CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES NOTES FOR CLASS F47

COURSE OBJECTIVES

The aim of this course is to enable the student to:

- Identify modern techniques in building construction

- Understand principles involved in the disposition of roof members

- Master construction methods for industrial buildings

- Master methods of retaining and compacting earth

- Establish cutting lists and plans of formwork of parts of reinforced concrete structures with the
aid of elevation and sectional drawing

- Pre-cast constructional elements

- Effect surface finishes on masonry

- Construct reinforced concrete or masonry structural parts

COURSE CONTENTS
PART ONE (CONSTRUCTION PRELIMINARIES)

 SITE INVESTIGATION
 SOIL INVESTIGATION
 SITE IMPROVEMENT METHODS
 SOIL STRENGTHENING OR REINFORCED SOIL
 DEWATERING

PART TWO (SUB STRUCTURE)

 SETTING OUT
 FOUNDATIONS
 RETAINING WALLS
 UNDERPINNING

PART THREE (SUPER STRUCTURE)

 FLOORS
 WALLS
 OPENNINGS
 PARTITIONS

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  WALL FINISHINGS (plastering, painting and tilling)
 ROOFING
 DRAINAGE
 THERMAL AND SOUND INSULLATION

PART FOUR (GENERAL TERMINOLOGY AND MATERIALS)

 CONCRETE
 MORTAR
 TIMBER
 STEEL
CHAPTER ONE (CONSTRUCTION PRELIMINARIES)

1.0 SITE INVESTIGATION

This is an all-embracing term covering every aspect of the site under investigation. As a matter
of fact, feasibility studies, planning, design and construction all requires reliable and relevant
data about the ground condition of the site.

Definition: site investigation can be defined as the overall process for the collection of
information, appraisal of data assessment and reporting.

Generally when doing site investigation, we seek to find out data concerning the following;

1. Knowledge of the general topography of the site as it affects foundation design and
construction, e.g., surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence of watercourses, ponds,
hedges, trees, rock outcrops, etc., and the available access for construction vehicles and
materials.
2. The location of buried utilities such as electric power and telephone cables, water mains, and
sewers.
3. The general geology of the area, with particular reference to the main geologic formations
underlying the site and the possibility of subsidence from mineral extraction or other causes.
4. The previous history and use of the site, including information on any defects or failures of
existing or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions.
5. Any special features such as the possibility of earthquakes or climate factors such as flooding,
seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, and soil erosion.
6. The availability and quality of local construction materials such as concrete aggregates,
building and road stone, and water for construction purposes.
7. For maritime or river structures, information on tidal ranges and river levels, velocity of tidal
and river currents, and other hydrographic and meteorological data.
8. A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions within the zones
affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operations, or of any deeper strata

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affecting the site conditions in any way.
9. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular foundation
design or construction problems.
10. Results of chemical analyses on soil or groundwater to determine possible deleterious effects
of foundation structures.
1.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION
Soil investigation can be defined as the process of carrying out physical testing of the ground on
the site to understand the ground conditions for geotechnical design (foundation, retaining walls
and soil improvement).
Specifically related to the subsoil beneath the site under investigation and could be part of or
separate from the site investigation.
1.1.1 Purpose of Soil Investigation
1. Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project.
2. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design.
3. Determine the difficulties which may arise during the construction process and period.
4. Determine the occurrence and/or cause of all changes in subsoil conditions.
The above purposes can usually be assessed by establishing the physical, chemical and general
characteristics of the subsoil by obtaining subsoil samples which should be taken from positions
on the site which are truly representative of the area but are not taken from the actual position of
the proposed foundations. A series of samples extracted at the intersection points of a 20 square
grid pattern should be adequate for most cases.
1.1.2 Soil Samples
These can be obtained as disturbed or as undisturbed samples.
a) Disturbed Soil Samples
These are soil samples obtained from bore holes and trial pits. The method of extraction disturbs
the natural structure of the subsoil but such samples are suitable for visual grading, establishing
the moisture content and some laboratory tests. Disturbed soil samples should be stored in
labeled airtight jars.
b) Undisturbed Soil Samples
These are soil samples obtained using coring tools which preserve the natural structure and
properties of the subsoil. The extracted undisturbed soil samples are labeled and laid in wooden
boxes for dispatch to a laboratory for testing. This method of obtaining soil samples is suitable
for rock and clay subsoils but difficulties can be experienced in trying to obtain
undisturbed soil samples in other types of subsoil. The test results of soil samples are usually
shown on a drawing which gives the location of each sample and the test results in the
form of a hatched legend or section.
1.1.3 Depth of Soil Investigation
Before determining the actual method of obtaining the required subsoil samples the depth to
which the soil investigation should be carried out must be established. This is usually based on
the following factors;

