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Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 Pole Changing Breaker.
Fig. 22 shows a diagram of a pole changing contact breaker which
will allow of rapid alternations of current. It is operated by an
electric motor by preference, although any motive power can be
applied to it.

Fig. 22.

W a W b are two brass wheels, the peripheries of which are broken

by the insertion of insulating blocks I I, shown black in the sketch. S
S are the shafts on which the wheels are mounted, the two wheels
being necessarily insulated from each other. 1, 2, 3, 4 are four
brushes of copper pressing on the rim of the wheel and leading in
the current from the battery B. The primary coil is attached to the
brass body of the wheel or to the shafts. When the wheel is in the
position shown, the coil and battery are on an open circuit; but on
the wheel commencing to revolve, the brushes 1 and 2 bear on the
brass, and the current flows from the positive pole of the battery to
2 through the wheel W a to the coil P, up through wheel W b and
out at 1 back to the battery. The next position of the brushes 1 and
2 will be on the insulations, and 3 and 4 will come into action. Then
the positive current will reach W b by means of brush 3, and after
traversing the primary coil and wheel W a, emerge at 4 to the
battery, thus reversing the current through P as many times as there
are sets of segments, which latter can be multiplied according to
requirements. The main point to be considered after that of good
connections is that the brushes 1 and 3 and 2 and 4 do not at any
time touch any part of the brass wheel at the same time, as this
would short circuit the battery. This is avoided by making the
insulating space longer than the brass surface, and adjusting the
brushes as in the sketch, that each pair of them is a fraction further
apart than the length of the brass tooth.
Accordingly, a wheel may be constructed with many segments and
rotated at a high speed and rapid reversals of current produced, the
uses of which are manifold.
As will be described in the notes on the Tesla effects, an electro-
magnet, the poles of which are brought near the sparking point of
the contact breaker, will help wipe out the spark, and so assist the
suddenness of the break.
An extremely successful expedient in operating contact breakers is
to employ a high-pressure air blast directed point blank against the
contact point. The effect of this air blast when the contact is made is
of course null, but on the platinum surfaces becoming separated, the
high air pressure produced forms a path of extremely high
resistance, and tends to blow off the spark as soon as it is
generated. The stream of air should issue from an insulated nozzle
of glass or rubber, and should not contain moisture.

Wehnelt Interrupter.
One of the most important inventions in coil work is the electrolytic
interrupter of Wehnelt. Briefly, the apparatus consists of a vessel
containing a solution of acid, into which dip two electrodes
connected in series with the source of power and the primary of the
coil. Upon passing a current through the combination the fluid
becomes agitated at the electrodes and a rapid make and break of
the current ensues (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23.

It requires considerable electromotive force for operation, a

minimum of 40 volts being desirable. Its rapidity of action varies up
to and at times exceeding 4000 interruptions per second. A Wehnelt
interrupter can be made as follows: Procure a glass jar J holding
about one quart or a little less, also a cover for same C, a piece of
sheet lead L large enough to fit loosely across the jar and yet not
touch the bottom, eight inches of one-quarter-inch glass tube M, a
few inches of No. 20 platinum wire P, and two ounces of mercury.
Heat the end of the glass tube in a gas flame, and bend an inch or
less at a right angle; at the same time seal in the platinum wire by
means of a blowpipe, so that the tip just projects from the bent end
of the tube. This sealing can be accomplished readily by one unused
to working glass, but almost any philosophical instrument maker will
have it done at small cost. Holes being bored through the cover, the
lead plate and the glass tube are fitted in, the platinum point almost
touching the lead. Adjustment is, however, easy, as the tube, being
turned, will retract or advance the platinum point from or towards
the lead electrode. Nearly fill the jar with a solution composed of
one part sulphuric acid to eight parts water, and fill up the glass tube
with mercury. The connections can then be made by means of a
clamp on the lead and a wire dipping into the mercury. Connect the
lead plate L to one pole of the battery or source of energy, and the
platinum-mercury electrode F to one post of primary. The other side
of battery and coil being closed, the apparatus will begin to work. No
condenser is needed with this interrupter.

Dessauer Contact Breaker.

This is a modification of the spring hammer-head type, but has a
platinum contact on both sides of the spring. It thus obtains double
vibrations, but is liable to stick. The elasticity of the spring normally
prevents the circuit remaining closed on the forward movement of
the hammer head, but this combination requires attention.

Steel Ribbon Interrupter.

