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CAIE-IGCSE-Mathematics - Theory

The document provides a comprehensive overview of the CAIE IGCSE Mathematics syllabus, covering key topics such as number theory, algebra, graphs, and geometry. It includes definitions, formulas, and methods for solving various mathematical problems, including factorization, quadratic equations, and functions. The notes are specifically prepared for personal use by an individual student and are updated to reflect the 2023-2025 syllabus.

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Saung Hnin Phyu
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views20 pages

CAIE-IGCSE-Mathematics - Theory

The document provides a comprehensive overview of the CAIE IGCSE Mathematics syllabus, covering key topics such as number theory, algebra, graphs, and geometry. It includes definitions, formulas, and methods for solving various mathematical problems, including factorization, quadratic equations, and functions. The notes are specifically prepared for personal use by an individual student and are updated to reflect the 2023-2025 syllabus.

Uploaded by

Saung Hnin Phyu
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© © All Rights Reserved
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ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Saung Hnin for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

1. Number
Natural numbers:
used for counting purposes
all possible rational & irrational numbers
Integer: a whole number
Prime numbers: ⊂ ‘is a subset of’
divisible only by itself and one
1 is not a prime number
Rational numbers: can be written as a fraction
Irrational numbers: cannot be written as a fraction e.g.
π
Cube numbers: made from multiplying a rational
number to itself thrice.
Reciprocals: A number made by raising a rational
number to -1, or 1 over that number
b∈X
1.1. HCF and LCM
Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common
Multiple:

ξ=

HCF = product of common factors of x and y


LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram

A’ is shaded

Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers


multiply together to make the original number

1.2. Sets
Definition of sets e.g.
A=
B=
C=
D=

Set representations:
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A ∩ B is shaded
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

The degree of rounding of a number


E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p 2.05 ≤ x < 2.15
Finding limits when adding/multiplying: add/multiply
respective limits of values
A ∪ B ‎is shaded Finding maximum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: max value divided by/minus min
value
Finding minimum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: min value divided by/minus max
value
of elements in A

∈ = …is an element of…


1.4. Ratio & Proportion
∈ = …is not an element of…
 Ratio: used to describe a fraction
A′ = complement of set A e.g. 3 : 1
∅ = empty set Foreign exchange: money changed from one currency
ξ = Universal set to another using proportion
A ∪ B = union of A and B E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars
A ∩ B = intersection of A and B $1 : 0.30KD
A ⊆ B = A is a subset of B $22.50 : 6.75KD
A ⊂ B = A is a proper subset of B Map scales: using proportion to work out map scales
A ⊂ B = A is not a subset of B 1km = 1000m
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm
1.3. Indices Direct variation: y is proportional to x
y ∝ x y = kx
Standard form:
Inverse variation: y is inversely proportional to x
104 = 10000 y ∝ x1 y = xk
​ ​

103 = 1000
102 = 100 1.5. Percentages
101 = 10
100 = 1 Percentage:
10−1 = 0.1
10−2 = 0.01 Convenient way of expressing fractions
Percent means per 100
10−3 = 0.001
10−4 = 0.0001 Percentage increase or decrease:
10−5 = 0.00001
Actual Change
Limits of accuracy: Percentage increase = × 100
Original Amount

Simple interest:
PRT
I=
100

Where, P = Principal, R = Rate Of Interest, and T = Time

Compound interest:
r nt
A = P (1 + ) ​

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Where, P = P rincipal, R = Rate Of Interest, N = When the question says, “Give your answer to two
number of times the interest is compounded per year decimal places,” use the formula!
and T = T ime Derivation of the Quadratic Formula is the same as
saying “Make x the subject in ax2 + bx + c = 0”
1.6. Speed, Distance & Time ax2 + bx + c = 0
Speed = Distance
Time ​

