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International A Level Physics Your notes

Edexcel
Stretching Materials
Contents
1.27 Hooke's Law
1.28 Stress, Strain & T he Young Modulus
1.29 Force-Extension Graphs
1.30 Stress-Strain Graphs
1.31 Core Practical 3: Investigating Young Modulus
1.32 Elastic Strain Energy

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1.27 Hooke's Law

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Hooke's Law
When a force F is added to the bottom of a vertical metal wire of length L, the wire stretches
A material obeys Hooke’s Law if:
The extension of the material is directly proportional to the applied force (load) up
to the limit of proportionality
This linear relationship is represented by the Hooke’s law equation:
ΔF = kΔx
Where:
F = applied force (N)
k = spring constant (N m–1)
Δx = extension (m)

The spring constant is a property of the material being stretched and measures the stiffness of a
material
The larger the spring constant, the stiffer the material
Hooke's Law applies to both extensions and compressions:
The extension of an object is determined by how much it has increased in length
The compression of an object is determined by how much it has decreased in length

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Your notes

Stretching a spring with a load produces a force that leads to an extension

Force–Extension Graphs
The way a material responds to a given force can be shown on a force-extension graph
A material may obey Hooke's Law up to a point
This is shown on its force-extension graph by a straight line through the origin
As more force is added, the graph may start to curve slightly

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Your notes

The Hooke's Law region of a force-extension graph is a straight line. The spring constant is the gradient
of that region
The key features of the graph are:
The limit of proportionality: The point beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true when
stretching a material i.e. the extension is no longer proportional to the applied force
The point is identified on the graph where the line starts to curve (flattens out)
Elastic limit: The maximum amount a material can be stretched and still return to its original
length (above which the material will no longer be elastic). This point is always after the limit of
proportionality
The gradient of this graph is equal to the spring constant k

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Worked example
Your notes
A spring was stretched with increasing load.
The graph of the results is shown below.

What is the spring constant?

Step 1: Rearrange Hooke's Law to make the spring constant the subject

ΔF
k=
Δx
Step 2: Compare the gradient to the equation in Step 1
This graph is length - extension, so the gradient gives:
increase in y Δx
=
increase in x ΔF
Therefore k is the reciprocal of the gradient
Step 3: Find the gradient

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Your notes

Step 4: Calculate gradient

Δx (0 . 145 − 0 . 10)
gradient = = = 0 . 125
ΔF 0 . 36
Step 5: Calculate the spring constant by finding the reciprocal of the gradient

1
k= = 8.0
0 . 125
Step 6: Write the answer, including units
Spring constant, k = 8.0 N m−1

Exam Tip
Always double check the axes before finding the spring constant as the gradient of a force-
extension graph. Exam questions often swap the force (or load) onto the x-axis and extension (or
length) on the y-axis.
In this case, the gradient is not the spring constant, it is 1 ÷ gradient instead.

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1.28 Stress, Strain & The Young Modulus

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Stress & Strain
Stress
Stress is the applied force per unit cross sectional area of a material
Forces can be;
Tensile forces, which pull on an object and extend it
Compressive forces, which push onto an object and compress (or squash) it

The equation for stress is the force per unit area, and so the units are N m−2 , or Pascals, the same
unit as pressure

Stress equation

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The ultimate tensile stress is the maximum force per original cross-sectional area a wire is able
to support until it breaks
Your notes

Strain
Strain is the extension per unit length

Strain is the ratio of the extension (or compression) and the original length
This is a deformation of a solid due to stress in the form of elongation or contraction
Note that strain is a dimensionless unit because it’s the ratio of lengths

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Strain equation

Your notes

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The Young Modulus

Young Modulus Your notes
The Young modulus (sometimes called Young's Modulus) is the measure of the ability of a material
to withstand changes in length with an added load ie. how stiff a material is
This gives information about the elasticity of a material
The Young Modulus is defined as the ratio of stress and strain

Young Modulus equation

Its unit is the same as stress: Pa (since strain is unitless)

Just like the Force-Extension graph, stress and strain are directly proportional to one another for
a material exhibiting elastic behaviour

A stress-strain graph is a straight line with its gradient equal to Young modulus

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The gradient of a stress-strain graph when it is linear is the Young Modulus Your notes

Worked example
A metal wire that is supported vertically from a fixed point has a load of 92 N applied to the lower
end.
The wire has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 mm2 and obeys Hooke’s law.
The length of the wire increases by 0.50%.What is the Young modulus of the metal wire?
A. 4.6 × 107Pa B. 4.6 × 1012 Pa
C. 4.6 × 109 Pa D. 4.6 × 1011 Pa

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Exam Tip
Your notes
To remember whether stress or strain comes first in the Young modulus equation, try thinking of
the phrase ‘When you’re stressed, you show the strain’ i.e. Stress ÷ strain.