For light currents and rapid vibrations, such as are employed in
electrotherapy, the steel ribbon interrupter is suitable. It consists of
a steel ribbon V one-half inch wide by six or eight inches long and
the thickness of a stout visiting-card. Near the end is riveted a
platinum contact. One end of the ribbon is held by a brass upright R,
to which connection is made to circuit; the other end is riveted to a
threaded rod, which passes through a brass pillar, and is held by a
thumb-screw and check nut S. Turning the thumb-screw either way
tightens or loosens the ribbon and so raises or lowers the rate of
vibration (Fig. 24).
 Contact Breakers in Vacuo.
Contact breakers in vacuo, as applied to Ruhmkorff coils, are by no
means of recent date. Poggendorff made use of such prior to 1859,
and noted the diminished sparking at the contact breaker and
increased effect in the secondary circuit.

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

Mr. D. McFarlan Moore, whose experiments in vacuum tube lighting

have proven so interesting, was granted patents upon various forms
of contact breakers, in which the chief merit was that the contacts
were broken in a vacuum. The sparking was almost eliminated, and
the suddenness of the break of contact so accentuated as to
materially improve the output of an induction coil. A perusal of his
patents, copies of which may be procured through almost any
bookseller, will prove profitable to the coil constructor.

Queen Contact Breaker.

The most important advantage of this arrangement is the abrupt
break, owing to a collar in the vibrator striking a movable contact
while at full speed. Reference to Fig. 25 will show that the movable
platinum contact is carried on a small vertical spring behind the
vibrator spring, and projects through a collar on the vibrator spring.
When the contact is made, the movement of the vibrator is not
arrested, but continues at its full amplitude, thus allowing a long
"make." The vibrator is kept moving at a constant amplitude by
means of the small coil shown in the illustration, which is in shunt
with the main circuit. In the old forms there has always been a
liability of the platinum contacts sticking (or welding together). In
the new form, as the break is made when the vibrator is in the
middle of its swing, the sudden blow with the entire momentum of
the iron hammer head is always sufficient to break the platinums
apart. This form of contact breaker is very efficient on electric-light
circuits, and operates with the utmost regularity.

The Queen Contact Breaker for Large Coils.

This is a device where the actual break is made in alcohol between
large studs of platinum nearly one-quarter inch in diameter. The
bottom contact can be raised or lowered by means of an adjusting
screw. The top contact is secured into the bottom end of a rod
passing down a guide tube into the alcohol to meet the lower
contact. By means of an electric motor and a cam motion, the top
contact and plunger are made to work up and down in the alcohol,
thus making and breaking the current flow. One of the
commendable features of this contact breaker is that the platinum
studs are caused to revolve while in operation, thus presenting new
faces to each other after each blow. The apparatus is not adapted
for rapid action, but for the handling of heavy currents.
Adjustable Contact Breaker for Medical Coils.
An adjustable contact breaker for medical coils is shown in Fig. 26.
M M are the magnet coils, A is the armature, carrying a platinum
contact, which vibrates against the adjusting screw P. The armature
is pivoted at J, but is held at a distance from the magnets by the
springs S S. The other end of the armature carries a ball B, which
can be slid up and down on the rod and set at any point by a set-
screw. When the ball is at the end of the armature rod most remote
from the magnets, the vibrations are slowest; when moved towards
the magnets, the vibrations become more rapid. Adjustment of the
two springs S S at R R enables the contact breaker to operate on
varying current strength, and also tends to lessen the jerkiness of
gravity contact breakers. A flat spring, however, can be substituted
for the spiral springs, in which case the pivot would be dispensed
with and the spring riveted, as in the hammer form of vibrator. The
illustration shows this arranged for a wall board, but it can readily be
adapted for table work.
 Fig. 26.

Adjustable Cone Vibrator.

Fig. 27 shows a form of contact breaker much used in portable
medical coils for slow speeds. It consists of a cone of iron H,
mounted on the vibrator spring, and furnished with adjustable
contact spring and screw A. Its amplitude of vibration is limited by
the two pins mounted on the disc, between which the cone vibrates.
The disc is turned by hand, thus moving the pins, and so varying the
travel of the cone H to and from the core C. It does not give good
results from the fact that the rhythmical movements are disturbed
every time the cone strikes against the pins, also at the contact
spring striking the contact screw. As we showed before, a really
satisfactory contact breaker should have a spring, which allows of no
sinusoidal movement. Where a pivoted armature is governed by a
spiral spring, the result is a series of steady, rhythmical shocks,
provided the adjustments are satisfactory.
 Fig. 27.