Factorize a out
Total Distance
Average Speed = Total Time

a (x 2 + x ) + c = 0
b
Units of speed: km/h or m/s

a
Units of distance: km or m
Units of time: h or s Complete the Square

b 2
a ((x + ) − 2) + c = 0
km/h × 185 = m/s

b2
18 2a 4a
​ ​

m/s × 5 = km/h

2
b2
2. Algebra & Graphs a (x + ) −
b
+c=0
2a 4a
​ ​

b 2 b2 − 4ac
2.1. Factorisation a (x + ) =
2a 4a
​ ​

Common factors: b 2 b2 − 4ac


(x + ) =
3x2 + 6x 2a 4a2
​ ​

3x(x + 2)
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =±
Difference of two squares: 2a 4a2
​ ​ ​

25 − x2 b ± b2 − 4ac
x+ =

2a 4a2
​ ​

(5 + x)(5 − x) ​

Group factorization: Note: 4a2 is a square number

4d + ac + ad + 4c b ± b2 − 4ac
x+ =

4 (d + c) + a(c + d) 2a 2a

(4 + a)(c + d) −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=

2a

Trinomial:
Standardized form:
x2 + 14x + 24
y = ax2 +bx + c
x2 + 12x + 2x + 24 Complete Square form:
x (x + 12) + 2 (x + 12) 2
y = (x + a) +b (Where axis of symmetry is x =
(x + 2)(x + 12) −a)
To find the turning point of the quadratic equation,
2.2. Quadratic Factorisation complete the square, then the turning point is:
(−a, b)
General equation: Ways to solve Quadratic equations:
Graphing Method
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Factorizing
Solve quadratics by: Quadratic Formula
Trinomial factorization Complete the Square
Quadratic formula - Graphing Method – Graph the equation,
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=

2a

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS
see where it touches the X-axis
- Factorizing Standardized Form:
e.g. x2 − x − 6 = 0 y =ax3 +bx2 +cx + d
Properties:
x2 − x − 6 = 0 The highest exponent of x is 3
Has a maximum of 2 turning points
( x − 3) ( x + 2) = 0
Turning points are points after which a graph changes its
x1 = 3​
gradient’s sign, changing direction between up and down.

x2 = −2

- Quadratic Formula
e.g. x2 − x − 6 = 0
Where a = 1, b = −1, c = −6
Plug the numbers in the Quadratic Formula:

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=

2a

Therefore:

− (−1) ± (−1)2 − 4 (1) (−6) ​

x=
2 ( 1)

x1 = 3​
2.5. Exponential Graphs
x2 = −2

- Complete the Square


e.g. x2 + 10x + 5 = 0
(WARNING! Coefficient of x2 Must be 1 for this to work)

x2 + 10x + 5 = 0

( x + 5) 2 − 52 + 5 = 0

(x + 5)2 − 20 = 0
2
(x + 5) = 20
Standardized form:
x + 5 = ± 20 ​

y = a ( b) x
Properties:
x = −5 ± 20 ​

a is the y -intercept
Answer is: Asymptotes are lines that a curve approaches but
never touches because the curve continues to
x1 = −5 +
​ 20, x2 = −5 −
​ ​ 20 ​
infinity. In this case, The asymptotes are y = 0 and
x=4
2.3. Reciprocal Graphs (Hyperbola) b is the rate of growth
When 0 < b < 1, the graph will go downwards from
Standardized Form: left to right
y = xa ​

If a is Positive: If a is Negative:
2.6. Gradient of a Curve
The Line will be in the The Line will be in the
1st&3rd Quadrant 2nd&4th Quadrant
By drawing tangents
In a straight line, the gradient is constant
2.4. Cubic Equation Curves have varying gradients throughout the graph.
To find the gradient at a point:
1. Draw the graph
2. Draw a tangent at the point in the graph, ensuring
it only touches the graph at that point (Use a ruler)
3. Find the gradient of the tangent

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS
y ≤ −7 × −3
y ≤ 21
When two inequalities present, split into two

x < 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
x < 3x − 1 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
1
x> 2

x<8

1
2

<x<8

2.9. Linear Programming


Using differentiation For strict inequalities (<, >) use broken line
dy
gives you the gradient of the the curve at any For non-strict inequalities (≤, ≥) use solid line
dx
Steps to solve:

point in terms of x
Interpret y = mx + c
When y = xn , dy = nxn−1
dx Draw straight-line graphs

