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LLB 301 ENGLISH-I (FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH) CREDIT HRS. 03

Objectives: Enhance language skills and develop critical thinking.

Course Contents

01 Basics of Grammar

02 Parts of speech and use of articles

03 Sentence structure, active and passive voice

04 Practice in unified sentence

05 Analysis of phrase, clause and sentence structure

06 Transitive and intransitive verbs

07 Punctuation and spelling

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WORD: The Definition & Criteria

In traditional grammar, word is the basic unit of language. Words can be classified according to their action
and meaning, but it is challenging to define.
A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech sounds in both written and verbal
form of language. A word works as a symbol to represent/refer to something/someone in language to
communicate a specific meaning.
Example : ‘love’, ‘cricket’, ‘sky’ etc.
"[A word is the] smallest unit of grammar that can stand alone as a complete utterance, separated by spaces
in written language and potentially by pauses in speech."
(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
There are several criteria for a speech sound, or a combination of some speech sounds to be called a word.
o There must be a potential pause in speech and a space in written form between two words.
For instance, suppose ‘ball’ and ‘bat’ are two different words. So, if we use them in a sentence, we must
have a potential pause after pronouncing each of them. It cannot be like “Idonotplaywithbatball.” If we
take pause, these sounds can be regarded as seven distinct words which are ‘I,' ‘do,' ‘not,' ‘play,' ‘with,'
‘bat,' and ‘ball.'
o Every word must contain at least one root. If you break this root, it cannot be a word anymore.
For example, the word ‘unfaithful’ has a root ‘faith.' If we break ‘faith’ into ‘fa’ and ‘ith,' these sounds
will not be regarded as words.
o Every word must have a meaning. For example, the sound ‘lakkanah’ has no meaning in the English
language. So, it cannot be an English word.

SENTENCE: Definition & Types

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-
stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by giving a
statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.
Example: He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming).
Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be
hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.
Example: Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)
“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of
a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.”
(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press.)
In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:
o First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop)
[.], a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation
mark) [!].
o Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.
o Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an independent
clause. (An independent clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete
thought.)

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TYPES OF SENTENCES

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

• Simple sentence
• Compound sentence
• Complex sentence, and
• Compound-complex sentence.
1. Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot take another
clause.
For example: I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)
2. Compound sentence:
A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses. Some
specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses.
For example: I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent
clauses – two verbs)
3. Complex sentence:
A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause and the
other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular connectors for the clauses
of a complex sentence to be connected.
For example: I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a
connector and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.)
4. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of compound
and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent clauses and at least
one dependent clause.
For example: I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor.
(Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses with a
compound conjunction between them.)
Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:
• Declarative sentence
• Imperative sentence
• Interrogative sentence, and
• Exclamatory sentence
1. Declarative sentence:
An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a statement, or
describes things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-
stop).
Examples:
o I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)
o I am very happy today. (a feeling)

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2. Imperative sentence:
We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative sentences usually
end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation
(i.e., exclamation mark).
Examples:
o Please sit down.
o I need you to sit down now!
3. Interrogative sentence:
An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of interrogation
(i.e., question mark)
Examples:
o When are you going to submit your assignment?
o Do you know him?
4. Exclamatory sentence:
An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness, wonder,
sorrow, anger, etc.
Examples:
o What a day it was!
o I cannot believe he would do that!

Phrase: Definition, Types & Examples

Phrases and clauses are the most important elements of English grammar. Phrase and clause cover
everything a sentence has. Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases strengthen the sentences to
become meaningful. If the clauses are the pillars of a building, the phrases are the bricks. A phrase usually
is always present within a clause, but a phrase cannot have a clause in it.

The basic difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause must have a finite verb and a phrase
must not.

A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to complete the sentence for
making it meaningful.
“A phrase is a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause.”-Oxford Dictionary
“In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) th at functions as
a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within the grammatical hierarchy.”- Osborne,
Timothy, Michael Putnam, and Thomas Gross (2011)

Types of Phrases

The phrases are generally of several types.