Coil Head Contact Breaker.

Fig. 28 shows the details of a contact breaker to be attached to the
coil head direct. It is often used on very small coils, which, together
with a miniature dry cell, is slipped into a pocket case. An important
detail in small coils is to use a contact breaker of sufficient size. Most
of them are not large enough to stand ordinary usage, the adjusting
screw is not of sufficient diameter and the thread soon strips. There
is no reason why the adjusting screw, its platinum tip, and the pillar
or lug which holds it should not be solidly built, it would certainly
require less adjustment. Either single or double check-nuts can be
fitted to the adjustment screws of nearly all the forms of contact
breakers described.
 Fig. 28.

Contacts.
It is absolutely essential that the diameter of contacts for all contact
breakers should be as large as possible and their faces filed truly
parallel to enable them to easily carry all the current required. One
of the main causes of failure of coil is burning of the platinum point
and platinum burr, the current being then materially reduced. Large
sparks at point of rupture are often indications that the condenser is
not working properly—perhaps has broken down or is not large
enough. The contacts will sometimes fuse together; at any rate, the
excessive sparking is an evidence of waste as much as in a dynamo
generator.
The adjustable method of arranging condensers (see Chapter IV.) is
here of great value, but it is easy to attach more condenser sections
to the contact screw pillar and vibrator pillar and notice result. In the
construction of Ruhmkorff coils it is a good plan to make all
connections possible on the coil base, instead of inside the
condenser chamber. This is done either by means of rubber-covered
wires or neat strips of brass, screwed down on the base from points
of connection, and, of course, carefully bent over or well insulated
from all other leads which they have to cross.
The best makers of induction coils construct their instruments so
that they can be readily taken apart with as little detachment of
connections as possible.
 CHAPTER III.
INSULATIONS AND CEMENTS.

