikkola et al.,
of strength training was reported only as the percentage of the total number of training 2007) or 30-s sprints with 2-3 min rest (Vandbakk et al., 2017) or short maximal roller
hours each week (Paavolainen et al., 1991). skiing sprints uphill (no exact duration provided) with 3-min intervals of rest (Nesser et
The resistance/strength training typically involved three sets of each exercise, with al., 2004).
4 - 6 repetitions per set (10 repetitions for the standing DP exercise) at relatively heavy

Table 2. Characteristics of the strength interventions involved in the articles analyzed.

Volume (duration) ST/SIT
Time Duration ST
Study Type Program overview Frequency & intensity per replaced Endurance training Total training
of year (weeks) supervised?
session or added
E: Jumping and spe-
The strength 6-9 training
cific RS exercises 1-4 h/session (66%
training for I was sessions/
(low loads/high ve- first 3 weeks, 58%
Paavolainen et divided into ex- Preparation week – 34% 6-9 times/week (di-
locities). 15-90 min last 3 weeks)
al. 1991 plosive (E), period 6 (weeks 1-3) NS NS vided into END-
H: Squats with bar- H: 70-90%1RM Documented
heavy resistance (autumn) and 42% STR)
bells and exercises (volume, frequency,
(H) and sprint (S) (weeks 4-6)
specific for skiers exercise mode)
training strength.
S: NS
I: 3x6RM (85% 1RM, Yes (every sec- Mainly running Average weekly
Preparation with a 1-kg increase if ond week by during the first 4 training volume of
Hoff et al. Maximal Pull-down sitting on period 3 ses- 3 sets were completed the investiga- weeks, then RS for 8.5±0.8 and
9 NS
1999 strength a bench (October- sions/week successfully) tors, every the last 5 weeks 9.2±1.2 h for I and
December) C: General STR <60% week by train- Documented C, respectively
1RM or >20 reps ers) (volume, intensity)
45 min/week
Training ses-
I: 3x6RM (85% 1RM,
sions were
with a 3-kg increase if
monitored only 9.15 h/week
3 sets were completed
Hoff et al. Maximal Pull-down sitting on Pre-season 3 sessions three times by Documented
8 successfully. NS 10 h/week
2002 strength a bench (months, NS) /week the investiga- (volume, intensity,
3-4 min rest between
tor, but every exercise mode)
series)
week by the
C: Strength endurance
trainers.
<85% 1RM
I, intervention group; C, control group; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; DPE, double-poling ergometer; END, endurance; ET, endurance running interval training; HIT, high-intensity; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group;
IT180-s: 180-s sprint interval training group; LIT, low-intensity; MET, muscular endurance training; MIT, medium-intensity; NS, not stated; RB, roller board; RM, repetition max; RS, roller skiing; STR, strength; STR, strength with
vibration; WT, weight training.
 Stöggl and Holmberg 561

Table 2. Continue…
ST/SIT
Time Duration Volume (duration) & inten- ST Endurance Total
Study Type Program overview Frequency replaced
of year (weeks) sity per session supervised? training training
or added
45 min/week
Training ses-
I: 3x6RM (85% 1RM, with a I: 12.8 h/week/ I: 14
Autumn prior 3 sions moni-
3-kg increase if 3 sets were C: 10.5 h/week h/week;
Østerås et al. Maximal to the start of ses- tored only
Pull-down sitting on a bench 9 completed successfully. 2-3 Replaced Documented C: 12
2002 strength competition sions / three times
min rest between series) (volume, intensity, h/week
season week by the train-
C: Strength endurance <85% exercise mode)
ers.
1RM
IT20-s: 20-s intervals with
maximal power output and
120-s rest. Number of intervals Pre-dominantly
Preparatory
increased from 11.7 to 14.7 low-intensity aer-
period
over the training period. obic
(May to first STR re- All training IT20-s:
IT180-s: 180-s intervals with training per-
DP interval training on an er- half of June) placed by sessions were 8.4 h/week
Sprint- 3 power output = 85% mean formed as RS,
Nilsson et gometer with 20-s (IT20-s) when the 6 20- or 180- supervised and IT180-s:
interval sessions / power output during 6-min running with and
al. 2004 or 180-s (IT180-s) intervals subjects had (16 sessions) s sprint in- documented 8.1 h/week
training week performance test with 90-s rest without poles
recovered tervals by the C:
(power increased 14% during and cycling.
from the experimenters 8.6 h/week
this test to compensate for Documented
competitive
improvement in performance). (volume, intensity,
season
Number of intervals increased exercise mode)
from 6.0 to 7.5 over the
training period.
Cir: Pull-ups, push-ups, chair Cir//RB/ SS: ~30 min/session;
dips and sit-ups – using body Cir: To fatigue or for 30 sec
Circuit weight only. (30-s rest between exercises)
training RB: Roller board with ad- RB: 3–8RM (slow movements
Cir: 4.7 h/week Cir:
(Cir) justable angle for modifying and long rest) for strength or
RB: 3.3 h/week 6.3 h/week
Roller resistance 10–12RM (explosive and long
All Coaches moni- SS: 6.6 h/week RB:
board SS: Short maximal uphill RS Summer rest) for power. Rest intervals:
Nesser et groups 3 tored and led the WT: 4.6 h/week 4.8 h/week
(RB) sprints, ski-specific (arm and training 10 3-5 min. NS
al. 2004 sessions / training of one SS:
Ski- abdominal) plyometrics and program SS: Short maximal (rest: 3 min).
week group each. Documented 8.2 h/week
specific uphill bounding with poles. WT: ~25 min/session. Load
(volume, intensity, WT:
(SS) Rest intervals: 3 min. varied from 3–8RM (slow
exercise mode) 5.7 h/week
Weights WT: Lat-pullover with press, movements) to develop
(WT) upright row, lat pulldown, strength to 10–12RM (slightly
triceps pulldown, bench higher speeds) to develop
press and seated row. power (rest: 3-5 min).
I, intervention group; C, control group; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; DPE, double-poling ergometer; END, endurance; ET, endurance running interval training; HIT, high-intensity; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training
group; IT180-s: 180-s sprint interval training group; LIT, low-intensity; MET, muscular endurance training; MIT, medium-intensity; NS, not stated; RB, roller board; RM, repetition max; RS, roller skiing; STR, strength; STR,
strength with vibration; WT, weight training. Lat = lateral
 562 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Table 2. Continue…
ST/SIT
Time Duration Volume (duration) & ST Endurance Total
Study Type Program overview Frequency replaced
of year (weeks) intensity per session supervised? training training
or added
The explosive training sessions lasted
Sport-Specific Rapid Force
30-75 min with volume for upper- and
production (SSRF): DP RS
lower body being approximately the Endurance training
or sprinting/bounding uphill Total
same. The typical speed training typical
with poles. training
session consisted of 10-15-s sprints for XC skiers, such
Explosive strength volume was
Explosive- (running or DP) with 2-3-min as RS, running and
(EXPLO): half squat, bench Autumn, during the same in
type strength recovery. Nordic walking.
press, pullover, incline row, the early phase of 3 both groups
Mikkola et (general and The strength training usually consisted Most of endurance
abdominal curl, back exten- preparation for 8 sessions Replaced NS (I: 10.3±1.1
al. 2007 sport- of 6-10 exercises (half squat, bench training below
sion, leg press, lat pulldown, competition /week h and 10±0.5
specific press, pullover, abdominal curls, back anaerobic threshold.
etc. h/week, C:
exercises) extensions, etc.) with 2-3x6-12
Explosive training 11.1±3.1 h
sets/reps. The training was performed Documented
(EXPLO_A): running sprints and 11±1.0
with low loads, but at high velocities. (volume, intensity,
(RS), alternative jumps (AJ), h/week)
SSRF: 10–15x10–15 s; EXPLO: 3 x frequency)
skating jumps (SJ), calf
6–10 reps; RS: 3–6x30 m, AJ 4–6x20,
jumps (CJ).
SJ 4–6x20, CJ 4–6x10–15
Individual
I: 15.2±1.1 h;
During the basic supervision of the
Training sessions approximately 45 C: 15.3±0.7 h
preparatory three first
Half squat, seated pulldown, 2 min.
Losnegard Maximal period (begin- 12 sessions by an
standing DP and triceps sessions Half squat, seated pulldown and tri- Added Documented NS
et al. 2011 strength ning of June to investigator to
press /week ceps press: 3-4 x 5-10 reps; Standing (volume)
end of August) ensure proper
DP: 3x10RM (Rest: 2-3 min)
technique and
appropriate work load.
No differences
Same total
All athletes between the groups
weekly
3-5 sets/session supervised by an regarding the total
duration
investigator during volume of endurance
(including
Heavy Deep squat, seated pull- Beginning of the 2 3-5RM (70-80% 1RM) all workouts for training or distribu-
Rønnestad heavy
Strength down, standing DP preparation pe- 12 sessions Standing DP: 10RM Added the first 2 weeks tion of this training
et al. 2012 strength
training riod /week and thereafter once within HR intensity
training) by
every week zones.
the two
throughout the Documented
groups:
intervention. (volume, intensity, fre-
12.0±0.6 h
quency, exercise mode)
I, intervention group; C, control group; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; DPE, double-poling ergometer; END, endurance; ET, endurance running interval training; HIT, high-intensity; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group;
IT180-s: 180-s sprint interval training group; LIT, low-intensity; MET, muscular endurance training; MIT, medium-intensity; NS, not stated; RB, roller board; RM, repetition max; RS, roller skiing; STR, strength; STR, strength with
vibration; WT, weight training. Rep=repetition
 Stöggl and Holmberg 563