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1. Proposed foundation type.
2. Pressure bulb of proposed foundation.
3. Relationship of proposed foundation to other foundations.

1.1.4 Soil Investigation Methods

Method chosen will depend on several factors;
1. Size of contract.
2. Type of proposed foundation.
3. Type of sample required.
4. Type of sub soils which may be encountered. As a general guide the most suitable methods in
terms of investigation depth are;
1. Foundations up to 3m deep: trial pits.
2. Foundations up to 30m deep: borings.
3. Foundations over 30m deep: deep borings and in-situ examinations from tunnels and/or deep
pit

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a) Boring Methods to Obtain Disturbed Soil Samples
1. Hand or Mechanical Auger: suitable for depths up to 3 000 using a 150 or 200 mm diameter
flight auger.
2. Mechanical Auger: suitable for depths over 3 000 using a flight or Cheshire auger † a liner or
casing is required for most granular soils and may be required for other types of
subsoil.
3. Sampling Shells † suitable for shallow to medium depth borings in all sub soils except rock.

b) Mud-rotary Drilling

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This is a method which can be used for rock investigations where bentonite is pumped in a
continuous flow down hollow drilling rods to a rotating bit. The cutting bit is kept in contact with
the bore face and the debris is carried up the annular space by the circulating fluid. Core samples
can be obtained using coring tools.
c) Core Drilling
Water or compressed air is jetted down the bore hole through a hollow tube and returns via the
annular space. Coring tools extract continuous cores of rock samples which are sent in wooden
boxes for laboratory testing.
Bore Hole Data
the information obtained from trial pits or bore holes can be recorded on a pro forma sheet or on
a drawing showing the position and data from each trial pit or bore hole thus:-

Bore holes can be taken on a 15 to 20 grid covering the whole site or in isolated positions
relevant to the proposed foundation(s)

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As a general guide the cost of site and soil investigations should not exceed 1% of estimated
project costs.
1.1.5 Soil Assessment
Prior to designing the foundations for a building or structure the properties of the subsoil(s) must
be assessed. These processes can also be carried out to confirm the suitability of the proposed
foundations. Soil assessment can include classification, grading, tests to establish shear strength
and consolidation. The full range of methods for testing soils is given in BS 1377: Methods of
test for soils for civil engineering purposes.
1.1.6 Classification
Soils may be classified in many ways such as geological origin, physical properties, chemical
composition and particle size. It has been found that the particle size and physical properties of a
soil are closely linked and are therefore of particular importance and interest to a designer.
Particle Size Distribution ~ this is the percentages of the various particle sizes present in a soil
sample as determined by sieving or sedimentation. BS 1377 divides particle sizes into groups as
follows:-
Gravel particles: over 2 mm
Sand particles: between 2 mm and 0. 06 mm
Silt particles: between 0. 06 mm and 0. 002 mm
Clay particles: less than 0.002 mm
The sand and silt classifications can be further divided thus:-

Typical Results showing compression strengths of clays:-

Very soft clay: less than 25 kN/m2
Soft clay : 25 to 50 kN/m2
Medium clay : 50 to 100 kN/m2
Stiff clay : 100 to 200 kN/m2
Very stiff clay : 200 to 400 kN/m2
Hard clay : more than 400 kN/m2
NB. The shear strength of clay soils is only half of the compression strength values given above.

1.2 SITE IMPROVEMENT METHODS

If the expected settlement for a proposed structure is too large, then different foundation support
or soil stabilization options must be evaluated. As discussed one alternative is a deep foundation
system that can transfer structural loads to adequate bearing soil in order to bypass a
compressible soil layer.