Stationary/ turning point: dy =0



dx ​

Shade
st dy
1 Derivative = dx = f (x)

Solve
d2 y
2nd Derivative = dx
′′
2 = f (x)

To determine if the stationary point is maximum or


minimum:
Use 2nd derivative
d2 y
Maximum point: dx ​

2 < 0
d2 y
Minimum point: dx2 > 0 ​

Use gradients around the point


Input x values slightly above and below the
stationary point and calculate the gradient

2.7. Simultaneous Equations


2.10. Sequences
Can be solved either by substitution or elimination
Generally solved by substitution as follows: Linear sequences: Find a common difference e.g., 3,
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown and solve then multiply by n and work out what needs to be added
this equation Quadratic sequences:
Step 2: substitute the results from Step 1 into a linear Format: an2 + bn + c
equation to find the other unknown
The solution of their simultaneous equations gives the
points of intersection of two graphs.

2.8. Inequalities
Work out the values and then place them into a
Solve like equations formula to work out nth term formula
Multiplying or dividing by negative ⇒ switch sign Geometric progression: the sequence where the term
has been multiplied by a constant to form the next term
y
−3 ≥ −7
nth term of G.P . = ar(n−1)

a = 1st term r = common ratio

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

2.11. Distance-Time Graphs

Area under a graph = distance travelled.


Gradient = acceleration.
If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or
retardation. (moving body is slowing down.)

2.13. Functions
Function notation:
f : x → 2x − 1
From O to A: Uniform speed Function f such that x maps onto 2x − 1
From B to C: Uniform speed (return journey) Composite function: Given two functions f (x) and
From A to B: Stationery (speed = 0) g (x), the composite function of f and g is the function
that maps x onto f (g (x))
f ( 2)
Substitute x = 2 and solve for f (x)
f g(x)
Substitute x = g (x)
−1
f (x)
Gradient = speed Let y = f (x) and make x the subject

2.12. Speed-Time Graphs 3. Geometry


3.1. Similarity
Similarity can be worked out by the AAA (Angle – Angle –
Angle) rule.
AAA (Angle – Angle – Angle) rule: All the corresponding
angles of the triangles must be equal.

From O to A: Uniform increase in speed


From A to B: Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C: Uniform deceleration / retardation 3.2. Congruence
SSS (Side – Side – Side) rule: All the three sides of the
triangles must be equal

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

3.4. Quadrilaterals

RHS (Right angle – Hypotenuse – Side) rule :

There must be two right-angled triangles


The length of the hypotenuses must be the same
One of the corresponding sides of each triangle must be
the same

SAS (Side – Angle – Side) rule:

There must be an angle and a side present


The angle of the adjacent sides must be equal
The two sides of the triangle must be equal

ASA (Angle – Side – Angle) rule: The sides adjacent to


the equal angles must be of the same length.

3.3. Triangles

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Rectangle:

Opposite sides parallel/equal 3.5. Construction


Constructing triangles:
all angles 90°

diagonals bisect each other

Parallelogram:

Opposite sides parallel/equal

opposite angles equal

diagonals bisect each other

Rhombus:

A parallelogram with all sides equal


3.6. Symmetry
opposite angles equal Line of symmetry: Divides a two-dimensional shape into
two congruent (identical) shapes
Plane of symmetry: Divides a three-dimensional shape
diagonals bisect each other into two congruent solid shapes
Trapezium:

The number of times shape fits its outline during a


complete revolution is called the order of rotational
symmetry
One pair of sides parallel

Kite:

Two pairs of adjacent sides equal

Shape Number of Lines of Symmetry Rotational Symmetry Order


Square 4 4
diagonals are perpendicular to each other Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral triangle 3 3
Regular hexagon 6 6

