DESIGN Bs.Race Car Design Derek Seward Emeritus Professor of Engineering Design Department of Engineering Lancaster University Fase Palgrave CamScanner© Derek Seward 2014 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission, No portion ofthis publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accardance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kitby Street, London ECIN BTS. [Any person who does any unauthorized actin relation to this publication ‘may be liable to criminal prosecution and dv claims for damages, The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author ofthis work In accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1388. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE Palgrave in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street, London N1 9xW. Palgrave Macmillan in the US Isa division of St Martin's Press LLC, 1175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, Palgrave ls the glabal Imprint of the above companies throughout the world dis represented Palgrave? and Macrrillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978-1-137-03014-6 paperback This book I printed on paper suitable far recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging. pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to canform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. ‘A catalogue record fr this book i avallable from the British Library. ‘catalog record for this book is avallable from the Library of Congress. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Lavenham Press Lt, Lavanham, Sufflic CamScannerContents Preface Symbols Acknowledgements Racing car basics Chassis structure Suspension links Springs, dampers and anti-roll ‘Tyres and balance Front wheel assembly and steering Rear wheel assembly and power transmission Brakes Aerodynamics Engine systems Set-up and testing Appendix 1: Deriving Pacejka tyre coefficients Appendix 2: Tube properties Glossary of automotive terms References Index ug 154 176 193 201 227 2aL 250 262 265 269 27 CamScannerasseKas) The aim of this book is to explain the fundamentals of racing car design using the basic principles of engineering science and elementary mathematics There is already an extensive list of books that purport to explain this topic. However, with a few honourable exceptions, they tend to fall into one of two camps: either they deal with a highly theoretical and narrow aspect of the subject in a very mathematical way and contain litde practical design guid- ance, or they are written by enthusiastic drivers or constructors who resort to formulas or ‘rules of thumb’ gained through experience, without proper explanation of the underlying theory. Hopefully this book avoids both of these pitfalls by aiming at a deeper understanding of the principles and avoid- ance of the ‘black art’ approach to design. That is not to say that we fully understand every aspect of topics such as tyre/road interaction or aerody- namics, Theory can only take us so far. Even the best designs will require optimisation on the track or in the wind tunnel where the car is tuned to meet the detailed requirements of the specific circuit, driver, tyre compound and weather conditions. The objective of the initial design is therefore to produce a robust solution which is close enough to optimum, so that it can be readily tuned to a wide range of specific conditions. This book is intended for students on motorsport degree courses, those involved in Formula Student/FSAE and practising car designers and construc- tors. It will also be of interest to racing drivers and the general reader who is interested in understanding why racing cars are the way they are and why they perform so much better than normal cars on the track. The book is based on the principles of engineering science, physics and mathematics, and hence some previous knowledge of these subjects is required, but only at a rela~ tively elementary level. The book covers the design of most elements of a car including the chassis frame, suspension, steering, brakes, transmission, lubri- cation and fuel systems; however the internal components of such elements as the engine, gearbox and differential are beyond the scope of this short text. Where relevant, emphasis is placed on the important role that computer tools, play in the modern design process. In many ways the design process for a racing car is much simpler than that for a conventional passenger car because the racing car has a highly focused mission to propel a driver around a circuit in the shortest time possible (A passenger car, on the other hand, has a wider remit. It must cope with a varying range of loads from people