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Another option is to construct a floating foundation, which is a special type of deep foundation
where the weight of the structure is balanced by the removal of soil and construction of an
underground basement. Other alternatives include site improvement methods, such as the
following:
1.2.1 Soil Replacement. As indicated in the table above, there are basically two types of soil
replacement methods:
- Removal and replacement,
-Displacement.
The first is the most common approach and consists of the removal of the compressible soil layer
and replacement with structural fill during the grading operations. Usually the remove and
replace grading option is economical only if the compressible soil layer is near the ground
surface and the groundwater table is below the compressible soil layer or the groundwater table
can be economically lowered.
1.2.2 Water Removal. There are several different types of water removal site improvement
techniques. If the site contains an underlying compressible cohesive soil layer, the site can be
surcharged with a fill layer placed at ground surface. Vertical drains (such as wick drains or sand
drains) can be installed in the compressible soil layer to reduce the drainage path and speed up
the consolidation process. Once the compressible cohesive soil layer has had sufficient
consolidation, the fill surcharge layer is removed and the building is constructed.
1.3 SOIL STRENGTHENING OR REINFORCED SOIL
Many different methods can be used to strengthen the construction site soil. For example, deep
vibratory techniques are often used to increase the density of loose sand deposits.
1.3.1 Grouting.
In order to stabilize the ground, fluid grout can be injected into the ground to fill in joints,
fractures, or underground voids. For the releveling of existing structures, one option is
mudjacking, which has been defined as a process whereby a water and soil-cement or soil-lime
cement grout is pumped beneath the slab, under pressure, to produce a lifting force that literally
floats the slab to the desired position.
Another commonly used site improvement technique is compaction grouting, which consists of
intruding a mass of very thick consistency grout into the soil, which both displaces and
compacts the loose soil. Compaction grouting has proved successful in increasing the density of
poorly compacted fill, alluvium, and compressible or collapsible soil. The advantages of
compaction grouting are that;

- It is less expensive
-It provide less disturbance to the structure than foundation underpinning
-It can be used to relevel the structure.
The disadvantages are that;

-Analyzing the results is difficult,

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-It is usually ineffective near slopes or for near-surface soils because of the lack of confining
pressure,
-The danger that exists in filling underground pipes with grout.

1.3.2 Thermal.

As indicated in the table above, the thermal site improvement method consists of either heating
or freezing the soil in order to improve its shear strength and reduce its permeability. The Figure
below presents a summary of site-improvement methods as a function of soil grain size.

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1.4 DEWATERING

Dewatering can be defined as the process of excluding water in a site where construction work is
be carried out.

1.4.1Classification of Water

Water can be classified by its relative position to or within the ground thus †

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1.4.2 Methods of Dewatering

a) Permanent Exclusion: this can be defined as the insertion of an impermeable barrier to stop
the flow of water within the ground.
b) Temporary Exclusion: this can be defined as the lowering of the water table and within the
economic depth range of 1.500 can be achieved by subsoil drainage methods, for deeper

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treatment a pump or pumps are usually involved.
Simple Sump Pumping ~ suitable for trench work and/or where small volumes of water are
involved.

Jetted Sumps

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This method achieves the same objectives as the simple sump methods of dewatering (previous
page) but it will prevent the soil movement associated with this and other open sump methods. A
borehole is formed in the subsoil by jetting a metal tube into the ground by means of pressurized
water, to a depth within the maximum suction lift of the extract pump. The metal tube is
withdrawn to leave a void for placing a disposable WellPoint and plastic suction pipe. The area
surrounding the pipe is filled with coarse sand to function as a filtering media.

Wellpoint Systems

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This is a Method of lowering the water table to a position below the formation level to give a dry
working area. The basic principle is to jet into the subsoil a series of wellpoints which are
connected to a common header pipe which is connected to a vacuum pump. Wellpoint systems
are suitable for most subsoil’s and can encircle an excavation or be laid progressively alongside
as in the case of a trench excavation. If the proposed formation level is below the suction lift
capacity of the pump a multi-stage system can be employed † see next page.

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Thin Grouted Membranes

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These are permanent curtain or cut-off non-structural walls or barriers inserted in the ground to
enclose the proposed excavation area. They are suitable for silts and sands and can be installed
rapidly but they must be adequately supported by earth on both sides. The only limitation is the
depth to which the formers can be driven and extracted.

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