Table 2. Continue…
ST/SIT
Program Time Duration Volume (duration) & inten- ST Endurance Total
Study Type Frequency replaced
overview of year (weeks) sity per session supervised? training training
or added
Both groups continued their
normal aerobic and endurance
Three sets per exercise. To help ensure
training.
Each session, including that the subjects
I: 11.2±1.8 h: HIT 0.5±0.2 h;
warm-up, lasted ∼ 40 min. lifted with proper
Mid- MIT 0.3±0.2 h; LIT 10.3±1.6 h
10RM-4RM technique and
Seated pull- September to C: 10.6±1.3 h: HIT 0.5±0.2 h;
Each repetition was optimal load,
Heavy down, end of MIT 0.3±0.1 h; LIT 9.7±1.3 h
Skattebo et 2-3 sessions conducted with maximal they were I: 13.8±2.3 h
strength standing DP November (late 10 Added Both groups performed similar
al. 2016 /week mobilization in the encouraged to C: 12.7±1.4 h
training and pre- amounts of ski skating (∼ 27%),
concentric phase (lasting attend strength
triceps press competition classic XC skiing (∼ 28%),
approximately 1 s), training sessions
period). running (∼ 40%), and other types
followed by a slower supervised by
of exercise (cycling, rowing etc.;
eccentric phase (2–3 s). experienced
∼5%).
Rest between sets: 2–3 min. coaches.
Documented (volume, intensity,
frequency, exercise mode)
Session 1: I: 13:27±2:26 h;
I: LIT 9:48±1:57
30-s upper- C: 13:54±3:44 h
MIT: 0:25±
body sprint- 6-8x30-s intervals of upper- The total amount of
0:08
intervals (DP body sprint separated by 2-3 training was individual-
HIT: 0:38±0:07 SI: 0:30±0:11;
Sprint- RS) uphill min active rest (i.e., 15-20 ized, i.e., not all skiers
Vandbakk et June- 2 sessions C: LIT: 10:10±2:54
interval outdoor at 8 min of total work duration Added NS trained for exactly the
al.2017 November /week MIT: 0:37±0:14
training maximal for each session. same number of hours.
HIT: 0:36±0:10
sustainable Maximal sustainable effort Differences in the
SI: 0:00±0:01
effort (iso-effort). amount of LIT accounted
Documented (volume, intensity,
Session 2: RB for most of these individ-
frequency, exercise mode)
while kneeling. ual differences.
I, intervention group; C, control group; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; DPE, double-poling ergometer; END, endurance; ET, endurance running interval training; HIT, high-intensity; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training
group; IT180-s: 180-s sprint interval training group; LIT, low-intensity; MET, muscular endurance training; MIT, medium-intensity; NS, not stated; RB, roller board; RM, repetition max; RS, roller skiing; STR, strength; STR,
strength with vibration; WT, weight training.
 564 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Table 2. Continue…
ST/SIT
Time Duration Volume (duration) & ST Endurance Total
Study Type Program overview Frequency replaced
of year (weeks) intensity per session supervised? training training
or added
Standing DP, seated pull-down
and triceps press with or without
50-Hz vibrations of the wire in No significant
Heavy
the custom-made pulldown appa- difference in the
strength The STR
ratus. The daily undulating peri- weekly duration
training groups trained
odization of STR progressed to- 3 sets of each exercise of END or its
(STR) with more than
ward fewer repetitions with distribution as LIT,
or without the C group.
higher loads. The first and last First 3 weeks: 10, 12, MIT, and HIT
vibration During the
sessions each week were contin- and 6 repetitions during between the STR
(STR_VIB), intervention,
ued to failure, with the load ad- the 1st, 2nd and 3rd STR (13±3, 1±1,1±1 h)
in addition to the STR groups
justed in accordance with the session of each week, re- and C groups (10±5,
their ongoing added traditional
RM principle. spectively. 1±1, 1±0 h).
endurance The intervention heavy strength
The second strength session each All workouts No difference in the
training. period started training with
Øfsteng et al. week was executed with a ~10% 3 sessions Following 3 weeks: 8, were supervised time spent running,
In addition to 5 weeks after 8 Added or without
2018 reduced load in comparison to /week 10, and 5 repetitions dur- by one of cycling, performing
endurance the competitive vibration to
the predicted RM (i.e., the sets ing the 1st, 2nd and 3rd the investigators. DP, or other types of
training season ended. their ongoing
were not continued to failure). session, respectively, ad- ski training each week
(without any endurance
The skiers were instructed to justed to 6, 8 and 4 repe- (4±1, 1±1, 2±2 h,
additional training.
perform with maximal accelera- titions for the final 2 7±2 h vs. 4±1, 1±1,
strength The C group con-
tion and speed during the con- weeks. 2±2.5±2 h,
training) C tinued their usual
centric phase (lasting around 1 respectively).
was allowed endurance train-
s), while the eccentric action was Inter-set rest periods of
to perform ing, with no
performed more slowly (i.e., 2-3 min. Documented
whole-body additional
lasting around 2-3 s). (volume, intensity,
stability and strength training.
On days when both END and exercise mode)
core training.
STR were performed, the skiers
were encouraged to perform
STR first.
I, intervention group; C, control group; Cir, circuit training; DP, double poling; DPE, double-poling ergometer; END, endurance; ET, endurance running interval training; HIT, high-intensity; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group;
IT180-s: 180-s sprint interval training group; LIT, low-intensity; MET, muscular endurance training; MIT, medium-intensity; NS, not stated; RB, roller board; RM, repetition max; RS, roller skiing; STR, strength; STR, strength with
vibration; WT, weight training.

Strength training was reported to be fully or partially supervised in all of the inves- Findings
tigations except three, where this aspect of the protocol was unclear (Mikkola et al., 2007;
Paavolainen et al., 1991; Vandbakk et al., 2017). The total volume of endurance training Strength and power
varied considerably (4.8 - 15.3 h per week−1 divided into 3 - 9 sessions (Losnegard et al., In all cases where 1RM was tested (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Losnegard et al.,
2011; Nesser et al., 2004)) and the level of detail provided regarding weekly volume and 2011; Mikkola et al., 2007; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås et al., 2002; Paavolainen et al.,
intensity varied. 1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Vandbakk et al., 2017), the intervention led to statistically
Importantly, all of the studies involving additional strength training stated that the significant greater improvement compared to the control group (+6-24%, ES: 0.80-6.81).
endurance training performed by all/both intervention groups was the same.
Stöggl and Holmberg 565

Figure 2. Forest plot of the effects of strength/power/speed training on XCS-specific performance. Positive values present effects
in favour of the intervention group, while negative values present effects with respect to the pure endurance control group. The
mean effect and its 95% confidence interval is presented as a diamond. HYP, strength training designed to increase muscle size; IC, heavy weight
training designed to improve intramuscular coordination; SEP, training designed to enhance sprint endurance performance; EXP, explosive strength
training; TT, time trial; DPE, double poling ergometer; TTE, time to exhaustion; DP, double poling.