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Properties of circles:
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre
Tangents from an external point are equal in length

3.7. Polygons
Sum of angles at a point = 360∘
Angles on a straight line = 180∘
Sum of angles in a triangle = 180∘
For regular polygon

External angles = 360n
​ Co-interior angles add up to 180°

Internal angles = 180∘ − 360n​

For irregular polygon:


Sum of exterior angles = 360∘
Sum of interior angles= 180(n − 2)
Vertically opposite angles are equal

Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠

Corresponding angles are equal

3.8. Circle Theorem

Alternate angles

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Parallelogram = b × h or AB sin θ
Triangle= 12 b × h​

Trapezium= 12 (a + b) h

Circle= πr2
Sector= πr2 × 360 θ ​

4.2. Volume and Surface Area


Cuboid
Angle at center = twice angle on Angle subtended by same arc at
Surface Area = 2(lw + hw + hl)
circumference circumference are equal Volume = hlw
Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2πrh
Volume = πr2 h
Cone
Curved surface area = πrl
Volume = 13 (πr2 h) ​

Sphere
Surface Area = 4πr2
Volume = 43 πr3 ​

Angles in semicircle are 90°


Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral = 180°
Hemisphere
Surface area = 3πr2
Volume = 23 πr3 ​

Kite
Surface area = pq2 ​

4.3. Units
Volume:
Tangents from one point are equal. ‎∠‎between
tangent and radius is 90°
Alternate segment theorem

4. Mensuration
4.1. Area

Mass:

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Capacity: Midpoint of Graph:


x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Length between two points:

(x2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

5.2. Sketching Graphs

Connecting volume and capacity:


1ml = 1cm3
1kl = 1m3
Mass
Density = Volume ​

f(x) = 1‎ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2

5. Coordinate Geometry
5.1. Graphs
Gradient of a Straight Line:
y2 − y1
Gradient =
​ ​

x2 − x1

​ ​

Equation of Line:
f(x) = 1/x f(x) = 1/x2
y = mx + c
f(x) = x3
Find the gradient, m
Find the y -intercept, c

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

To find one of the shorter sides


6. Trigonometry a2 = c 2 − b2
b2 = c 2 − a2
6.1. Bearings Angle of elevation:
Angle above the horizontal line
The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
An angle measured from the north at A.
In a clockwise direction.
Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000° to
360°)
e.g. The bearing of B from A is 050°

Angle of depression:
Angle below the horizontal line.

Area of a triangle: 12 ab sin c ​

6.2. Pythagoras Theorem


6.3. Ratios
To find hypotenuse
a2 + b2 = c 2 Right angled triangles:
opposite
sin x = hypotenuse → SOH ​

adjacent
cos x = hypotenuse → CAH ​

opposite
tan x = adjacent → TOA​

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Sine and cosine shifted by 90°


6.4. Graphs of Simple Trigonometric Sine has x-intercepts at multiples 180°, and cosine at (90°
Functions + multiples of 180°)

tan (x) = tan (180 + x)

sin (x) = sin (180 − x)

Goes to infinity at 90°, 270°, 450°, …



cos (x) = cos (360 − x) Has x-intercepts at multiples of 180°

6.5. Sine & Cosine Rules


Sine rule:
A B C
= =
sin a sin b sin c
​ ​ ​

Cosine rule
To find the angle given 3 sides

b2 + c 2 − a2
cos a =
2bc
To find side given angle and two sides

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos a

7. Vectors & Transformations


7.1. Vectors

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction Reflection (M):


E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line When describing a reflection, the position of the
segments, can be added using ‘parallelogram rule’ or mirror line is essential
‘nose-to-tail method’ Rotation (R):
The centre, angle and direction of rotation are
needed to describe a rotation
A clockwise rotation is negative, and an anticlockwise
rotation is positive
Translation (T):

Multiplication by a scalar:
Scalar quantity: has a magnitude but no direction
The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector
Column vector: When describing a translation, it is necessary to give
the translation vector
Enlargement (E):
To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K
and the centre of enlargement
length of image
Scale f actor = length of object ​