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1.29 Force-Extension Graphs

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Force-Extension Graphs
The way a material responds to a tensile or compressive force can be shown on a force-
extension, or a force-compression graph
Although compression can be put into equations as a negative value, the graphs have the
same shaped curves
Compression is plotted on the graph as a positive, increasing value
Every material will have a unique force-extension graph depending on how brittle or ductile it is
In the same way, materials have unique force-compression graphs, which will not be the same as
their force-extension graph
This is because materials behave differently under tensile and compressive strain
Simple Force-Extension Graphs

Simple force-extension graph showing the Hooke's Law region, and the calculation to find k, the spring
constant
A material may obey Hooke's Law up to a point

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This is shown on its force-extension graph by a straight line through the origin
As more force is added, the graph may start to curve slightly
Your notes
The key features of the graph are:
The limit of proportionality
The point beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true when stretching or compressing a
material i.e. the extension/ compression is no longer proportional to the applied force
The point is identified on the graph where the line starts to curve
The elastic limit
The point before which a material will return to its original length or shape when the
deforming force is removed
This point is always after the limit of proportionality
The spring constant k is found from the gradient of the straight part of the graph
More Detailed Force-Extension Graphs
Graphs of applied load-extension can give more detailed information about materials
This will apply when loads were continued well past the elastic limit

Detailed force-extension graph showing a material under loads which exceed the elastic limit

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The yield point is where the material continues to stretch even though no extra force is being
applied to it
Elastic deformation is a change of shape where the material will return to its original shape Your notes
when the load is removed
Plastic deformation occurs after the yield point
It is a change of shape where the material will not return to its original shape when the load is
removed

Worked example
The graph below shows force plotted against extension for a material under compressive
forces.

Use the letters marked to identify the elastic limit and yield point, and define both terms.

Step 1: Define both terms

Elastic limit: point before which a material will return to its original length or shape when the
deforming force is removed
Yield point: the point at which the continues to stretch even though no extra force is being
applied to it
Step 2: Using your definitions as prompts, select the correct point on the graph
Elastic limit is at B because the line has curved slightly after the Hooke's law region but not
started to extend with no extra force

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Yield point is at C because the line increases in the x-direction (extension is increasing) but
not in the y-direction (no extra force is being added)
Your notes
Exam Tip
The detailed graph looks confusing at first because it is such an unusual shape. Try tracing out the
line with your finger to see how force and extension are related at each point on the graph.
When defining the terms, be very careful to state whether the material behaves in certain ways
either before or after reaching that point.
For example, the limit of proportionality is the point 'beyond which' Hooke's Law no longer
applies, not 'at which'.

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1.30 Stress-Strain Graphs

Your notes
Stress-Strain Graphs
Stress-strain curves give an indication of the properties of materials such as
Up to what stress and strain they obey Hooke's Law
Whether they exhibit elastic and/or plastic behaviour
The value of their Young Modulus
The value of their breaking stress
Each material has a unique stress-strain curve

Stress-strain graph for different materials up to their breaking stress

Comparing Force-Extension to Stress-Strain Graphs
The key features of the graph which are also on the force-extension graph are:
Limit of proportionality, beyond which Hooke's law no longer applies
The elastic limit, before which a material returns to its original length or shape when the
deforming force is removed
The yield point beyond which the material continues to stretch (more strain is seen) even though
no extra force is being applied to it (without additional stress)
Elastic deformation where the material will return to its original shape when the load is removed
Plastic deformation where the material will not return to its original shape when the load is
removed

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Your notes

The important points shown on a stress-strain graph

The stress-strain graph is also used to find;
The Young Modulus is found from the gradient of the straight part of the graph
Breaking stress (also called fracture stress) is the stress at the point where the material breaks
At the yield point the atoms in the material had started to move relative to each other, at the
breaking stress they separate completely
Breaking stress is not the same as ultimate tensile stress which is marked on many graphs

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Worked example
Your notes
The graph below shows a stress-strain curve for a copper wire.

From the graph, state the value of:

(a) The breaking stress
(b) The stress at which plastic deformation begins

Part (a)
Step 1: Define breaking stress
The breaking stress is the maximum stress a material can stand before it fractures. This is the
stress at the final point on the graph
Step 2: Determine breaking stress from the graph
Draw a line to the y axis at the point of fracture

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Your notes

The breaking stress is 190 MPa

Part (b)
Step 1: Define plastic deformation
Plastic deformation is when the material is deformed permanently and will not return to its
original shape once the applied force is removed
This is shown on the graph where it is curved
Step 2: Determine the stress of where plastic deformation beings on the graph
Draw a line to the y axis at the point where the graph starts to curve

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Your notes

Plastic deformation begins at a stress of 130 MPa

Exam Tip
It is a very common exam question to be asked to define some of the key points on this graph, or
to identify them from a graph.
Make sure you have cleared up exactly what the differences are between the limit of
proportionality, elastic limit and yield point. It's easy to get confused between them so practice
sketching the graph, and labelling the points with their definitions.