Jump performance (squat jump and/or counter Body composition

movement jump) improved in two studies (Paavolainen et Potential alterations in body mass during the period of in-
al., 1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012) (8-11%, ES: 1.10-1.46), tervention were examined in 7 of the 14 studies, with 6 ob-
whereas another found no change in this respect in com- serving no change in comparison to baseline (Hoff et al.,
parison to the control group (Losnegard et al., 2011). As- 2002; Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004; Ofsteng et
sessment of the ability to produce force rapidly also pro- al., 2018; Paavolainen et al., 1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012)
duced mixed results, with improvements in the time re- and the other a significant increase in both the experimental
quired to produce submaximal forces (Hoff et al., 2002; and control groups following strength training (Skattebo et
Paavolainen et al., 1991) (22-30%, ES: 0.76-0.97) or in al., 2016). In one case the thickness of the m. vastus lat-
peak force at maximal aerobic velocity (Hoff et al., 1999). eralis was monitored during the intervention, revealing a
None of the articles reviewed focused on parameters re- tendency towards a reduction in the control group and a
lated to muscle stiffness. relatively larger increase in the groups that performed
566 Strength training in cross-country skiers

strength training (Ronnestad et al., 2012). Similarly, the values before and after the intervention, seven found no
lean mass of the upper body was elevated, with no altera- statistically significant change, while the two others
tion in total body mass (Ofsteng et al., 2018). Other indices (Losnegard et al., 2011; Vandbakk et al., 2017) docu-
of body composition that exhibited no significant changes mented increases during ski-skating and diagonal skiing,
included skinfolds (Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., respectively, in comparison to the control group (7-9%, ES:
2004; Paavolainen et al., 1991) and thigh and calf girth 0.75-3.29). VO2peak values while performing DP were re-
(Paavolainen et al., 1991); whereas Skattebo and col- ported in seven of the articles (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al.,
leagues (2016) reported a significantly larger enhancement 1999; Nilsson et al., 2004; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås et
in upper-arm circumference in the experimental (3.3%) al., 2002; Skattebo et al., 2016; Vandbakk et al., 2017).
than in the control group (2.0%) following 10 weeks of Of the seven studies that found no differences be-
heavy strength training. tween groups, two observed enhanced VO2peak during DP
in both groups (Skattebo et al., 2016; Vandbakk et al.,
XCS performance 2017). Nilsson and colleagues (2004) showed elevated
The effects of strength/power/speed training on XCS spe- VO2peak DP in the group performing 180-s intervals, but not
cific performance are presented in Figure 2. In two studies, among those performing 20-s intervals with a focus on
sprint/speed performance was increased in the experi- strength/power.
mental group with no changes in the control group None of the articles provided data concerning ve-
(Mikkola et al., 2007; Nilsson et al., 2004) (1.4 - 21%, ES: locity or power output at VO2max/peak.
0.71 - 1.05). Losnegard et al. (2011) reported only a trend
towards an improvement in 100-m RS speed. In none of Work economy/efficiency/gross efficiency
the studies were any other measures of anaerobic capacity Work economy/gross efficiency was assessed in all but two
improved. (Nesser et al., 2004; Paavolainen et al., 1991) of the studies
In four studies XCS performance improved after the (Table 3). Statistically significant improvements (7 - 56%,
intervention, either in the experimental group alone ES: 0.52 - 1.75) in this parameter with at least one work-
(Losnegard et al., 2011; Nesser et al., 2004; Nilsson et al., load were documented in six articles (Hoff et al., 2002;
2004; Skattebo et al., 2016) or in both the experimental and Hoff et al., 1999; Mikkola et al., 2007; Nilsson et al., 2004;
control groups (Losnegard et al., 2011; Skattebo et al., Østerås et al., 2002; Skattebo et al., 2016), whereas others
2016), with significantly greater improvement in the exper- observed no improvement in work economy (Losnegard et
imental group only in the study of Nilsson et al. (2004) (8- al., 2011; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Skattebo et al., 2016;
15%, ES: 0.50 - 0.72). In this same study the control group Vandbakk et al., 2017) in comparison to a control group.
did not complete the XCS-specific roller skiing tests and
race performance, making it impossible to calculate ES. Blood lactate response
The investigations in which no improvement was observed The levels of lactate in the blood at fixed workloads/veloc-
were all performed outside the laboratory and involved dis- ities were measured in 6 studies (Hoff et al., 1999;
tances longer than 1 km (i.e., a 2-km RS DP time-trial on a Losnegard et al., 2011; Nilsson et al., 2004; Ofsteng et al.,
flat indoor track (Mikkola et al., 2007), 1000 m of RS DP 2018; Paavolainen et al., 1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012); ve-
and 1.3 km of skating RS outdoors on an uphill road locity at fixed concentrations of blood levels of lactate (2-
(Losnegard et al., 2011) or a 7.5-km RS time-trial outdoors 4 mmolꞏL−1) assessed in one (Paavolainen et al., 1991); and
(Ronnestad et al., 2012)). velocity until this concentration had risen more than 1.5
In three instances DP performance was improved mmolꞏL−1 above the resting level in another (Nilsson et al.,
significantly by the intervention (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et 2004). The modes of exercise in these investigations were
al., 1999; Østerås et al., 2002) (56-137%, ES:1.42-2.09), ski-walking (Mikkola et al., 2007; Paavolainen et al.,
whereas in other studies improvement occurred in both the 1991), running (Hoff et al., 1999), DP on an ergometer
experimental and control groups (Ofsteng et al., 2018) or (Hoff et al., 1999; Nilsson et al., 2004; Østerås et al., 2002),
in the control group only (Vandbakk et al., 2017). DP on a treadmill (Ofsteng et al., 2018; Vandbakk et al.,
The one study that examined XCS racing perfor- 2017), and Gear 2 skating on a treadmill (Losnegard et al.,
mance on-snow (Nesser et al., 2004) observed improve- 2011). In none of the seven studies including these meas-
ment during the winter/competition season following the urements was the blood level of lactate lower in the exper-
intervention, with the group performing roller board im- imental than the control group.
proving more than those carrying out weight training (data
provided only in the figure in this case). In general, the ef- Biomechanical parameters
fect of strength/power/speed training on specific XCS per- In the case of DP, the various strength/power training in-
formance can be evaluated as moderate (ES = 0.56, 95%CI: terventions resulted in unchanged (Hoff et al., 1999;
0.35 - 0.76). Losnegard et al., 2011; Østerås et al., 2002; Skattebo et al.,
2016; Vandbakk et al., 2017) or higher poling frequency
Physiological parameters (in a 6-min test following 20-s interval training (Nilsson et
Maximal/peak oxygen uptake al., 2004)), as well as in an unaltered cycle rate (Ofsteng et
Among the nine of the 12 studies that reported VO2max al., 2018; Vandbakk et al., 2017).
 Stöggl and Holmberg 567