and luggage, be easy and safe to drive and be comfortable and economical.) The narrow focus of the racing car enables CamScannerthe designer to concentrate almost exclusively on performance issues. The racing car design process can be described as a highly multi-variable problem and inevitably the solution of such problems involves compromise and trade- offs between competing objectives. Resolving these design conflicts presents the skilled designer with the greatest challenges (and pleasure) The companion website link to this book can be found at www.palgrave.com/companion/Seward-Race-Car-Design DEREK SEWARD Note on glossary terms: The first main use of each glossary term is shown in bold, itatic typeface in the text. The glossary is located on pages 265-268. ‘Note on ‘plates: The ‘plates’ referred to throughout the text are located between pages 54 and 5S. Preface CamScannervi This list does not include Pacejka tyre model symbols which are defned in the text. A A 4 cross-sectional area (mm?); amplitude (mm) brake master-cylinder piston area (mm?) brake slave-cylinder piston area (total on one side) (ram?) acceleration (m/s?) damping coefficient; roll couple (Nm) critical damping coefficient drag coefficient lift coefficient bearing basic load rating (kN) bearing dynamic load rating (kN) diameter (mm); downforce (N) modulus of elasticity (N/mm?) force (N) lateral load transfer at wheel from roll couple (N) frequency (Hz) sprung mass natural frequency (Ez) unsprung mass natural frequency (Hz) maximum number of g forces; shear modulus (N/mm?) acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s* horizontal component of force (N) height (mm) distance from sprung mass to roll axis (mra) second moment of area (mm) suspension ride rate (N/mm) tyre stiffness (N/mm) wheel centre stiffness rate (N/mm) wheelbase (mm) length (mm) moment or couple (Nmm) roll couple (Nmm) mass (kg) power (W) absolute pressure (N/mm?) Euler buckling load (N) a Ane Fi 3 A g in np DTS RETOUR RATE TER Me CamScanneros Bp mee gen goraNnss.sk 78H eur bearing mean equivalent dynamicload (kN) ‘maximum radial load on bearing (KN) radius of curve (mn) motion ratio rolling radius of tyre (mm) Reynold’s number brake pad radius (mm) distance travelled (m) >earing static safety factor ‘wheel track width (mm); torque (Nm) absolute temperature (°C) pneumatic trail (nam); time (3) initial velocity (mm/s) volume (m*) velocity (ra/s) weight or wheel loads (N) elastic section modulus (mm°) tyre slip angle (deg or rad) displacement (mm) wheel displacement from roll (ram) damping ratio angle (deg) voll angle (rad) coefficient of friction; viscosity (Pa sec) density (kg/m*) wheel camber angle (deg) Symbols CamScannerAcknowledgements The publisher and author would like to thank the organisations and people listed below for permission to reproduce material from their publications: = Avon Tyres Motorsport for permission to reproduce the graphs in Figures 5.8a, 5.8b, Al and A14 (adapted by the author). = Avon Tyres Motorsport for permission to reproduce the data in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 and the ‘Avon column’ in Table A1.3. 1 Caterham Fl Team for permission to reproduce the photogeaphs in Figures 3.20, 5.17 and 91. m= Mike Pilbeam for permission to reproduce the photograph in Figure 2.11, which was taken by Rick Wilson of Redline Design. The publisher and author would like to acknowledge the companies listed below for the use of their software: m= Figure 10.6 uses software under licence from DTAfast. m Figures 1.2 and 1.21 use software under licence from ETB Instruments Ltd. — DigiTools Software. m Figures 2.3a-c, 2.62-b, 2.9, 2.14, 2.15a-c, 3.19 and Plates 1, 2, 3 and 5 use software under licence from LISA. = Figure 10.3 uses software under licence from Lotus Engineering, Norfolk, England. m Figures 1.3, 5.15, 5.16, Table 6.1, Figures 7.2, 7.4, 7.5, Al.2 and ALS use Excel® under licence from Microsoft”. The following figures use Visio® under licence from Microsoft®: Figures 14, 1.2, 1.4, 15, 1.6, 18, 19,110, 1.11, 112, 113,114, 1.15, 116,117, 1.18, 119, 1.20, L.21, 122, 1.28, 1.24, lac, 2.2, 23a-c, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6a-b, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 212a-b, 2.13a-b, 2.17, 2.18, 3.2, 3.5, 3.8a-c, 3.9, 3.10, BL, 3.12, 3.13, 4.8, 4.4, 4.7, 4.8, 492-¢ 4.10, 4.18, Sled, §.2a-b, 5.3, 9.4, 55, 5.6, 5.7, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13, 5.14, 5.18, 6.2, 6.4, 6.5, 66, 6.7, 6.8, 7.3, 7.6, 8.3, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6a-b, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 10.2, 10.4, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9 and 11.1. vil