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1.31 Core Practical 3: Investigating Young Modulus

Your notes
Core Practical 5: Investigating Young Modulus of a Material
To measure the Young Modulus of a metal in the form of a wire requires a clamped horiz ontal wire
over a pulley (or vertical wire attached to the ceiling with a mass attached) as shown in the
diagram below

A reference marker is needed on the wire. This is used to accurately measure the extension with
the applied load
The independent variable is the load
The dependent variable is the extension
Method
1. Measure the original length of the wire using a metre ruler and mark this reference point with tape
2. Measure the diameter of the wire with micrometer screw gauge or digital calipers
3. Measure or record the mass or weight used for the extension e.g. 300 g
4. Record initial reading on the ruler where the reference point is
5. Add mass and record the new scale reading from the metre ruler
6. Record final reading from the new position of the reference point on the ruler
7. Add another mass and repeat method

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Reducing Uncertainty
To reduce the uncertainty in the final answer, take the following precautions when measuring Your notes
Take pairs of readings of the diameter right angles to each other, to ensure the wire is circular
Six to ten readings altogether is enough to get an average value
Remove the load and check the wire returns to the original limit after each reading. A little
'creep' is acceptable but a large amount indicates that the elastic limit has been exceeded
Take several readings with different loads and find average
Use a Vernier scale to measure the extension of the wire
Measurements to Determine the Young Modulus
1. Determine extension x from final and initial readings
Example table of results:

Table with additional data

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Your notes

2. Plot a graph of force against extension and draw line of best fit
3. Determine gradient of the force v extension graph

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4. Calculate cross-sectional area from:

Your notes

5. Calculate the Young modulus from:

Safety Considerations
Safety glasses should be worn in case of the wire snapping
Protect feet and the floor from falling weights by cushioning the area underneath the weights

Exam Tip
Although every care should be taken to make the experiment as reliable as possible, you will be
expected to suggest improvements in producing more accurate and reliable results
Good examples of improvements in any experiment are:
Take repeat readings and take an average to improve accuracy
Measure longer distances, such as using a longer length of wire, to reduce percentage error

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1.32 Elastic Strain Energy

Your notes
Area Under a Force-Extension Graph
For a material which obeys Hooke's law, the elastic strain energy, Eel can be determined by finding
the area under the force-extension graph
Since this area will be a triangle with sides F (force) and x (extension) the equation is:
1
ΔE el = FΔx
2
Where:
Eel = elastic strain energy (or work done) (J)
F = average force (N)
Δx = extension (m)

Since Hooke's Law states that F = kΔx, the elastic strain energy can also be written as:

1
ΔE el = k ( Δx ) 2
2
Where:
k = spring constant (N m–1)

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Worked example
Your notes
The graph shows the behaviour of a sample of a metal when it is stretched until it starts to
undergo plastic deformation.

What is the total work done in stretching the sample from z ero to 13.5 mm extension?
Simplify the calculation by treating the curve XY as a straight line.

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Your notes

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure that you are familiar with the area of common 2D shapes such as a square, rectangle,
right-angled triangle and trapez ium. Don't forgot to split the area of the graph up into these
easier shapes and add up the area of each section for more complicated graphs! Always look at
the units of the extension and the force, and check any unit conversions before giving your final
answer.

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Elastic Strain Energy

Work has to be done to stretch a material Your notes
Before a material reaches its elastic limit (whilst it obeys Hooke's Law), all the work is done is
stored as elastic strain energy
The work done, or the elastic strain energy is the area under the force-extension graph

Work done is the area under the force-extension graph

This is true for whether the material obeys Hooke's law or not
Linear Graphs
For the region where the material obeys Hooke's law, the work done is the area of a right-angled
triangle under the graph
Non-linear Graphs
For the region where the material doesn't obey Hooke's law, the area is the full region under the
graph.
To calculate this area, split the graph into separate segments and add up the individual areas of
each
For the remaining part, count the squares left over
Before adding squares to the total they must be converted using the values on the axes

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For example, if each division on the y-axis = 0.1 N and each division on the x-axis = 0.2 m, then
each square = 0.1 × 0.2 N m = 0.02 N m
Your notes
Worked example
For the force extension graph shown, determine the work done in stretching the material.

Step 1: Choose which aspect of the graph will give the answer
This is a force-extension graph,
Since work done = force × distance, find the area under the graph
Step 2: Divide the area under the line into geometric shapes, using as much of the space as
possible

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Your notes

Step 3: For each shape calculate the area and find the total
Total of geometric shapes = 0.025 + 0.05 + 0.75 + 1.5 +0.015 = 2.34

Step 4: For the remaining area count squares then convert

Total of counted squares
7 + 13 = 20

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Value of each small square

0.1 N × 0.01 m = 0.001 N m
Your notes
Multiply to find value of area of counted squares
20 × 0.001 = 0.02
Step 5: Add the totals together to find the area
2.34 + 0.02 = 2.36
Step 6: Write the final answer to the same significant figures as the data from the graph and
include units
Work done stretching the material = 2.4 J

Exam Tip
As you add up your final totals you may find that the value of the left over squares is more than the
rest of the graph. This means you have forgotten to convert the number of squares into their
actual value. Go back and do that step and your answer will come out right!

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