Table 3. Summary of the findings reported in the studies included in our meta-analysis.
Maximal performance Submaximal performance
Blood lactate
TTE, Biomechanics (ki-
Parameters Body VO2max/peak Time (AeT; AnT), Eco/Eff/
Study Strength/power vVO2max/peak, netics, kinematics,
examined composition trial anaerobic ca- Gross eff
PPO, Vmax EMG)
pacity
Anthropometrics (body mass and
height); % body fat and fat-free mass ISO max leg: ND
estimated from skinfold thickness; calf, EXP: Time to produce
submaximal force at 60% of ISO BM; Fat (%),
thigh and arm girth; SJ and CMJ; maxi-
Paavolainen fat-free mass; AeT ND AnT
mal isometric force (ISO max) and var- max:  28% ES = 0.76; P<0.05 VO2max ND - - - -
et al. 1993 calf, thigh and ND
ious force-time parameters of the leg SJ:  11.3% ES=1.46; P<0.01
arm girth: ND
extensor muscles; AnT and VO2max CMJ:  8.2% ES=1.34; P<0.01
while ski-walking on CON: ND
a treadmill.
EXP: 1RM sitting cable
pull-down:  14.5%
STR:
ES=0.85; P<0.001 TTE_DPE:  STR: force in
Peak force at 1RM:  36.1%,
1RM sitting cable pull-down; AnT 137% ES=2.09; STR: DPE econ- %1RM during DPE:
ES=9.39; P<0.05
and VO2max RUN; AnT and VO2peak P<0.001; omy  32.5%  34.8% ES=0.88,
Hoff et al. Time to peak force at 80% 1RM: VO2peak DPE,
DP_ergo; cost of poling and TTE ND in BM - PO DPE:  26% AnT ND ES=1.75; P<0.05
1999  29.7% ES=0.92; P<0.05 ND
DP_ergo; body mass, blood levels ES=7.22; P<0.05 P<0.05 CON: ND
of Hb and HCT Time to peak force at 60% 1RM:
CON: CON: ND Poling frequency
 22.4% ES=0.97; P<0.05
TTE DPE:  58% ND
Time to peak force during DPE:
P<0.01
 27% ES=0.86; P<0.01
CON: ND
EXP: 1RM:  9.9% ES=0.80; EXP: Work
EXP:
Body mass; 1RM sitting cable pull- P<0.05; Peak force at 60% economy
ND in VO2max TTE_DPE:
down; peak force, peak force last repe- and 80% 1RM:  33-34% (cost of poling)
(RUN) or  56% ES=1.42;
Hoff et al. tition, time-to-peak force, time- ES=1.09-1.19; P<0.05; during DP:
ND in BM VO2peak DP in - P<0.05 ND -
2002 to-peak force (TPF)_last repetition; TPF_last repetition:  60%  56% ES=1.44;
either of the CON:
AnT and VO2max RUN; AnT and and 50% ES=1.45; P<0.05 P<0.05
two groups. TTE_DPE:
VO2peak DPE CON: Peak and time to peak CON: ND
 25% P<0.05
force at 60% 1RM: P<0.05
I, intervention group; C, control group; AeT, aerobic threshold; AnT, anaerobic threshold; BLC, blood lactate concentration; CMJ, countermovement jump; DPE, double poling ergometer; ES, significant effect size for the group x
time interaction when comparing the intervention and control groups; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit,; HRT, heavy resistance training; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group; ND;
no difference; NM: Not measured; SIG, sprint interval group; SJ, squat jump; STR: strength training group; TT: time-trail; UB: upper body; WT, weight training
568 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Table 3. Continue.
Maximal performance Submaximal performance
Blood lactate
TTE,
Parameters Body VO2max/peak (AeT; AnT), Eco/Eff/ Biomechanics (kinet-
Study Strength/power Time trial vVO2max/peak,
examined composition anaerobic ca- Gross eff ics, kinematics, EMG)
PPO, Vmax
pacity
EXP: 1RM:  22%
ES=2.18; P<0.05; Relative EXP:
Body mass; 1RM sitting cable TTE_DPE: 
strength:  22% ES=2.67;
pull-down; peak force, peak 61%
P<0.001 EXP: Exercise DP
force last repetition, time to
Østerås et Peak power increased, ex- ND in BM VO2peak DPE: ND ES=1.71; Peak BLC, economy:  8.8%,
peak force, time to peak force - Poling frequency: ND
al. 2002 cept at the two lowest loads, P<0.05 AnT: ND ES=1.23; P<0.01
last repetition; AnT and VO2max
with a shift in the force- CON: CON: ND
RUN; AnT and VO2peak DPE;
cost of poling and TTE_DPE power curve towards higher TTE_DPE: 
speeds and loads. 21% P<0.05
CON: ND
IT20-s: 30-s DPE
performance (mean
power):
IT20-s: 30-s
 22% ES=0.95;
DPE peak
P<0.05
power:  21% IT20-s: Work effi- IT180-s: Mean 6-min
6-min DPE perfor-
IT180-s: ES=1.05; ciency (VO2 sub- poling force TT: 
mance (mean IT180-s:
DPE: power output during 30 s VO2peak: P<0.05 max):  9% 11% ES=0.43;
power): BLC_sub 
and 6 min; work efficiency  4.2% IT180-s: 30-s ES=0.66; P<0.05 P<0.05
 8% ES=0.50; 18% ES=0.68,
Nilsson et (VO2 at a given work load) and - ES=0.57; DPE peak IT180-s: Work effi- IT20-s & CON: ND
- P<0.05 P<0.05
al. 2004 BLC at submax; VO2peak P<0.05 power:  17% ciency (VO2 sub- IT20-s: 6-min poling
IT180-s:30-s DPE IT20-s &
DP; DP frequency; VO2max IT20-s & CON: performance (mean ES=0.71; max):  7% frequency TT:  11%
RUN CON: ND
ND P<0.05 ES=0.52; P<0.05 ES=0.64; P<0.05
power):  17%
CON: ND CON: ND IT180-s & CON: ND
ES=0.71; P<0.05
6-min DPE perfor-
mance (mean
power):  15%
ES=0.72; P<0.05
C: ND
I, intervention group; C, control group; AeT, aerobic threshold; AnT, anaerobic threshold; BLC, blood lactate concentration; CMJ, countermovement jump; DPE, double poling ergometer; ES, significant effect size for the group
x time interaction when comparing the intervention and control groups; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit,; HRT, heavy resistance training; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group;
ND; no difference; NM: Not measured; SIG, sprint interval group; SJ, squat jump; STR: strength training group; TT: time-trail; UB: upper body; WT, weight training
 Stöggl and Holmberg 569

Table 3. Continue.
Maximal performance Submaximal performance
Blood lactate Biomechanics
TTE,
Parameters Body VO2max/peak (AeT; AnT), Eco/Eff/ (kinetics,
Study Strength/power Time trial vVO2max/peak,
examined composition anaerobic Gross eff kinematics,
PPO, Vmax
capacity EMG)
RB: TT total:  36 s
ES=3.04; P<0.05
TT uphill:  22 s
ES=2.88; P<0.05
TT_flat:  14 s
Body weight and skinfold (%BF); ES=1.59; P<0.05
RB: UB power:  0.29W/kg SS & WT & Cir &
UB power freestyle arm ergometer (TTE); ND in body
ES=5.59; P<0.05 C: ND
Nesser et UB strength Vasa Trainer (10RM); mass, body -
UB strength:  0.99J/kg - - - -
al. 2004 TT DP RS (total time); height, %
TT DP RS uphill; DP TT DP RS flat; ES=5.23; P<0.05 body fat. All groups improved
race results SS & WT & & CC & C: ND race performance. RB >
Cir, SS and W, Cir >
WT. Changes were in-
versely related to
changes in relative UBS
and UBP, as well as in
TT DP RS.
Anthropometrics: body mass, height, I & C: Maximal isometric force
% body fat (estimated from skinfold thickness); of the leg extensors:
calf and thigh girth; both 6%, P<0.05.
maximal isometric force (ISO max) and various I: absolute forces in earlier
force-time parameters of the leg extensor muscles; portion (0-100 ms) of force-time
bilateral maximal dynamic force of I: improved
curve:  18%, ES=1.35, P<0.05 No signifi-
leg extensor muscles; maximal I: V30DP  1.4% sport-specific
IEMG m. vastus lateralis in cant changes I: ND
Mikkola isometric force of trunk flexors and ES=0.81; DP economy
early portion of isometric action in VO2max C: V2K  2.9%
et al. extensors; EMG leg extensors - P<0.05 - during the 2- -
(0-100 ms)  21%, in either P<0.01 km test: VO2:
2007 during strength test; C: ND
ES=1.65, P<0.05 I or C
AnT and VO2max while ski-walking on a treadmill;  7% P<0.05
IEMG m. vastus medialis
30-m DP RS test (V30DP) with 20-m flying start on C: ND
in early portion of isometric
an indoor track; Maximal Anaerobic Skiing Test
(MAST; 9-10x150m Rest: 100 s); action (0-100ms)  27%,
DP work economy; maximal 2000-m DP test ES=1.39, P<0.05
(mean velocity = V2K);
VO2peak DP C: ND
I, intervention group; C, control group; AeT, aerobic threshold; AnT, anaerobic threshold; BLC, blood lactate concentration; CMJ, countermovement jump; DPE, double poling ergometer; ES, significant effect size for the group x time
interaction when comparing the intervention and control groups; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit,; HRT, heavy resistance training; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group; ND; no difference;
NM: Not measured; SIG, sprint interval group; SJ, squat jump; STR: strength training group; TT: time-trail; UB: upper body; WT, weight training
 570 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Table 3. Continue.
Maximal performance Submaximal performance
Blood lactate Biomechanics
Parameters Body VO2max/peak TTE, vVO2max/peak, (AeT; AnT), Eco/Eff/ (kinetics,
Study Strength/power Time trial
examined composition PPO, Vmax anaerobic Gross eff kinematics,
capacity EMG)
1RM seated pull-down and 1.1-km DP
No difference No group
half squat; CSA of m. triceps performance (DPE):I: I: 100-m RS
between groups differences with
brachii and quadriceps; VO2max Sprint: No group
in UB LBM.  7.4% ES=0.68; respect to VO2
during RUN and RS skate. I: 1RM seated  1.3% P=0.1 differences Poling
I in UB LBM I: VO2max skate: P<0.05 during
Energy consumption pull-down: 19% C: ND with frequency: ND
increased  7% ES=3.29; C:  6.0% ES=5.74; submaximal RS
Losnegard at submaximal RS intensities; ES=5.74; P<0.01 I & CON: respect to I: RER submaxi- CMJ: Trend
by 3%, P<0.05 P<0.01 C: ND P<0.05
et al. 2011 DP performance (20-s and 1RM half squat: 12%, 20-s power output BLa, towards decrease
C: ND VO2max RUN: ND 1.3-km Skate RS mal stages: 
5-min) on a DPE; DP and ES=6.81; P<0.01 with DP: or HR during in C with no
Total body performance: 4.4-5.5%
Skate RS TT (DP 1.1 km and C: ND  8.3% vs. submaximal change in I
weight was I:  3.7%, P<0.05
Skate 1.3 km); 100-m DP;  6.2% both RS
unchanged ES=0.26; P=0.14 C: ND
Counter movement jump (CMJ) P<0.001
in both groups. C:  3.3% P<0.05
performance.
Architectural changes of m. I: 1RM deep squat:
No change
vastus lateralis, 1RM deep 12% ES=2.9; P<0.01
No changes No changes in in BLC No group
Rønnestad squat and seated pull-down, 1RM seated pull-down: No change in VO2max
in total body 7.5-km TT RS - during difference in -
et al. 2012 squat jump (SJ), VO2max, 23% ES=1.5; P<0.01 skate RS
mass. performance. submaximal work economy.
work economy Skate RS, SJ: 8.8% ES=1.1; RS.
and 7.5-km TT RS. P<0.05 C: ND
Seated pull-down 1RM Absolute VO2max
increased more in I RUN was unchanged
(24%) P<0.01 than C Average
in both groups,
Body weight power output
Seated pull-down 1RM; (8%) P<0.05, with a while the relative
increased in increased by 17.1% Submaximal
Upper arm circumference; group values were
both I (2.5%, No differences in I and 16.2% in C O2-cost
VO2max RUN; Submaximal difference of 15% reduced in I (−3.7%)
P<0.01) and in DP (3-min TT DP demonstrated
Skattebo O2-cost; VO2peak DP; ES=0.90; P<0.01. but unchanged in C. Poling
C (2.6%, performance sprint test) and - similar changes
et al. 2016 20-s DPE performance; Upper arm circumfer- Absolute VO2peak DP frequency: ND
P<0.05), tests. 14.9% vs. 13.1% or were un-
3-min DPE performance ence increased more in I increased both in I
with no group (3-min TT DP changed in
(rested: sprint-test and (3.3%) P<0.001 than C (2.9%, P<0.1) and C
difference. finishing- test) both groups.
fatigued: finishing-test). (2%) P<0.05 with a (7.7%, P<0.1), whereas
with no group
group the relative values
differences.
difference of 1.3% were
ES=0.18; P=0.05. unchanged.
I, intervention group; C, control group; AeT, aerobic threshold; AnT, anaerobic threshold; BLC, blood lactate concentration; CMJ, countermovement jump; DPE, double poling ergometer; ES, significant effect size for the group x
time interaction when comparing the intervention and control groups; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit,; HRT, heavy resistance training; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group; ND;
no difference; NM: Not measured; SIG, sprint interval group; SJ, squat jump; STR: strength training group; TT: time-trail; UB: upper body; WT, weight training
 Stöggl and Holmberg 571