1. Noun Phrase 5. Conjunctional Phrase 9. Participle Phrase
2. Adjective Phrase 6. Interjectional Phrase 10. Gerund Phrase
3. Adverbial Phrase 7. Absolute Phrase 11. Infinitive Phrase

4. Prepositional Phrase 8. Appositive Phrase

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1. Noun Phrase

It is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a subject, an object or a complement in the
sentence.
Example:
o I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)
o Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)
o The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)
o We are sorry for her departure.

2. Adjective Phrase

It is comprised of an adjective and works as a single adjective in the sentence.

Example:
o Alex is a well-behaved man.
o He is a man of friendly nature.
o Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.
o She leads a very interesting life.
o A lot of people do not sleep at night.
3. Adverbial Phrase

It modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb in the sentence.
Example:
o The horse runs at a good speed. o I ran as fast as possible.
o I was in a hurry then. o He works very slowly.

4. Prepositional Phrase

It always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.

Example:
o He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.
o In the end, we all have to die.
o He is on the way.
o By working aimlessly, you will not get success.
o In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.
NOTE: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.
5. Conjunctional Phrase
A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.
Example:
o As soon as you got in, he went out.
o We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.
o I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.
o John started working early in order that he could finish early.
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6. Interjectional Phrase
Interjections that have more than one word are called interjectional phrases.
Example:
o What a pity! He is dead. o What a pleasure! I won o Oh please! Don’t say that
the first prize. again.

7. Absolute Phrase
The phrases containing Noun or Pronoun accompanied by a participle and necessary modifiers if any are
stated as Absolute Phrases. They modify indefinite classes and are also called Nominative Phrases.
Examples:
o Weather permitting, I will join the party.
o God willing, he’ll pass the test this time.
o The hot Summer sun having set, we left for the movie
8. Appositive Phrase
An appositive is a Noun or Pronoun often accompanied by modifiers that sit beside another Noun or
Pronoun to describe it. An Appositive Phrase is a set of words containing an Appositive and it follows or
precedes the Noun or Pronoun it identifies or explains.
Examples:
o My school friend, Brooks always bunked classes.
o His colleague, Mr. Robinson likes his tea.
o Jeremy, the police officer on duty, wrote the speeding ticket.

9. Participle Phrase

It is made of a participle, its modifier(s) and/or the objects that complete the sense of the sentence.
Examples:
o Walking fast, I keep looking left and right.
o Climbing the stairs, she waved at us.
o I looked back, starting the engine.
10. Gerund Phrase

These contain a Gerund, its modifier(s) and the other necessary elements. They function as Nouns just like
Gerunds themselves and that means they can be Subjects and Objects of the sentences.

Examples:
o Eating plenty of grapes in one sitting is a bad idea.
o Doing the dishes gives me cold allergies.
o I hate hurrying right before the deadline.

11. Infinitive Phrase

These are comprised of infinitive verbs (To + base verb)along with their modifiers and/or complements.
Examples:
o We love to cook together.
o He likes to solve math problems too much.
o Rina walks fast to be there on time.

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CLAUSES: Definition, Types & Examples

A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one
subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent
and distinguishable.

A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence.” – Merriam-Webster

Example:
o I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)
Types of Clauses

1. Independent Clause
2. Dependent Clause
i. Adjective Clause
ii. Noun Clause
iii. Adverbial Clause
3. Principal Clause
4. Coordinate Clause
5. Non-finite Clause
1. Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence. In a sentence
two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the
Lords” is an independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

2. Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a subordinate
clause. These help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete
sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the
sentence. In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative
pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.

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Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch.
o He bought a car which was too expensive.
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born.
o If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –

1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities
as Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called
Relative Clauses and they usually sit right after the Nouns they modify.
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.
2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often
start with “how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if,
whether etc.
Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here.

3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power
to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
o Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.

3. Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand
alone or act as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses
are functionally the same but named from different perspectives.
Examples:
o I know that boy.
o He can jog every morning.
o Robin fishes like a pro.