In selecting an insulating compound for apparatus designed to be

under the influence of high tension currents, a glance at some of the
peculiarities of such currents will not be out of place. Mineral oil is
used in many of the converters employed to transform the high
voltage currents on the mains of the alternating electric-light
systems to the comparatively low voltage used at the points of
consumption. Professor Elihu Thomson, in a series of experiments,
noticed some interesting facts in the sparking distances of high
potentials in oils.
He found that discharges of low frequencies, as 125 alternations per
second, were capable of puncturing mineral oils at one third to one
half the thickness of an air layer sufficient to just resist punctures by
the same discharge; but with frequencies of 50,000 to 100,000 per
second, an oil thickness of one thirtieth to one sixtieth was a
sufficient barrier.
At a frequency of 125 per second, a half-inch spark in the air
penetrated one third to one fourth inch of oil; but at frequencies of
50,000 to 100,000 per second, a layer of oil one fourth of an inch
successfully resisted the passage of a spark which freely passed
through 8 inches of air.
The effect of drying an oil improved its insulating qualities. (Tesla
uses boiled-out linseed-oil.)
He also noted that pointed electrodes could be brought nearer
together under oil than balls without allowing a discharge. Flat
plates allowed of still greater sparking distances. Tesla notes that oil
through which sparks have passed must be discarded, probably
owing to particles of carbon being formed.
Paraffin wax has a higher resistance than oil, providing it has not
been heated over 135° C. It will stand alternate heating up to 100°
C. and cooling, being of lower resistance when hot than when cold.
But a serious permanent deterioration takes place when it has been
heated over 100°C.; its color, from the normal pure white, changes
to a yellowish tint when its insulation is impaired. Paraffin also
undergoes a deterioration when heated for a long time even at 100°
C., and should never be used for fine work when it is at all yellow. It
is always best to melt it in a hot-water bath, not permitting,
however, any steam or moisture to come near it. In this climate
(United States) it is not so necessary to mix in any tallow to obviate
brittleness, the average temperature of most workshops being
sufficiently high to keep it from becoming brittle.
Resin oils do not suffer permanent injury from being heated, as does
paraffin, but their insulating properties diminish much more rapidly
on becoming even warm, the initial resistance of resin oils being
lower than that of paraffin.
Paraffin has a fault—its tendency to absorb a slight degree of
moisture. It has been found in telephone and telegraph cables
saturated with paraffin that this is a very important cause of their
deterioration. In Ruhmkorff coils, however, which are intended for
operation in enclosed places free from damp atmospheres, the
absorption of moisture would be probably reduced to its minimum.
There is one substance which, were it not for its cost, would be far
preferable to paraffin for coil work, and that is beeswax. Its cost,
however, is generally five times that of paraffin, even when
purchased in quantities. It never becomes brittle enough to be
damaged in careful handling, its melting point is low, and it does not
absorb moisture. But it must be unquestionably pure and clear.
In foreign practice a variety of resinous mixtures are used to insulate
the turns of the wire in Ruhmkorff coils.
Equal parts of resin and beeswax used hot, paraffin, resin and
tallow, and shellac and resin are employed.
Shellac—that is, the yellow lac—is much used as a varnish for
electrical instruments, being dissolved in alcohol to saturation. For
dynamo armatures and similar apparatus the shellac varnish is of
great service, and many good compounds of shellac, such as insullac
and armalac, have been prepared for ready use. But (excluding
beeswax) for our purposes paraffin stands pre-eminently at the head
of the list.
In using shellac varnish, in high tension work more particularly, care
must be taken that the moisture has entirely evaporated. Although a
piece of shellacked apparatus may appear perfectly dry, yet when
the current is allowed to flow unlooked-for results may appear—it
takes hours in a dry atmosphere for shellac varnish to dry. Baking
the apparatus in a warm oven is a necessary expedient whenever
feasible, care being taken not to burn or decompose the shellac. The
proportions most generally used are 1 ounce shellac to 5 ounces
alcohol. Stand the vessel containing the mixture in a warm place,
and shake it frequently; filtration improves the varnish somewhat.
A ready and efficient varnish for silk is prepared by mixing 6 ounces
of boiled linseed-oil and 2 ounces of rectified spirits of turpentine.
For paper, 1 part of Canada balsam and 2 parts of spirits of
turpentine dissolved in a warm place and filtered before being used.
A good insulating cement for Leyden jars and insulating stands is
prepared from sulphur, 100 parts; tallow, 2 parts, and resin, 2 parts,
melted together until of the consistence of syrup, and sufficient
powdered glass added to make a paste. To be heated when applied,
this will resist most acids. The resin and beeswax compound is
handy when making experimental mercurial air pumps of glass
tubes, as it has a fair tenacity, is not too brittle, and is easily used.
 CHAPTER IV.
CONDENSERS.