Table 3. Continue.
Maximal performance Submaximal performance
TTE, Blood lactate Biomechanics
Parameters Body VO2max/peak Time Eco/Eff/
Study Strength/power vVO2max/peak, (AeT; AnT), an- (kinetics, kine-
examined composition trial Gross eff
PPO, Vmax aerobic capacity matics, EMG)
Physiological (VO2peak) and I: VO2max DIA (L/min): TTE DIA:
kinematic (cycle length and rate) I: 1RM  18%  9% ES=0.75; P<0.05 No within- or No change in No changes
responses during submaximal and
ES=1.20; P<0.035; P40  VO2max DP:  10% between-group oxygen cost in cycle length
maximal diagonal and DP treadmill differences
Vandbakk 20% ES=1.06; P=0.057 ES=0.47; P>0.05 while skiing with and rate
RS incl. peak treadmill speed; ND in BM - -
et al. 2017 C: 1RM  10% P<0.035; C: VO2max DIA (L/min): DP or DIA at during DP
sitting poling-specific maximal
P40  14% P=0.057 ND TTE DP:  18% submaximal and DIA
UB strength (1RM) and average
VO2max DP:  6% P<0.01 in intensities
power at 40% 1RM (P40)
at maximal speed. P<0.05 CON only
1RM in UB exercises; STR: TTE
work economy; TTE (Test 1) STR: 1RM seated pull (Test 1):  9.6%
and TTE after a prolonged test down:  8.9% ES=0.27; P=0.55 Both STR and
(Test 2); neural activation;
ES=1.90; P=0.023 ND in BM TTE (Test 2): C reduced VO2-
oxygen saturation in muscle; STR: UB  19.6% consumption at
DP kinematics during
1RM triceps press:  LBM:  ES=0.68; P=0.07 10 km and 12
prolonged submaximal DP In both STR
21.7% 2.8% km/h.
RS followed directly and C post-PO
ES=1.78; P<0.01 P =0.006 Post-test TTEdiff at 4 mmol L-1 EMG and
Øfsteng by a TTE-test (Test 2).
C: ND VO2peak DP: ND - was significantly Physiological re- kinematics: ND
et al. 2018 The difference TTE_Test1 – Test 2 was higher
reduced compared sponse during pro-
(i.e., TTEdiff) aimed to reflect the than the
to C (-0.45 min vs. pre-test value longed submax
skier’s ability to maintain DP perfor-
-1.32 min) DP: ND
mance after prolonged exercise.
EXP reduced
As vibration did not induce any
C: TTE (Test 1):  RPE during
additional effect on strength or
7.6% final 20 min
endurance gains, values for the
two strength training groups TTE (Test 2): 
were here pooled (STR). 8.8%
I, intervention group; C, control group; AeT, aerobic threshold; AnT, anaerobic threshold; BLC, blood lactate concentration; CMJ, countermovement jump; DPE, double poling ergometer; ES, significant effect size for the group
x time interaction when comparing the intervention and control groups; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit,; HRT, heavy resistance training; IT20-s: 20-s sprint interval training group; IT180-s 180-s sprint interval training group;
ND; no difference; NM: Not measured; SIG, sprint interval group; SJ, squat jump; STR: strength training group; TT: time-trail; UB: upper body; WT, weight training

Discussion varying characteristics of the participants. In general, the methodological quality of the
articles examined was poor-to-fair (PEDro scores of 3 - 7), being good in only two cases.
This systematic review aimed to identify and evaluate the current scientific literature con-
cerning the influence of strength, power and speed training on relevant physiological and Training programs
biomechanical characteristics and performance of competitive XC skiers. The findings All interventions evaluated ranged from 6 - 12 weeks in length (mostly 6 - 8 weeks), with
presented demonstrate that such training not only improves strength and power per se, but 2 or 3 sessions of strength training each week. In no case was the persistence of the effects
is also beneficial for several other key determinants of XCS performance. However, the obtained assessed. Therefore, at present our knowledge concerning neuro-muscular and/or
conclusions drawn are inconsistent, perhaps due to methodological differences and/or the structural adaptations of XC skiers to strength training is based on relatively short-term
 572 Strength training in cross-country skiers