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4. Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but
etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.
Examples:
o I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
o You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
o We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.

5. Non-finite Clause

They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though hidden.
In terms of a Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the sentence.
Examples:
o He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
o She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
o Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
CONDITIONALS: Definition, Structure & Examples

Normally conditional sentences are called conditionals. These sentences usually contain the
conjunction IF. Sometimes they are called 'if clauses'.

Types of Conditionals

There are mainly two types of conditionals:

1. The Real Conditionals and
2. The Unreal Conditionals

1. The real conditionals

The real conditionals express factual or habitual conditions which have the possibility to occur in the future
or generally occur in the present.
Example:
o I’ll go if you give me the ball.
o If I feel better, I’ll certainly play.
o If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you a gift.
Structures of the Real Conditionals:

For Future Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . .

Subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . . + if + subject + simple present tense

Example:
o If I have the money, I will buy a new phone.
o I can make you cry if you keep doing that.
o If he goes there, he may get robbed.
o If you go outside, you must wear heavy clothes.

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For Habitual Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + simple present tense. . .

Subject + simple present tense + if + subject + simple present tense. .

Example:
o If I have the money, I always buy the necessary things.
o If Alex gets a break, he usually calls me.
o He works hard if the payment is good.

For Commands

If + subject + simple present tense + command form (simple present) . . . . .

Command form (simple present). . . . . + if + subject + simple present tense.

Example:
o If you have the money, use it wisely.
o Please call me if you get a chance.

2. The unreal conditionals

The unreal conditionals express hypothetical conditions which have no possibility to occur in the past,
present or future but describe what could/might have occurred supposedly.
Example:
o If I were rich, I would travel my whole life.
o If I had a car, I could go anywhere.
o If we had not missed the train, we would have reached the city.

Structures of Unreal Conditionals:

For Present/Future Conditions

If + subject + simple past tense + subject + would/could/might + verb in base form. . .

subject + would/could/might + verb in base form + if + subject + simple past tense

Example:
o If I had the money, I would buy a new phone.
o If I were the president, I would not support war policies.
o If he were not ill, he could come with us.
o If I could play tomorrow, I would definitely win the match.

For Past Conditions

If + subject + past perfect tense + subject + would/could/might + have+ verb in past particple form
Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle form + if + subject + simple past tense

Example:
o If I had played well, we would have won the match.
o I could have caught you if you had been a little closer.
o If he had written well, I could have given him a better mark.

NOTE: There is another structure of unreal conditional which does not use the
conjunction if. Had replaces if and creates a conditional sentence.

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Had + subject + verb in past participle + subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past particple

Example:
o Had I reached earlier, I could have caught the train.
o Had she found the watch, she would have told me.

PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech are the classification of words categorized by their roles and functions within the structure
of the language. Parts of speech encompass everything a language has in itself. They play different roles in
the structure of a language.
In English, there are eight parts of speech:
1. Noun

2. Pronoun

3. Verb

4. Adjective

5. Adverb

6. Preposition

7. Conjunction

8. Interjection

1. Noun

Noun refers to people, places, things, ideas, concepts, etc.

Example: Michael is a good boy. Melbourne is the best city.

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is used to refer to a noun/noun phrase, or nouns/noun phrases; instead of the repeated use of
the same noun(s)/noun phrase(s).
Example: Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning.

3. Verb
Verb shows an action or an ongoing condition. It is considered as the heart of a sentence.
Example: Alex is going home. He loves his home.

4. Adjective
Adjective modifies or describes noun in a sentence.
Example: Alex loves his beautiful daughters. His daughters also love their caring father.

5. Adverb
Adverbs modify or describe adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. It answers the questions When? Where?
How? or How much?
Example: He is running fast. She always reads attentively.

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6. Preposition

Preposition gives context to nouns in relationship to other nouns or pronouns.

Example: I am going to France. France is in Europe.

7. Conjunction

A conjunction connects nouns, noun phrases, clauses or sentences together.