A condenser is an apparatus whereby a charge of electrical energy

may be temporarily stored, the amount of energy it will hold
determining its "capacity." The capacity of a condenser is measured
in micro-farads, the commercial unit representing one millionth of a
farad. A farad equals the capacity of a body raised to the potential of
one volt by a charge of one ampere for one second at one volt—i.e.
= one coulomb.
The measurement of the capacity of a condenser is accomplished by
the use of a ballistic galvanometer. The latter instrument has a bell-
shaped magnet suspended in a coil of fine wire. When a momentary
current is passed through this coil the magnet hardly commences to
rotate until the current has practically ceased. A beam of light is
reflected from a mirror fixed to the magnet on to a scale. The
degree of deflection is compared with that obtained by the discharge
of a condenser of known capacity, and the capacity of the condenser
being measured is deduced by a simple rule. The farad, which is the
unit of capacity requiring a condenser of an immense size, is
replaced by a commercial unit, the micro-farad—that is, one
millionth of a farad.
The original form of the condenser was the Leyden jar, which owes
its name from the town of Leyden in Europe.
The Leyden jar is made as follows (Fig. 29): A clean uncracked glass
jar with a wide mouth is coated on the inside and outside with
tinfoil; sometimes loose tinfoil is filled inside, the tinfoil, however, not
reaching more than two thirds of the jar's length from the bottom. A
cork is fitted, and through the middle of it a wire is passed touching
the inside coating of tinfoil and terminating in a metal sphere
 outside. A simple Leyden jar can be made in a
few moments by half filling a glass bottle with
water and wetting the lower half of the outside; a
wire run through the cork into the water finishes
the job. But this is at least only a makeshift,
although a fair amount of current has been
collected from a leather engine belt in motion in
one thus made.
A condenser can be easily made as follows (Fig.
30):
Procure a clear glass plate, G,
free from flaws, 11 inches
square by 3/33∕32 inch thick.
Fig. 29.
Give this a good coating of
shellac varnish all over, sides
and edges. Cut out of smooth tinfoil two sheets,
Fig. 30.
T, 8 inches square, and round off the corners
with a pair of shears. There must be no sharp
corners, projections, or angles to induce leakage. Lay the glass plate
on a sheet of paper, and mark its outline thereon with a pencil; then
remove it and substitute a sheet of the tinfoil, and mark that. This
will enable you to centre the foil. Give one side of the glass plate
another coat of varnish, and so lay it on the paper that its outline
coincides with the pencil outline. When the varnish has partly dried
take a sheet of the trimmed foil, and by observing the pencilled
marks you can lay it on the varnished plate exactly in the centre. Lay
down the top edge first along this line, and carefully deposit the
remainder of the foil in place. Next, with a flat brush full of varnish
go over the plate, pressing out any air bubbles, and ensuring both a
flat and a well-varnished surface. When this is dry, turn over the
plate and repeat the operation on the other side.
If desired, a metal hemisphere of at least an inch in diameter may
be attached with varnish, first scraping the foil to make a contact.
The whole plate can be swung in a cradle of two silk threads, laid on
a glass tumbler, or mounted on end in a shellacked block of wood.
A strip of tinfoil, S, attached at the corner can be used as a
connector. The plates must be joined in the following manner when
two or more are used in conjunction, and a quantity of current is
desired. They should be placed so the connecting strips project
alternately from each side (Fig. 31), and all on each side joined so
as to leave two terminals, one to the 1, 3, 5 plates, the other to the
2, 4, 6 plates, and so on, which, when joined, will have the same
effect as would result from the use of two large plates of the same
total area. The nearer the plates are together the greater capacity
they will have, always supposing the insulation is good, the
insulation being known as the dielectric. Another good method,
when a high quality of glass can be procured, is to lay the tinfoil on
the plates without varnish, piling one on top of the other, tinfoil and
glass alternately, and clamping the whole securely, laying a piece of
cloth top and bottom to avoid cracking the glass from the pressure.
This must be kept from moisture; a strip of paraffined paper stuck
along the edges and extra paraffin run on will answer very well.
In constructing these glass condensers, they
must be designed to correspond with the coil
with which they are to be charged. In the
foregoing description we have allowed a margin
of 1½ inches of glass around the foil coatings.
This will make 3 inches as the maximum distance
between the coatings. Although a 2-inch spark
from the coil would not jump this interval, a Fig. 31.
certain discharge will take place, and the less this
occurs, the more serviceable the condenser will
be. Therefore a greater margin should be allowed for a longer spark
than 2 inches.
In the commercial condenser for telephone and telegraph use,
paraffin and paper are substituted for glass, as will be described
later. Heavy paraffin oil gives excellent results, but its fluidity is
disadvantageous.
There is no valid reason why paraffin could not be used on the glass
plate condensers, care being observed that it is free from dirt and
metallic chips. In fact, the space between the glass plates of the
multiplate condenser may be filled in with paraffin, and thereby
exclude the air. Only a condenser so built up is not convenient to
take apart for experimental purposes.
The foregoing description of a glass insulated condenser was written
with the assumption that a good quality of glass be used. But the
ordinary window glass is generally useless, and paraffined paper is
preferable. The quality of glass known as "hard flint glass" is best,
the superior qualities being imported from Europe. This latter is used
in the manufacture of the standard Leyden jar for lecture purposes.
Were it not for its cost, the finest dielectric we could use would be
sheet mica. Unfortunately sheet mica over 3 inches square is
expensive, and becomes rapidly more so as it becomes larger.
Standard condensers for testing are made with mica carefully
selected, and retain the charge for the maximum length of time. The
built-up mica condenser is immersed in molten paraffin until the
same has permeated the sheets, and then the complete mass is put
under a pressure until the paraffin is well set.

Paper Condenser.
The paper used in the manufacture of the commercial form is a
special thin, tough linen paper carefully selected, sheet by sheet, to
avoid pin-holes or flaws, and kept in an oven until used to ensure
absolute dryness.
When this cannot be procured, use thin unsized writing paper of a
good quality, well dried, and absolutely clean. As an example of the
necessity of cleanliness, a light lead-pencil mark would serve to
conduct the current entirely from a charged sheet to wherever it
terminated, and if suitably located, utterly destroy the usefulness of
the apparatus. Ink, which most generally contains iron, will cause
trouble, and although some cheap foreign condensers are built up of
old ledger pages, yet their efficiency is very uncertain.
The paper used in commercial condensers is from four to seven
thousandths of an inch in thickness.