interventions without follow-up, whereas the potential ben- muscles of XC skiers remains to be elucidated.
eficial effects on the complex movements involved in this Several of the investigations involved only 1-3 dif-
sport might be achieved only after longer programs of ferent types of strength exercises (e.g., seated poling only
strength training (e.g., at least 24 weeks (Berryman and co- (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Østerås et al., 2002) or
workers (2018)). seated and standing poling together with triceps extension
All of the interventions took place either during the (Ofsteng et al., 2018; Skattebo et al., 2016) or squats
preparatory or pre-competition period (e.g., October-No- (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ronnestad et al., 2012)). In several
vember). Since none involved the 5-month period of com- cases the poling motion characteristic of many sub-tech-
petition (beginning of November to beginning of April), niques of XCS was simulated utilizing a cable pulley (ei-
comparison of the potential effects of no, less or more ther while seated or standing) (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al.,
strength training on actual strength and performance during 1999; Losnegard et al., 2011; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås
this period remains to be carried out. Although Sandbakk et al., 2002; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Skattebo et al., 2016),
(2018) did state that at least one session of strength training a DP ergometer (Nilsson et al., 2004) or a roller-board
per week is required, in the case of XCS this proposal is (Nesser et al., 2004; Vandbakk et al., 2017). In light of rec-
not based on scientific evidence. ommendations that the strength training of XC skiers
Of the articles analyzed, 67% involved heavy should focus on relevant muscles and movements
strength training, an observation consistent with findings (Losnegard, 2019), it is questionable whether more com-
that elite XC skiers utilize training of this nature to enhance plex exercises involving more degrees of freedom of move-
the maximal strength and power of muscles involved spe- ment actually load muscles maximally and thereby provide
cifically in skiing (Sandbakk, 2018). Surprisingly, only sufficient stimulus to improve strength and power opti-
five interventions involved the use of free weights, Olym- mally. Clearly, in this context the considerable freedom of
pic lifts and/or powerlifting (Losnegard et al., 2011; movement during XCS, with complex coordination be-
Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004; Paavolainen et al., tween the upper and lower body and interactions between
1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012), even though these types of the skier, his/her equipment and the ground/snow, should
strength training have been shown to be highly effective, be given special consideration.
even in young athletes (Granacher et al., 2016).
XCS involves extensive use of the muscles of both Effects on strength and power output
the upper and lower body. However, although all 12 studies As expected, most of the interventions led to moderate-to-
involved training of upper-body muscles, only four in- large improvement (6-24%) in parameters that reflect
cluded strength training of the legs (Losnegard et al., 2011; strength and power (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999;
Mikkola et al., 2007; Paavolainen et al., 1991; Ronnestad Losnegard et al., 2011; Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al.,
et al., 2012), despite their major role in generating propul- 2004; Nilsson et al., 2004; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås et
sive force in connection with most of the sub-techniques al., 2002; Paavolainen et al., 1991; Ronnestad et al., 2012;
(Komi, 1987; Stöggl and Holmberg, 2015; Vahasoyrinki et Skattebo et al., 2016; Vandbakk et al., 2017). Obviously,
al., 2008). This situation may reflect the belief by athletes the type of training and nature of the exercises utilized to
and coaches that strength training of the legs requires test its effects, both of which varied widely, can exert an
longer overall recovery than training the upper body (per- impact on the extent of improvement in both strength and
sonal communication). Apparently, the best approach to neuromuscular adaptations observed. In several cases, the
optimizing the strength and power of the legs without in- same exercises employed during the intervention were uti-
terfering with overall recovery remains to be determined. lized, at least in part, to monitor effects on strength and
At the same time, only two studies involved exer- power (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Losnegard et
cises designed to strengthen the core muscles (Mikkola et al., 2011; Nilsson et al., 2004; Ofsteng et al., 2018; Østerås
al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004), which are utilized exten- et al., 2002; Ronnestad et al., 2012; Skattebo et al., 2016),
sively in all XCS sub-techniques, and neither of these stud- whereas in others these two types of exercise differed
ies employed application of heavier loads. Nor was core (Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004; Paavolainen et
strength analyzed or reported specifically in any case. al., 1991; Vandbakk et al., 2017).
However, two studies, neither of which included a In many cases, the reliability and validity of the pro-
control group, did focus on strengthening the trunk. Therell cedures employed to test strength/power and XCS perfor-
and colleagues (2021) found that supplemental dynamic mance had not been and/or were not assessed. In only two
and static training of core strength exerted no effect on the studies (Losnegard et al., 2011; Skattebo et al., 2016) was
energetic cost of XCS at submaximal speeds. In addition, the correlation between strength and XCS-specific perfor-
Carlsson et al. (2017) reported that strength training (in- mance prior to the intervention determined. Skattebo and
cluding core exercises) increased VO2max, peak roller ski- colleagues (2016) reported moderate relationships between
ing speed and upper-body strength to the same extent as 1RM seated pull-down and short-term DP performance.
training on a ski-ergometer. Thus, at present, there is little Similar correlations were observed by Losnegard and col-
evidence that systematic core training is beneficial to sport- leagues (2011) for women and men combined, but when
specific performance (Faigenbaum et al., 2016), although the sexes were analyzed separately, such correlations were
elite skiers appear to be convinced that this is the case seen primarily in the case of the women and these were
(Sandbakk, 2018; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017; Solli et much lower or even trivial.
al., 2017). The best approach to strengthening the core In a correlative study, Stöggl and colleagues (2011)
Stöggl and Holmberg 573

reported a positive correlation between maximal bench (Holmberg et al., 2006) or, alternatively, by enhancing
press, bench pull (1RM and power output at submaximal muscle mass through strength training. In this context,
loads) and squat jump performance with peak velocity in since the 1960´s, upper-body capacity while performing
the G3, DP and diagonal skiing sub-techniques. Among the arm cranking and double poling has risen from approxi-
interventions reviewed, only two involved bench press mately 70% to 95% of VO2max, a development that can be
(Mikkola et al., 2007; Nesser et al., 2004), although most attributed to more well-trained upper-body musculature
included a pull exercise other than bench pull, and only (Saltin, 1997; Stöggl et al., 2019).
three utilized jumping exercises (Mikkola et al., 2007; Of the nine investigations examined here that mon-
Nesser et al., 2004; Paavolainen et al., 1991). Moreover, in itored VO2peak during DP, two reported that this parameter
most of the testing protocols, force was assessed only at improved after the intervention; but since it improved to
low (1RM) or high velocities (i.e., jumps), whereas to eval- the same extent in the control group, this change could not
uate the effects of a strength intervention reliably, this pa- be attributed to the strength intervention per se (Skattebo
rameter should be determined at a range of different veloc- et al., 2016; Vandbakk et al., 2017). Therefore, at present
ities. For example, Stöggl and colleagues (2011) found that there is little evidence that strength training of the upper
power output at submaximal speeds was more closely as- body enhances VO2peak during DP, but it must always be
sociated with XCS sprint performance than the 1RM. remembered that all relevant studies reported to date have
been short-term.
Effects on body composition
In the interventions reviewed here, short-term training im- Work economy/efficiency
proved strength/power without altering body composition At any given velocity, work economy is determined by a
(i.e., body mass, fat mass, lean mass) and with significant complex interplay between a variety of physiological and
(Skattebo et al., 2016) or no effect (Paavolainen et al., biomechanical factors. Unfortunately, despite the convinc-
1991) on muscle circumference. The potential lack of mus- ing positive effects of strength training on work economy
cle hypertrophy (not measured directly in any of the arti- in connection with several other endurance sports (Beattie
cles examined) might have been due to the short duration et al., 2014; Berryman et al., 2018), the findings with re-
of the interventions, insufficient stimulus and/or nutrition, spect to XCS are not yet as convincing. Of the 10 articles
interference by parallel endurance training (Bell et al., analyzed here that assessed work economy/gross effi-
2000; Kraemer et al., 1995), and/or primary neuromuscular ciency before and after the intervention, four observed no
adaptations. These factors should be taken into considera- change (Losnegard et al., 2011; Ronnestad et al., 2012;
tion if a skier desires to both enhance strength and increase Skattebo et al., 2016; Vandbakk et al., 2017), five a low-
lean mass during a certain period. It is noteworthy that only ered oxygen cost (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999;
six of the 12 studies involved women and only two in- Mikkola et al., 2007; Nilsson et al., 2004; Østerås et al.,
volved junior skiers, both groups for whom strength train- 2002) and one similar changes in the intervention and con-
ing is considered to be essential for attaining an athletic trol groups (Ofsteng et al., 2018). Furthermore, the findings
physique (Stöggl et al., 2019). of Hoff and colleagues (2002; 1999) have been questioned
on the basis of their unconventional approach to measuring
Physiological capacities work economy (Losnegard et al., 2011; Skattebo et al.,
Maximal /Peak oxygen uptake 2016).
A number of investigations on endurance athletes have Interestingly, Nilsson and colleagues (2004) uti-
shown that neither VO2max nor the fractional utilization of lized training that involved 20-s maximal sprints in combi-
VO2max (e.g., performance VO2) are altered by heavy nation with explosive DP movements designed to stimulate
strength training (e.g. Ronnestad et al., 2012; Saunders et the stretch-shortening cycle of upper-body muscles in-
al., 2004; Skattebo et al., 2016). Of the nine studies here in volved in propulsion. Such stimulation has been reported
which VO2max (pre/post) was reported, six observed no to enhance both skiing speed and performance while exe-
change (Hoff et al., 2002; Losnegard et al., 2011; Mikkola cuting several XCS sub-techniques (Lindinger et al.,
et al., 2007; Nilsson et al., 2004; Paavolainen et al., 1991; 2009a; Lindinger et al., 2009b). This type of training stiff-
Skattebo et al., 2016); whereas Losnegard and colleagues ens the muscle-tendon system, which might allow more ef-
(2011) observed an elevation in VO2max in connection with ficient storage and utilization of elastic energy at this level,
the G2 skating technique (although unchanged while run- resulting in shorter contact with the ground and less ex-
ning) and Vandbakk and co-workers (2017) an increase in penditure of energy (Anderson, 1996; Cavagna et al., 1964;
the case of diagonal skiing, both of which sub-techniques Cavanagh and Kram, 1985; Hakkinen et al., 1985; Spurrs
involve utilization of the entire body. et al., 2003).
Indeed, a unique aspect of XCS are its different sub- While the exact mechanism(s) underlying the im-
techniques involving usage of upper- and lower-body mus- provement in work economy evoked by strength training
cles to different extents. One factor that limits VO2peak is remains unclear, better neuromuscular function almost cer-
the amount of muscle mass involved (Calbet and Joyner, tainly plays a role in this context. Altogether, the discrep-
2010; Saltin, 1985) and the VO2peak of many XC skiers is 3 ancies in the findings concerning work economy in the in-
– 10% lower while utilizing DP than DIA (see the reference terventions reviewed here may be due to differences re-
list in Stöggl et al., 2019). Accordingly, VO2peak might be garding duration and the nature of the strength training, as
improved by involving more muscle mass in the sub-tech- well as in the methodology utilized for assessment, and/or
niques (for example, by modifying the DP technique the relatively small numbers of subjects.
574 Strength training in cross-country skiers