Example: Julie love chocolate and chips. She loves pasta, but she hates pizza.

8. Interjection

Interjections are brief and abrupt pauses in speech, usually used for expressing emotions.
Example: Oh! That feels terrible. Alas! They have lost the match.

NOUN: Definition & types

Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns encompass most of the words
of a language.
Noun can be a/an -
o Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.

o Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.

o Place – a name for a place: - London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.

o Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, door, house, computer, etc.

o Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, superstition, happiness, excitement, etc.

Different Types of Noun:

1. Proper Noun

2. Common Noun

3. Abstract Noun

4. Concrete Noun

5. Countable Noun

6. Non-countable Noun

7. Collective Noun

8. Compound Noun

1. Proper Noun:

A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing and there is no common name
for it. In written English, a proper noun always begins with capital letters.
Examples: Melbourne (it refers to only one particular city), Steve (refers to a particular person),
Australia (there is no other country named Australia; this name is fixed for only one country).

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2. Common Noun:

A common noun is a name for something which is common for many things, person, or places. It
encompasses a particular type of things, person, or places.
Example: Country (it can refer to any country, nothing in particular), city (it can refer to any city like
Melbourne, Mumbai, Toronto, etc. but nothing in particular).
So, a common noun is a word that indicates a person, place, thing, etc. In general and a proper noun is a
specific one of those.

3. Abstract Noun:

An abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It has no physical existence.
Generally, it refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions.
Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc.

4. Concrete Noun:
A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things we see and have physical
existence.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, water, money, sugar, etc.

5. Countable Noun:
The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can take an article: a, an, the.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, etc. (you can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs are countable)

6. Non-countable Noun:
The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns.
Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. (you cannot say “1 water, 2 water, 3 water” because water is not
countable)
Abstract nouns and proper nouns are always non-countable nouns, but common nouns and concrete
nouns can be both count and non-count nouns.
7. Collective Noun:

A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc.

Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.
Collective nouns can be both plural and singular. However, Americans prefer to use collective nouns as
singular, but both of the uses are correct in other parts of the world.

8. Compound Noun:

Sometimes two or three nouns appear together, or even with other parts of speech, and create
idiomatic compound nouns. Idiomatic means that those nouns behave as a unit and, to a lesser or greater
degree, amount to more than the sum of their parts.
Example: six-pack, five-year-old, and son-in-law, snowball, mailbox, etc.
More Types of Noun:

9. Singular Noun:

Singular Nouns are namely, singular in number. The base form of any noun is naturally singular and so that
is the Singular Noun.

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Examples:
Duck, Bush, Man, Mouse, Child, Fish etc. are Singular Nouns.
Singular Noun in a sentence:
o I have a pet duck.
o That big bush is beside our house.
o He is the man of the house.
o Ron’s pet mouse is too vicious for such a little creature.
o Their child has a sound sense of situational adjustments.
o I’d like that small fish, please.

10. Plural Noun:

The plural forms of the Singular Nouns are Plural Nouns. These nouns determine more than one element.
Examples:
Belts, Boxes, Mice, Sheep, People etc. are examples of Plural Noun.
Plural Noun in a sentence:
o There are seven belts in the seat.
o Let’s unpack those boxes.
o Our house is scattered with a herd of mice.
o I’ve chased the sheep back into the shed.
o These people are getting on my nerves.
11. Regular Noun:

Regular Nouns do not change in spelling when changed into plural; only the regular plural suffixes -s or -es
are attached to it according to the grammar and spelling agreement.
Examples:

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Duck Ducks

Belt Belts

Box Boxes

Bush Bushes

Apple Apples

12. Irregular Noun:

Irregular Nouns do not have plural suffixes added to them for their plural form and they monumentally
change in spelling.

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Examples:

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Man Men

Ox Oxen

Fox Vixen

Goose Geese

Mouse Mice

13. Possessive Noun:

The noun that owns something or has something in its possession is the Possessive Noun. These nouns
usually end with an apostrophe before one “s” that determines the possession of the object(s) that follows.
Example:

o My cat’s litter needs changing very soon.

o Jacky’s wallet is stolen.

o Your pet’s feeder is missing.