Series.
The smaller the amount of surface the less will be the capacity, but
the quicker the discharge. The apparatus heretofore mentioned has
had the alternate plates connected together in two series,
presenting a large surface and rendering a large amount of current.
A condenser so made will have a low voltage or potential, but is not
so liable to leakage as one made to render a high potential. The
multiple condenser of a large capacity will hardly discharge and
spark over an air gap requiring a contact of the two electrodes. But
a smaller one, consisting only of a single pair of small plates, will
spark across quite a considerable air gap.
A number of charged condensers may be put in series, and the
resultant potential thereby increased. Cut a number of pieces of
paper of the desired size, say 6 inches square, and a number of
sheets of foil 3 inches square. Round off the corners of the foil and
build up first a sheet of paper, then a sheet of foil in its centre, then
another paper and another foil sheet, and so on. There is to be no
connection from sheet to sheet, only the inductive action of one on
its neighbor. The foil must be considerably smaller than the paper in
this construction, owing to the greater tendency to discharge round
the edges of the sheets, owing to the greater potential of the
current.
When the requisite number of sheets have been built up, leave a
sheet of foil top and bottom for connection, tie between two pieces
of stout card or board, and immerse in the molten paraffin. When
thoroughly soaked, remove and put under pressure until cold. It will
be found undesirable to make these with more than a dozen pairs of
sheets, but to make a number of blocks of that number for ready
service.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 32 shows the arrangement of the apparatus to charge a Leyden

jar, the plate form being connected in a similar manner. The jar is
stood upon an insulating support—a dry tumbler will answer—with
the ball B connected to one pole of the coil. From the outside tinfoil
coating T a wire runs to the discharger D D, which is in circuit with
the secondary coil, S. The discharger balls D D are carefully
approximated until the spark just passes, this latter point being of
great importance. Were the discharger balls too near the spark
would probably pierce the dielectric of the condenser, therefore the
balls should be carefully brought near to each other until the exact
distance is found. Even if the insulation of the condenser were not
pierced, yet a path would probably be opened through which some
succeeding discharge would pass, and ruin the instrument.
Another method of charging is to leave an air gap at B; then there is
not much liability of the condenser discharging back through the coil
—an undesirable event, as it would most likely perforate the
insulation of the coil.

Fig. 33.

In designing or using any apparatus intended to hold a charge of

high potential, it must be kept in mind how readily points or sharp
edges serve to allow the current to pass off—we might almost say
evaporate. Given two bodies, one a globe and the other a
rectangular block, each well insulated from the earth or any other
large body, and the globe would be found to hold its charge long
after the block had dissipated all trace of the charge given to it.
Therefore round off every edge and angle, projection or point.
In making handles, supports, or any work requiring an intervening
high insulation, hard rubber is preferable to glass where there is
liability to moisture. When the apparatus is as shown in Fig. 33, the
condenser is alternately charged and discharged with a loud noise,
the vivid sparks passing across the discharger balls D D possessing
great deflagratory powers.
In experimenting with a Ruhmkorff coil it is not advisable to leave
the instrument working while the secondary terminals are beyond
sparking distance, as there is a great strain on the secondary
insulation. Nor is it wise to use only one electrode in an experiment,
unless the other is connected to some apparatus of an approximate
capacity to that at the other, for the foregoing reason.