CamScannerAcknowledgements The following figures use software under licence from SketchUp: Figures 1.4, 1.5, 16, 1.8, 19, 1.10, 112, 113, 115, 116, 1.17, 1.22, 1.23, 2.8, 3.Ba-c, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.18, Sla-d, 5.2a-b, 6.5, 6.6, 83, 9.2, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 910 and 11.1, Plates 6 and 7 use software under licence from SolidWorks. The following figures and plate use software under licence from SusProg: Figures 3.1a—d, 3.3a-b, 3.4a-c, 3.6a-b, 3.7a-b, 3.14a-d, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, 6.9 and Plate 4. The following figures use ViaCAD software under licence fom Punch!CAD: Figures 2.1a-c, 2.2, 23a-c, 2.4, 25, 2.7, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 212a-b, 2:18a-b, 4.5, 46, 411a-d, 4.12, 59, 6.3, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 614a-b, 6.152-b, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10a-b, 8.1 and 10.1. CamScannerThis page intentionally left blank CamScanner1 Bee lotelemectaey tsa LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this chapter: = You will understand the basic elements of car racing = You will be able to calculate the varying loads on the wheels of a racing car as it accelerates, brakes and comers, and appreciate how these loads are influenced by aerodynamic downforce = You will be able to identify some important design objectives for a successful racing car 1.1 Introduction This chapter introduces many of the key concepts that must be grasped to obtain a good understanding of racing car design. It also contains signposts to later chapters where topics are covered in more depth. By its nature, racing is a highly competitive activity and the job of the designer is to provide the driver with the best possible car that hopefully has a competitive advantage To do this we need answers to the following questions: What does a racing car have to do? What is the best basic layout of a car for achieving what it has to do? How can the car be optimised to perform better than the competition? What loads and stresses is the car subjected to, and how can it be made adequately safe and robust? . . . . This chapter will start to provide some of the answers to these questions. 1.2 The elements of racing Motor racing can take many forms ranging from short hill climbs and sprints, where the driver competes against the clock, to conventional head- to-head cirenit racing such as Formula 1 and IndyCar; however there are common elements to all forms. In general the aim of all racing is to cover a particular piece of road or circuit in the shortest possible time. To do this the driver must do three things: CamScannerRace car design Figure 1.1 Brands Hatch circuit, UK m Accelerate the car to the fastest possible speed. m= Brake the car as late as possible over the minimum possible distance. = Go round comers in the minimum time and, more importantly, emerge from corners carrying the maximum possible velocity so that a speed advantage is carried over the ensuing straight. From the above it can be seen that the competitive driver wil spend virtually no time ‘cruising’ at constant velocity. The only time this will occur is either queuing in traffic or flat-out on a long straight. Also, of course, the skilled driver may combine these basic elements by ‘accelerating out of a comer’ or ‘braking into a corner’ This is illustrated in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 which show the layout of a circuit together with a plot of speed data for one lap. The labels indicate matching points on both figures. Note that the slope of the curve in Figure 1.2 is steeper during braking than during acceleration. This is for three reasons firstly, at faster speeds the zate of acceleration is limited by the power of the engine; secondly, braking uses the grip from all four wheels whereas, in this case, acceleration uses only rear wheel grip; thirdly, at fast speeds, the car develops significant aerodynamic drag forces which assist braking but impede acceleration. Dingle Det! Stiting’s Bend Hawthom Hit wiateae Clark Curve Hawthom Bend Brabham ‘Straight Paddock Hill Bend ‘The three basic elements of racing all involve a form of acceleration or change in velocity. In the case of cornering this is lateral acceleration and braking can be considered to be negative acceleration. We know from Newton's first law of motion that: ‘An object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an external force.’ CamScannerChapter 1 Radi —) ‘ ? z \ * * 70 Cy cy Ey Ey Consequently in order to accelerate or change direction, the car must be subject to an external force and the principal source of such a force is at the interface between the tyres and the road ~ known as the tyre contact patch, (Clearly external aerodynamic forces also exist and these will be considered later.) Thus it can be concluded that the ability of a car to accelerate, brake and change direction depends upon the frictional force developed between the rubber tyre and the road surface. This force is normally referred to as, traction or grip and its maximisation is an important design criterion for a competitive car. Classical, ox Coulomb, friction has a simple linear relationship between the applied normal load and a constant coefficient of friction, ut (mu) Friction force = normal load x ‘As we shall see when we look at tyre mechanics in more detail later, the contact patch between a tyre and the road does not follow this simple law. Figure 1.3 shows the relationship between vertical wheel load and maximum lateral grip for a typical racing tyre and compares it to simple Coulomb fric- tion with p= 1 dashed line) ‘We will see later that the lack of linearity (. the coefficient of friction not being constant) provides a powerful means by which a car’s handling is tuned for peak performance, It can be concluded from Figure 1.3 that: a As the vertical load is increased on the wheel, the grip increases, but at a progressively slower rate. This is known as tyre sensitivity. car basics Figure 1.2 Brands Hatch speed data (produced with ETB Instruments Ltd — DigiTools Software) CamScannerRace car design Figure 1.3 ‘Typical racing tyre grip (N) Max tyre ° ee ee ee) Vertical wheel load (N) = Eventually the level of grip peaks, and then starts to fall with increasing wheel load. The tyre has become overloaded. = The value of grip divided by vertical wheel load at a specific point in Figure 1.3 can be considered to be an instantaneous coefficient of friction. It is dear that knowledge of the normal force at each tyre contact patch — ie. the individual vertical wheel loads ~ is vital for many aspects of racing car design. They are used to determine the loads in the chassis, brake components, suspension members, transmission etc., as well as for tuning the fundamental handling and balance of the car. We will lock at static wheel loads and then see how they change when the car is subjected to the three elements of racing — braking, acceleration and cornering. First it is necessary to deter- mine the position of the car's centre of mass which is often referved to as the centre of gravity. The centre of mass is the point where all of the mass can be considered to be concentrated. Knowledge of its location is important to car designers as this determines the weight distribution between the front and rear wheels. Also the height of the centre of mass above the ground influences the degree to which the car rolls on corners as well as the amount of weight that transfers between the wheels during braking, acceleration and cornering, 1.3. Position of centre of mass of a vehicle Ar the preliminary design stage itis necessary to estimate the centre of mass of each major component as it is added to the scheme. The final positional relationship between the components and the wheels can then be adjusted to achieve the desired front/ear weight distribution. To illustrate the process, Figure 1.4 shows just a couple of components, together with distances from their individual centres of mass to a common point, In this case the common point is the front contact patch, x. CamScannerChapter 1 Racing car basics Figure 1.4 Calculating the position of the centre of mass Centre of combined mass ‘The magnitude (m) and location (1,4) of the centre of mass of each indi- vidual component is either measured or estimated. The objective is to find the value of the combined mass, m,, and its location relative to the common point, J, and h,, The combined mass is simply the sum of the individual components. For a total of n number components, this is shown mathematically as: rig, = Elon + my + ..m,) 1. ‘The location of the combined centre of mass is given by: lem + mgly + gh) Moy Zlrmyh + mf, + mh) m 12) (1.3) ‘The above process simply ensures that the combined mass of the compo- nents exerts the same moment about the front contact patch as the sum of all the individual components EXAMPLE 1.1 The following data is velevant to the two components shown in Figure 14. Determine the magnitude and location of the combined centre of mass Item Mass Horiz. dist. fromx Vert. dist. from ground (kg) (mm) (mm) Engine 120 2100 245 Driver 75 1080 355 Solution From equation [1.1] Combined mass, m,, = 120 +75 = 195kg From equation [1.2] Horiz, distance to __ (120 x 2100) + (75 x 1080) combined mass, |, ~ Tos = 1708mm CamScanner