14. Verbal Noun:

Verb + ing often act as the noun/subject of the sentence instead of posing as a verb and then they become
a Verbal Noun. Gerunds can be Verbal Nouns at times.

Verb Verbal Noun

Run Running

Smoke Smoking

Kill Killing

Treat Treating
Example:
o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Killing the runaway tiger is not a solution.
o Running for dear life is what thieves do.

15. Material Noun:

Substances made out of tangible materials are usually Material Nouns. These are Common Uncountable
Nouns by nature since they mostly determine a certain sector type of product.
Examples:

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o I lack the common fascination with gold.

o Coal produces nonrenewable energy.
o Humans are 70% water.

Functions of Nouns

Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a verb; as an object of a preposition;
and as an adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show possession.
Subject: The company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.
Indirect object: Max gave Carol another chocolate.
Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.
Adverb: The train leaves today.
Adjective: The office building faces the mall.
Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. My brother’s daughter is adorable.

PRONOUN: Definition & Types

A pronoun is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a sentence so that you don’t have to keep
saying/writing that particular noun.
Example:
o Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning. (Here, you don’t have to mention
‘Michael’ again)
o The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to memorize them. (‘He’ replaces ‘the
coach’; ‘them’ replaces ‘several key points’)
The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the previous
example, original noun ‘the coach’ is the antecedent and the pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it refers
back to the original noun. The antecedent and the pronoun/s must agree in terms of number and gender.

Types of Pronoun:

1. Subject Pronouns
2. Object Pronouns
3. Possessive Pronouns
4. Reflexive Pronouns
5. Intensive Pronouns
6. Relative Pronouns
7. Demonstrative Pronouns
8. Interrogative Pronouns

1. Subject Pronouns

Subject pronouns work as the subject of the verb in a sentence. A subject pronoun normally replaces the
subject/object (a noun) of the previous sentence.
Example:

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o Mike can’t attend the party. He has gone to his grandparents.

o Marta is a good storyteller. She told a ghost story that scared everyone.
o Julie made some cakes. They look tasty. (Here, the subject pronoun replaced the object of the
previous sentence)

2. Object Pronouns:

Object pronouns work as the object or indirect object in a sentence replacing the antecedent object. This
form of the pronoun is also used after prepositions.
Example:
o I’ll give you a present on your birthday. I have a great idea for you. (after preposition)

o Tell her that you’ll take the job.

o I have a gift for your boss. Give it to your boss. (Here, ‘it’works as an object)

3. Possessive Pronouns:

Possessive pronouns replace the nouns of the possessive adjectives: my, our, your, her, his, their. The
possessive pronouns are mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. The pronoun ‘who’ also has a possessive
form, whose.
Example:
o I thought my bag was lost, but the one Kesrick found was mine. (Here, ‘mine’ refers to ‘my bag’)

o Their vacation will start next week. Ours is tomorrow. (Here, ‘ours’ refers to ‘our vacation’)

o Those four suitcases are ours.

o Is this yours?

You have to take either her car or theirs. Hers is better than theirs. (Here, ‘her’ is possessive adjective and
‘hers’ and ‘theirs’ are possessive pronouns which replaced ‘her car’ and ‘their car’)
4. Reflexive Pronouns:

Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the subject, which is also the direct object of that
sentence. A reflexive pronoun comes when the subject performs its action upon itself. Here, ‘itself’ is a
reflexive pronoun.
Example:
o Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here, ‘herself’ is the direct object of the clause
and the same person is the subject)

o She allowed herself more time to get ready.

o The computer restarts itself every night.

o We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.

5. Intensive Pronouns:
Intensive pronouns add emphasis/importance but do not act as the object in the sentence. They can appear
right after the subject.

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Example:
o I will do it myself. (Here, ‘myself’ is not an object)

o I myself saw the missing boat into the harbor.

o We intend to do all the work ourselves.

o You yourselves are responsible for this mess.