Blood lactate have yet to be demonstrated definitively. Although perfor-

To date, findings on the effects of strength training on per- mance in XCS sprints (e.g., 2 - 4 min in duration) and
formance at the lactate threshold are somewhat inconclu- longer races are correlated (Stöggl and Stöggl, 2013), the
sive. In the investigations analyzed here, where many dif- positive effects of strength training on the latter are not as
ferent types of exercise were employed (including ski- clear. For instance, of the articles reviewed here, only one
walking, performing DP on an ergometer or treadmill, and analyzed competitive performance, concluding that train-
G2 skating on a treadmill), the blood level of lactate asso- ing strength (3-12 RM) on an inclined roller-board im-
ciated with submaximal and maximal workloads either did proves distance XCS performance on-snow (Nesser et al.,
not change (Hoff et al., 2002; Hoff et al., 1999; Losnegard 2004). However, in this case the participants were non-
et al., 2011; Østerås et al., 2002; Paavolainen et al., 1991; competitive junior XC skiers and there was no control
Ronnestad et al., 2012), decreased only in the group whose group with respect to competitive performance. Rønnestad
training involved 180-second sessions of DP (Nilsson et and colleagues (2012) found that strength training by Nor-
al., 2004) or was altered to the same extent in both the in- dic Combined athletes did not enhance their performance
tervention and control groups (Ofsteng et al., 2018). while using a freely chosen skating technique during a 7.5-
km time-trial on a roller skiing track.
Effects on XCS performance In all of the other relevant studies, XCS perfor-
mance of longer duration was assessed on the basis of time-
Time-trials of short duration (< 30 s) to-exhaustion tests utilizing roller skis or DP ergometers.
Two of the reports (Mikkola et al., 2007; Nilsson et al., Since no performance on-snow was analyzed, the external
2004) describe moderate-to-high (1.4 - 5.0%) effects of validity of these results is moderate. For example, Hoff
strength training on short-term DP performance, whereas (1999), Hoff (2002) and Østerås (2002) and coworkers
two others (Losnegard et al., 2011; Skattebo et al., 2016) found that heavy strength training improved time-to-ex-
observed a trend towards similar improvement in both their haustion on a DP ergometer considerably (57 - 137%);
experimental and control groups. In light of the enhanced whereas Rønnestad and colleagues (2012) detected little or
importance of rapid acceleration and subsequent mainte- no effect of such training on 7.5-km roller skiing perfor-
nance of high-speed during sprint and mass-start races, mance, as mentioned above. Thus, improvement in con-
strength training may be especially beneficial for skiers nection with open-ended time-to-exhaustion tests was
whose maximal speed is slower. At the same time, in this more pronounced than during time-trials.
context conventional speed or sprint training (e.g., sprint-
interval training) or a combination of both strength and Biomechanical aspects
speed training might be at least as effective as strength Two cross-sectional studies have demonstrated that when
training alone (Kristoffersen et al., 2019; Sleivert et al., competitive skiers are performing DP (Stöggl et al., 2011;
1995), although this possibility remains to be explored. Sunde et al., 2019), diagonal skiing or V2 (Gear 3) skating
(Stöggl et al., 2011), higher general strength is associated
Time-trials of intermediate duration (30 s-6 min) with more poling force and slower cycles. However, sur-
Several of the studies tested performance employing 3-6 prisingly few scientific investigations have focused on the
min time-trials and/or an actual XCS sprint competition 1- effects of strength training on various biomechanical pa-
2 km in length (Losnegard et al., 2011; Mikkola et al., rameters related to XCS performance. Most of the studies
2007; Nilsson et al., 2004; Skattebo et al., 2016). The re- reviewed here that included biomechanical analyses (7/12)
sults obtained are somewhat contradictory, including im- focused simply on cycle characteristics (gross kinematics).
provements in the performance of the control group only Cycle length, analyzed in two studies only, was unaffected
(Mikkola et al., 2007), similar improvements in both the by the strength training intervention (Ofsteng et al., 2018;
intervention and control groups (Losnegard et al., 2011; Vandbakk et al., 2017). Since longer cycles are linked to
Skattebo et al., 2016) and more pronounced improvement peak XCS speed (Stöggl and Holmberg, 2011; Stöggl and
following “muscular endurance” than simple endurance Müller, 2009), it is surprising that current findings indicate
training (although without a control group in this case) that the type of strength training employed did not influ-
(Borve et al., 2017). Therefore, at present, no definitive ence XCS technique.
conclusions concerning the effects of strength training on With respect to kinetics, one study demonstrated
time-trial performance under conditions of actual “sprint that strength training reduced time-to-peak force by 27%
competition” can be drawn. In light of the considerable de- and relative peak poling force by 35%, with no change in
mands on strength and speed placed by modern XCS sprint the absolute level of peak pole force as assessed on a DP
techniques (Pellegrini et al., 2018), this situation is surpris- ergometer (Hoff et al., 1999). In contrast, Nilsson and
ing and further investigation is clearly warranted. In addi- colleagues (2004) documented a 22% elevation in peak
tion, findings of similar improvements in the intervention power following 6 weeks (3 sessions each week) of train-
and control groups in certain of the studies might reflect ing involving 180-s intervals of DP.
either learning effects or simply the expected consequence In the only intervention in which muscle activation
of training in general. was monitored, aspects of the EMG pattern related to the
magnitude of such activation did not change (Ofsteng et al.,
Time-trials of longer duration (>6 min) and time-to-ex- 2018). The effects of strength or speed training on temporal
haustion testing parameters related to muscle activity, such as the sequence
At present, the potential benefits of strength training for in which muscles become involved, have yet to be exam-
XC skiers competing over longer distances (e.g., 5 - 50 km) ined.
Stöggl and Holmberg 575

In any case, why are the biomechanics of XCS tech- Holmberg, 2016). In addition, improvement of sprinting
nique and XCS performance not influenced by an increase performance does not necessarily occur immediately after
in general strength? This observation is particularly inter- a period of resistance training (Moir et al., 2007). Combin-
esting in the light of the relatively large number of correl- ing general strength training with concomitant or subse-
ative cross-sectional articles that have documented an as- quent training of complex technical skiing movements
sociation between the strength per se and performance of a might augment the benefits of increased strength. In this
XC skier (Alsobrook and Heil, 2009; Bolger et al., 2015; connection, modern wearable technology and feedback
Haymes and Dickinson, 1980; Heil et al., 2004; Holmberg systems (which can provide, e.g., simultaneous infor-
and Nilsson, 2008; Mende et al., 2019; Mikkola et al., mation concerning pole and leg forces) could help skiers
2010; Ng et al., 1988; Niinimaa et al., 1978; Sagelv et al., alter their skiing technique, becoming more modern and
2018; Sandbakk et al., 2011; Sandbakk et al., 2015; dynamic, with well-coordinated application of force. How-
Sandbakk et al., 2014; Sjokvist et al., 2015; Stöggl et al., ever, these possibilities need to be explored rigorously.
2015; Stöggl et al., 2011; Stöggl et al., 2010a; Stöggl et al., In summary, the specific effects of strength training
2007; Wiltmann et al., 2016). Furthermore, modern XCS on XCS performance remain unclear. However, in no case
requires considerable strength and power for the efficient has such training been reported to result in poorer perfor-
production and transfer of forces. mance and the question as to whether eliminating strength
In this context, several sub-techniques of XCS (in- training by XC skiers would have any negative effects re-
cluding DP, the running diagonal stride or Klaebo style mains unanswered. This is directly related to the question
(Pellegrini et al., 2018), jumping V1 (G2) and double-push concerning what the major goals of strength training should
(Stöggl and Holmberg, 2015; Stöggl et al., 2010b; Stöggl be, especially in light of the fact that by far most of the
et al., 2008)) have become considerably more dynamic in skier’s time and effort is devoted to endurance training. Is
recent decades. Recent measurements of peak pole forces strength training mainly functional and preventive or does
(Stöggl and Holmberg, 2011; Stöggl and Holmberg, 2016; it actually enhance performance? None of the studies in-
Stöggl et al., 2018) have revealed values approximately cluded here evaluated prevention of injury, although, for
150% higher than those reported a decade ago (Holmberg example, in connection with team sports, increased
et al. 2005), with a concomitant elevation in cycle length strength is associated with less risk for injury (Gabbett,
by as much as 75% (Stöggl and Müller, 2009). There are 2020; Malone et al., 2019). Moreover, improvement and/or
indications that less muscle activation, slower cycles with maintenance of strength might also enhance the long-term
more swing time, and a longer time-to-peak pole force dur- performance of an athlete who trains and competes exten-
ing DP skiing allow more pronounced extraction of O2 and sively, since such maintenance is an import aspect of sus-
better performance (Björklund et al., 2015; Stöggl et al., tainable athletic development.
2013). Since none of the studies analyzed here involved
Furthermore, higher skiing speeds are associated strength training during the period of competition, the
with shorter ground contacts (<250 ms), which are, in fact, question also arises as to whether strength may be lost dur-
similar in duration to those associated with various forms ing these important months? It has been proposed, although
of jumping and sprinting exercise (Stöggl et al., 2011; on somewhat unclear grounds, that a single session of
Stöggl and Müller, 2009). Clearly, the ability to develop strength training per week would be sufficient to preserve
greater force more rapidly has become crucial to the suc- strength during this period (Sandbakk, 2018). In the case
cessful utilization of many modern XCS techniques. How- of cycling the positive effects on strength and cycling per-
ever, the strength training studies presented here reflect no formance observed following a period of strength training
clear changes as a result of these developments. decline rapidly (e.g., within 8 weeks) after termination of
In this context, one potential limitation of these this training (Ronnestad et al., 2016); whereas continued
studies is that biomechanical parameters related to pole and inclusion of one session of strength training each week fur-
leg kinetics were not analyzed. Very few studies have ana- ther improved strength and cycling performance
lyzed biomechanical factors under actual XCS conditions (Ronnestad et al., 2010). Furthermore, integration of speed
and, indeed, there are no reports on pole or leg kinetics be- endurance training (3 sets of 3 x 30-s sprints) into the reg-
fore and after the intervention. Furthermore, none of the ular program once a week during the transition period from
articles reviewed here attempted to determine how long the preparation to competition improved sprint and maintained
changes that occurred in response to the intervention per- cycling performance (Almquist et al., 2020). It remains to
sisted. be seen whether analogous investigations on XCS will re-
We speculate that increases in strength may not im- sult in similar outcomes. In this connection potential dif-
mediately influence the complex performance of XCS. In- ferences between, e.g., different regimens of strength train-
stead, several weeks or months of intervention and/or train- ing, men and women, sprint and distance skiers, and upper-
ing after the intervention may be required to achieve more versus lower-body muscles must be considered.
dynamic, explosive and higher production of skiing force
and, thereby, improve technique. For example, it was re- Limitations of the studies examined here
cently shown that not only the level of strength per se, but In general, the quality of the studies reviewed here was
also the timing of forces exerts considerable influence on poor-to-fair (PEDro scores of 3 - 7), being good in only two
the speed and economy of movements associated with any cases. The methodological limitations include the rela-
given skiing technique (Björklund et al., 2015; Stöggl et tively few participants (15 - 58), which reduces statistical
al., 2013; Stöggl and Holmberg, 2011; Stöggl and power; the lack of control groups in four studies (Borve et
576 Strength training in cross-country skiers