Rolled-Up Condensers.
Now that the condenser has become so important a factor in
telephone work, many schemes for cheapening and facilitating their
manufacture have been devised. One in particular merits description,
the "rolled-up" condenser having come largely into use. The tin-foil
is supplied in rolls containing many yards of foil of the requisite
width for the condenser to be made. Likewise rolls of paper are
provided, exceeding in width, however, those of tin-foil. These rolls
are arranged upon horizontal spindles in front of an empty spindle,
or mandrel, upon which the condenser is to be formed. A few turns
of the paper ribbon are made around the mandrel, then the foil is
brought forward and a few turns made, then follows a turn of paper
ribbon and another of foil, and finally a paper layer; and the mandrel
being rotated, the alternate layers of foil and paper are laid on and
rolled around each other on the mandrel until the requisite quantity
is obtained. It then becomes an easy matter to cut the paper ends
so no contact is possible between the layers of foil. The whole thing
is slipped off the mandrel, secured by a rubber band or two, placed
in a hot paraffin bath, and left to become saturated while still warm
and before the paraffin has time to harden; the cylinder is put under
a press and squeezed flat, driving out excess paraffin, and leaving
the condenser in a convenient shape to handle. Connections are
then made to the foil leaves, and a case of wood or metal completes
the work.
There is no reason why aluminum foil or lead foil, or, in fact, any thin
sheet metal should not be used in condensers. In telephone work,
paper covered with gilt paint was tried, and worked fairly well, but
was ultimately rejected in favor of tin-foil. In some cases, when it is
desired to construct a condenser for high potential work, the oil-tank
apparatus can be used. This is readily made of any desired
dimensions, as follows: Procure a square glass jar, such as is made
for storage batteries, a few pieces of sheet metal cut to fit loosely in
the jar, some glass rods and sufficient clean "transformer oil" or
heavy paraffin oil to nearly fill the jar. The sheets of metal can then
be hung from the glass rods into the jar, being separated one-half
inch, and the oil poured in. Two plates, about 8 inches by 6 inches,
will hang nicely into a type D3 Chloride Battery jar, which is 7⅞
inches long by 9½ inches high by 3¼ inches wide. Altering the
relative distances between the plates will give considerable
adjustment to this simple condenser, or, if desired, more plates may
be inserted and connected up, as in the tin-foil condensers. This
type can be made portable, but it is not to be recommended unless
no objection is had to emptying and refilling the jar with oil.

Adjustable Condensers.
In operating large coils, it is convenient to be able to vary the
capacity of the condenser on the primary circuit. To make an
adjustable condenser presents no more difficulty than a non-
adjustable one, simply more labor. For example, the large condenser
used with the 6-inch spark coil might be divided into four sections,
containing 2000 square inches, 500 square inches, 300 square
inches, and 200 square inches of surface (see Fig. 34). Wires leading
from the ends of the foil sheets C C are to be brought to the brass
plates G G. The brass rods B B are connected by binding posts to the
coil, each strip being well insulated from its neighbor. Any
combination is possible by the insertion of brass plugs in holes
drilled between the strips. The plugs must be fully large enough to
make good contact on each of the two strips between which they
are inserted, and should be turned taper. With the largest coils the
condenser and contact breaker are generally mounted separately,
and are fully adjustable.
 Fig. 34.

Specific Inductive Capacity.

Dry air 1.000
Sulphur 2.590
Hard rubber 2.290
 Paraffin 1.996
Shellac 2.750
Kerosene 2.225
Paraffin oil 2.710
Castor oil 4.962
Olive oil 3.575

Condensers made with dielectric of high inductive capacity

(insulation being equal) will retain greater charge than those made
with dielectrics of low inductive capacity. Thus, one made with
shellac would be nearly half as great again as with paraffin.
Capacity of a condenser increases with area of foil surface, with
diminished distance between foil plates and with increase of
insulation.
 CHAPTER V.
EXPERIMENTS.