Area of image = K 2 × area of object

If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the


Top number = horizontal component centre of enlargement
Bottom number = vertical component If K < 0, object and image lie on opposite side of the
centre of enlargement
Parallel vectors:
Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
In general, the vector k ( ab ) is parallel to ( ab )
​ ​ 8. Probability
Modulus of a vector:
In general, if x = ( m ,
n ) ∣ x∣ =
​ (m2 + n2

Probability is the study of chance or the likelihood of an
event happening
7.2. Transformation number of favourable outcomes
P (event) =
total number of outcomes

If probability = 0, the event is impossible


If probability =1, the event is certain to happen
All probabilities lie between 0 and 1

8.1. Events
Exclusive events:

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Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the Construct the Venn diagram, using sample space of both
same time events
P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)

Calculate using tree diagrams:

Construct tree diagram.


Write the outcomes of the first event
Connect both the second and first events outcome
The OR Rule: Write probability on top of each event’s line
For exclusive events A and B Multiply probabilities on the lines to the required
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) outcome
Note: The probabilities reduce with each step if objects
Independent events: are not replaced
Two events are independent if occurrence of one is Calculate using two-way tables:
unaffected by occurrence of other Column and row headers are the sample space of the
The AND Rule: two events
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) Fill in each cell with the correct number of outcomes
Take the required number from the table and divide
8.2. Conditional Probability by the sum of all values in the row/column of the
condition provided.
Probability of an event (A), given that another (B) has Remember: P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the same
already occurred

Symbol : P (A∣B) 9. Statistics


9.1. Histograms

Calculate using Venn diagram:

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Histogram: Displays frequency of continuous or


grouped discrete data in the form of bars
Bars are joined together and may be of varying width
Frequency of the data is represented by the area of the
bar and not the height
When class intervals are different, area of the bar
represents the frequency, not the height
Frequency density plotted on y-axis, not frequency
Class width = Interval
Frequency density = Height

F requency = Class width × F requency density

9.2. Averages 9.4. Box-and-whisker plots


Mean Construction
Find median and two quartiles
Sum of values
number of values ​

Draw three lines of equal width along these values


Complete the boxes
Median:
Draw ‘whiskers’ extending from the box to the
The middle value - when the data has been written in
maximum and minimum values.
ascending or descending order
Draw two more lines at the ends
Odd no. of values 5+1
2 = 3rd value

6+1
Even no. of values 2 = 3.5th value

(add two values divide by 2)


Mode:
Most frequently occurring value
Range:
Difference between highest and lowest values
Estimated mean of grouped data:
Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
frequency
Divide by number of values

9.3. Cumulative Frequency


Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given
point
Inter-quartile range = upper quartile −
lower quartile

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Interpretation:
Median, quartiles and extreme values can be found 9.6. Stem and Leaf diagrams
by reading on the scale of y-axis
Short boxes mean low IQR and vice versa (2), (3) Stem-and-Leaf diagram is a quick way of summarizing a
range of data.
Long whiskers mean a lot of extreme values and vice
There is a column known as the stem, contains which
versa (1)
Difference in position of boxes represents if data in contains unique elements of data formed by removing
one set is overall higher or lower than another data last digits of the data.
set. (3) and (4) Keys are used in this diagram
Variation in lengths of different sections and position
of median show how evenly the data is spread,
compared to other data sets (1)

9.7. Pictograms
Data is represented in pictures
A key is given to represent the value of a picture.
9.5. Pie Charts
E.g.
Sectors represent data, and these sectors form a circle.

Angle of a sector:

Number of an item
θ= Total number of items ​ × 360 = 5 people

Favorite Fast Food of 100 Children

9.8. Scatter Diagrams



Sum of angles in a pie chart is 360

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Displays the correlation between two sets of data


May have positive, negative or no correlation

Line of best fit drawn through points that has an equal


number of points on each side to show the trend

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CAIE IGCSE
Mathematics

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