al., 2017; Carlsson et al., 2017; Sagiev et al., 2020; Therell training during the competition period); include both men
et al., 2021), with only men or no statistical comparison of and women, as well as upper- and lower-body muscles
the sexes (9 studies); and the lack of randomized controlled (trained separately and together); analyze muscle and
trials in eight studies. As mentioned above, all of the inter- blood parameters in individual participants; employ free
ventions may have been too short to result in pronounced weights and core training; and place special emphasize on
muscle hypertrophy. In this context, strength training with the transfer of increased strength to improvement of bio-
more complex technique (e.g., training with free weights mechanical determinants of XCS performance.
including Olympic lifts) requires appropriate time to de-
velop proper lifting techniques and adequate load progres- Acknowledgements
sion to guarantee safe application of higher loads. Further- The experiments complied with the current laws of the country in which
they were performed. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
more, only a single study involved young XC skiers, and it The datasets generated and analyzed in connection with the current study
is unclear when and how a young skier should begin to are available both publicly and from the corresponding author.
train strength in the same manner as an elite skier.
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Sports Science 26, 1225-1233. Employment
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410802027386 Luleå University of Technology; School
Stöggl, T.L., Ohtonen, O., Takeda, M., Miyamoto, N., Snyder, C.,
Lemmettyla, T., Linnamo, V. and Lindinger, S.J. (2019)
of Kinesiology, University of British
Comparison of Exclusive Double Poling to Classic Techniques Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Canada;
of Cross-country Skiing. Medicine and Science in Sports and Swedish Olympic Committee
Exercise 51, 760-772. Degree
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001840 Professor
Stöggl, T.L. and Stöggl, R. (2013) Cross-country skiing in the 21st century Research interests
– altered demands and consequences for training in children and Integrative physiology and biomechan-
youths. In: Science and Nordic Skiing II. Eds: Hakkarainen, A., ics
Linnamo, V. and Lindinger, S. Vuokatti, Finland: University of
Jyväskylä / University of Salzburg.
E-mail: integrativephysiobiomechan-
Stöggl, T.L., Welde, B., Supej, M., Zoppirolli, C., Rolland, C.G., [email protected]
Holmberg, H.C. and Pellegrini, B. (2018) Impact of Incline, Sex
and Level of Performance on Kinematics During a Distance Race
in Classical Cross-Country Skiing. Journal of Sports Science and Key points
Medicine 17, 124-133.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29535586/
Sunde, A., Johansen, J.M., Gjora, M., Paulsen, G., Braten, M., Helgerud,  Although available evidence indicates that XC skiers are
J. and Storen, O. (2019) Stronger Is Better: The Impact of Upper stronger than many other endurance athletes and have be-
Body Strength in Double Poling Performance. Frontiers in come even stronger in recent decades, most of the investi-
Physiology 10, 1091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01091
Therell, T., Jansson, D. and Theos, A. (2021) Effects of Core Strength gations reviewed here found only moderate positive effects
Training on Skiing Economy in Elite Junior Cross-Country of strength training on XCS performance.
Skiers. Research quarterly for exercise and sport 93, 608-614.  The great variety of strength training described here has
https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2021.1887441
Vahasoyrinki, P., Komi, P.V., Seppala, S., Ishikawa, M., Kolehmainen, generally led to improvements in strength (e.g., 1RM), with
V., Salmi, J.A. and Linnamo, V. (2008) Effect of skiing speed on inconsistent positive effects with respect to work econ-
ski and pole forces in cross-country skiing. Medicine and Science omy/efficiency, VO2max/peak, jump performance and body
in Sports and Exercise 40, 1111-1116.
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181666a88
composition.
Vandbakk, K., Welde, B., Kruken, A.H., Baumgart, J., Ettema, G.,  Strength training (2 - 3 times/week) focusing on high loads
Karlsen, T. and Sandbakk, O. (2017) Effects of upper-body (oriented towards intramuscular coordination and/or hyper-
sprint-interval training on strength and endurance capacities in
trophy), explosive strength (power) and/or specific sprint
female cross-country skiers. Plos One 12, e0172706.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172706 endurance training are recommended for inclusion in XCS
Wernbom, M., Augustsson, J. and Thomee, R. (2007) The influence of training, with special consideration of the individual ath-
frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on lete´s needs.
whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans. Sports Medicine
37, 225-264. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737030-  The methodological quality of the articles examined was
00004 poor-to-fair, being good in only two cases. Future investiga-
Weyand, P.G., Sandell, R.F., Prime, D.N. and Bundle, M.W. (2010) The tions should involve more prolonged interventions (includ-
biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground
up. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985) 108, 950-961. ing also the competition phase and long-term follow-up); in-
https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00947.2009 clude both men and women, as well as upper-, core and
Wiltmann, V.W., Holmberg, H.C., Pelttari, P., Mikkola, J., Hakkinen, K., lower-body muscles; and place special emphasize on the
Ohtonen, O. and Linnamo, V. (2016) Biomechanical analysis of
different starting strategies utilized during cross-country skiing
transfer of increased strength to changes in the biomechan-
starts. European Journal of Sport Science 16, 1111-1120. ics and, consequently, on the performance of XCS.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1177605  Although free weight training is a promising concept, stud-
ies of the effects of such training on XCS are sparse. If free
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
Thomas STÖGGL weight training (e.g., Olympic lifts) which is technically
Employment complex, is included in the training regimen, early develop-
University of Salzburg, Department of ment of proper lifting technique, with special guidance and
Sport and Exercise Science, Salzburg, gradual increases in load, are recommended.
Austria; Red Bull Athlete Performance
Center, Salzburg, Austria
Degree  Univ. Prof. Mag. Dr. Thomas Stöggl
Univ. Prof. Mag. Dr. Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salz-
Research interests burg, Schlossallee 49, 5400 Hallein/Rif, Austria
Sensor and wearable technologies in
various settings of sport science (Digital
Sports, Digital Motion). Physiology and
biomechanics in various sport settings
from sedentary to the elite athlete; train-
ing intensity distribution and training ef-
fects of various endurance training pro-
grams among elite endurance athletes;
Exercise physiology, performance diag-
nostics and training therapy
E-mail: [email protected]