The luminous effects that can be obtained by means of a Ruhmkorff

coil are exceedingly beautiful and instructive. The simplest
experiment of this nature is the production of the spark consequent
on the approximation of the electrodes attached to the secondary
coil. This spark can be varied in both length, intensity, or shape by
the form and nature of the substances between which it is permitted
to pass. Attach to each end of the discharger a fine steel needle, and
bring them together until the spark jumps from one to the other. A
long thin snapping spark will pass, which, however, appears to be
trying to take any but a straight path across the air gap. The peculiar
crookedness of this, as in a lightning flash, is credited to the fact of
particles of matter floating in the air conducting the current better
than the pure air. The curious odor noticed in these discharges, as,
in fact, in the working of all high-tension apparatus, is ozone—O3,
triatomic oxygen. This gas, so noticeable after a thunderstorm, has a
powerful effect on the mucous membranes of the throat and nasal
passages, and must be inhaled with caution. It is being used by the
medical profession for the destruction of germs and for general
therapeutic service.
Substitute pieces of fine iron wire for the needles, and bring the
ends together about one quarter the distance through which the
normal spark will pass. The spark will be found to have changed its
appearance, now being thick and redder, or, rather, of a deep yellow,
and to possess vast heating qualities.
The iron wire will melt at one electrode, and if the other be
examined it will be perceived that it has not even become warm.
The cold wire will be the one connected to the positive pole of the
coil.
Connecting the poles together with a piece of very fine iron wire will
result in the deflagration of the wire in a vivid light.
The short thick spark is termed the calorific spark, and believed to
possess its yellow color from the combustion of the sodium in the air.
This spark will easily ignite a piece of paper held in its path.
Take a sheet of hard rubber and breathe on its surface; lay a wire
from each pole of the secondary to points on the sheet, about twice
as far apart as the spark would pass over in the air. The electric
current will strive to complete its circuit; streams of violet light
forming a perfect network will issue from each pole, until, provided
the rubber is sufficiently damp, they will unite in a spark far
exceeding its normal length in the air. It is curious to watch how the
streams branch out from these two points, and how persistently they
strive to meet each other. Scatter some finely powdered carbon on
this sheet (crushed lead-pencil or electric light carbon is good
material). The points may now be removed to still further distant
places, and yet the current will work across. Each particle of carbon
seems to be provided with innumerable scintillating diamonds, so
sparkling is this effect.
Hard rubber is not absolutely necessary for these experiments; glass
will do, but the black background of the rubber intensifies the
luminosity of the discharges. Take a teaspoonful of powdered carbon
and scatter it between the points on the rubber, so that the spark
can find a ready path, evidenced by but little visible light. It will be
seen that this powder is blown away from one electrode after a few
minutes, leaving the latter in the centre of a clear space, but at the
other electrode not much disturbed.
Bring the points so close to one another that the spark becomes
short and fat; soon the carbon will commence to burn, forming a
veritable arc light. Take two pointed lead-pencils and wrap a few
turns of wire from the electrodes round the blunt ends of them;
bring the pointed ends together, and an arc will soon be established;
but at various points where the wire is wrapped the current will burn
through the wood, and a number of incandescent points will ensue.
In these experiments on the rubber sheet it will be noticed that the
spark acts as it does in the air, inasmuch as it does not take a direct
path, but jumps in an irregular track from point to point.
If two small metal balls be substituted (Fig. 35) for the points
between which the sparks be passing, it will be noted that the
sparks do not pass through so great an air gap as before, or even as
rapidly.
The spark between two balls is much noisier than that passing
between points, and if the balls be of about 1 inch in diameter, a
curious effect ensues on the passage of the current (Fig. 36). This
effect has been likened to a stream of water issuing from a
horizontal nozzle into a cavity when the nozzle is moved up and
down slowly in the space of a few inches.

Fig. 35. Fig. 36.

The Luminous Pane.

This easily made exhibit (Fig. 37) is one that is
susceptible of quite a number of applications. In
its simple form it is but an enlarged version of the
rubber sheet scattered with carbon dust. The old
way to make it was to take a plate of glass and
cement on one face of it a sheet of tinfoil, using
shellac varnish preferably. When dry, the tinfoil Fig. 37.
was scored across and across in such manner as
to divide it up into little squares or diamonds. When the current was
applied to each end of the plate, the spark divided into innumerable
little ones; between each bit of tinfoil and its neighbors there would
be many little sparks, and the effect was very pretty, somewhat as
was described before when the carbon dust was strewn between the
electrodes. It is more easily and quickly prepared by giving a sheet
of glass a coating of shellac varnish, and then sparingly dusting any
powdered conductor over its surface, using perhaps carbon dust or
filings of metal. By cutting out a stencil from a piece of thin card and
laying it over the sparkling plate, the design shows out very
strikingly, and various designs in stencils can be prepared, different
powdered conductors giving different colored sparks.
A long glass tube moistened inside with mucilage or shellac varnish
and then having some conducting dust shaken through will also give
quite a pleasing effect.

Luminous Designs.
Coat one side of a glass plate with tinfoil, leaving an attached strip
for connection. Shellac a piece of paper of a size corresponding to
the design to be rendered luminous. When the shellac has dried so
far as to become "tacky," lay a sheet of foil on it and press it down
evenly all over.
Then draw on the paper a design that can be readily cut out. Use a
pair of scissors or a very sharp knife. If the latter, lay the sheet on a
piece of glass; but there is a greater tendency to tear the design
when a knife is used if an unpractised hand wields it.
This design may either be stuck on to the plain side of the glass
plate with varnish or simply laid on (Fig. 38). Connect one secondary
wire to the foil coating of the plate and the other to the design. This
must be shown in the dark, and the luminosity will not be strikingly
apparent until the eyes become accustomed to the darkness—that
is, when the room has been previously lighted.
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