6. Relative Pronouns:

Relative pronouns introduce the relative clause. They are used to make clear what is being talked about in
a sentence. They describe something more about the subject or the object.
The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possession Uncertainty

Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)

That That ---- (for both things and people)

Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

Example:
o The car that was stolen was the one they loved most.

o A person who loves nature is a good person.

o Our school, which was founded in 1995, is being renovated.

o I will accept whichever party dress you buy me on Valentine's Day.

o Whoever you are behind this great initiative, I want to thank you.

7. Demonstrative Pronouns:

Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or distance from the speaker, either literally or
symbolically. This, these, that, and those are the demonstrative pronouns. They also work as demonstrative
adjectives when they modify a noun. However, demonstrative pronouns do not modify anything rather
replace the nouns/noun phrases.

Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative pronouns.

Example:
o That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
o This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
o Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
o Neither is permitted to enter the building.
o Such are ways of life.

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8. Interrogative Pronouns:

Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which, who, whom, and whose.

Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or animal; what refers to an idea, object, or
event; and which can indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.

Example:

o What was the name of your dog?

o Which is your favorite movie?

o Who works for you?

o Whom do you prefer in this competition?

o There’s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?

VERB: Definition & Types

A verb is a word or a combination of words that indicates action or a state of being or condition. A verb is
the part of a sentence that tells us what the subject performs. Verbs are the hearts of English sentences.

Examples:

o Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)

o Mike is going to school. (A condition of action)

o Albert does not like to walk. (A negative action)

o Anna is a good girl. (A state of being)

Verbs are related to a lot of other factors like the subject, person, number, tense, mood, voice, etc.

Basic Forms of Verbs

There are six basic forms of verbs. These forms are as follows:
o Base form: Children play in the field.
o Infinitive: Tell them not to play
o Past tense: They played football yesterday.
o Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
o Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
o Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.

Different Types of Verbs

01. Main/Base Verb 05. Intransitive Verb 09. Non-finite Verbs

02. Regular/Weak Verb 06. Weak Verb 10. Action Verbs
03. Irregular/Strong Verb 07. Strong Verb 11. Linking Verb
04. Transitive Verb 08. Finite Verbs 12. Auxiliary Verbs

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13. Modal Verbs 17. Lexical Verb 21. Non-continuous Verb

14. Reflexive Verb 18. De-Lexical Verb 22. Participle
15. Ergative Verb 19. Stative/Being Verb 23. Gerund
16. Phrasal Verb 20. Dynamic Verb 24. Infinitive

01. Main / Base Verb

The base verb is the form of a verb where it has no ending (-ing, -ed, -en) added to it. It is also called the
Root Verb since it is the very root form of a verb.
Examples:
o I go to school every day.
o You run a mile every morning.
o Do your homework.

02. Regular Verb

The Verbs that follow the most usual conjugations are considered Regular Verbs. It is regular since it abides
by most if not all of the regular grammar rules there are.
Examples:
o Rehan plays cricket.

o Tam called out my name.

o You really walked all the way back?

03. Irregular Verb

The Verbs that have irregularities in terms of following grammar rules are Irregular Verbs, in general.
Examples:
o Do the dishes.
o I hardly ever drink enough water in a day.
o She drove all the way back.

04. Transitive Verb

The Main Verb that takes a direct object sitting right after it would be a Transitive Verb. They usually
construct the most straightforward of sentences.
Examples:
o She went to the fair.
o We do not like being called out loud in crowds.
o I love visiting my village home.

05. Intransitive Verb

The main Verb that does not take a direct object specified right afterward and rather there is an indirect
one mentioned somewhere along the line is called an Intransitive Verb. These verbs often make the
corresponding sentences incomplete.

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Example:
o I laughed.

o John ran.

o A ghast of cold wind blew.

06. Weak Verb

Verbs that end with “-d” and “-t” in their Past Indefinite and Past Participle form are Weak Verbs. There is
a tendency to associate Weak Verbs with Regular Verbs but not all Weak Verbs are Regular Verbs in the
English language.
Examples:

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

Spend Spent

Walk Walked

Book Booked

Learn Learnt

Want Wanted

07. Strong Verb

Strong Verbs are those in which the vowels in the verb stem changes from “i” to “a” to “u” in the Present
Indefinite to Past Indefinite to Past Participle form of Verbs.
Examples:

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Past Participle

Ring Rang Rung

Drink Drank Drunk

Cling Clang Clung

Swim Swam Swum

Sing Sang Sung

Wring Wrang Wrung

08. Finite Verbs

Finite verbs are the actual verbs that are called the roots of sentences. It is a form of a verb that is
performed by or refers to a subject and uses one of the twelve forms of tense and changes according to the
number/person of the subject.
Example:

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o Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This information is evident
only by the verb ‘went’.)

o Robert plays hockey.

o He is playing for Australia.

o He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject itself.)

09. Non-finite Verbs

Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence rather they work as nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change according to the number/person of the subject
because these verbs, also called verbals, do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they
become the subject themselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles become finite verbs when
they take auxiliary verbs.)

Example:

o Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)

o Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)

o I have a broken bat. (Past participle)

o Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)

10. Action Verbs

Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can make the listener/reader
feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands something/someone to be acted
upon.
Example:
o I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
o She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she reading?” – the
answer is the object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition, or
another part of speech.
Example:
o She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’ does not fall
upon anything/anyone)
o I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)

NOTE: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is sufficient to make a complete sentence but

{Subject + Transitive verb} is not sufficient because transitive verbs demand a direct object.

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11. Linking Verb

A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it connects the subject and
the complement — that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates a link between them instead of
showing action.
Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement redefines or restates the subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were. However, there are some
other verbs that can work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking verbs, you should try replacing
them with forms of the be verbs. If the changed sentence makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.
Example:
o She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
o The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
o You look happy. (You are happy.)

12. Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the main verb by helping to show
time, tense, and possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
o Alex is going to school.

o They are walking in the park.

o I have seen a movie.

o Do you drink tea?

o Don’t waste your time.

o Please, do submit your assignments.

13. Modal Verbs

A modal verb is a kind of auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate possibility, potentiality, ability,
permission, expectation, and obligation.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will, would.
Example:
o I may want to talk to you again.

o They must play their best game to win.

o She should call him.

o I will go there.

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14. Reflexive Verb

When the Subject and the Object are the same and the Verb reflects on the Subject, that is the Reflexive
Verb. These Verbs are often used with Reflexive Pronouns like - myself, himself, herself, itself etc.
Examples:
o He has done it himself.
o I'll watch it myself.

15. Ergative Verb

Ergative Verbs can be used as Transitive and Intransitive Verb. They are also called Labile Verb in English.
Examples:

Intransitive Verbs Transitive Verbs

The door opens. I opened the door.

The bell rang. She rang the bell.

The light is fused. They fused the lights.

The whistle blew. Tom blew the whistle.

16. Phrasal Verb

An idiomatic phrase consisting of a Verb and another element, most likely an Adverb or a Preposition is
called a Phrasal Verb.
Examples:
o She broke down in tears.
o Don't look down upon the poor.
o I'll see to it.
17. Lexical Verb

Lexical Verb is the main or principal verb of a sentence which typically takes the major responsibility of a
Verb that represents the action of the Noun or Pronoun.
Examples:
o He ran to his father.
o I laughed out loud.
o Rina tried her best.

18. De-Lexical Verb

De-Lexical Verbs lack importance when it comes to meaning since these Verbs hardly have meanings of their
own when used individually. The meaning is taken out of the Verbs and put into the Noun. Take, have, make,
give etc. are De-Lexical Verbs.
Examples:
o He took a shower.
o I had a cold drink.
o She made some arrangements.

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19. Stative Verb

The Verbs that describe the state of being are called Stative or Being Verbs.
Examples:
o I need some boxes.
o You belong to the pomp and power.
o He smells danger.
o They remember what happened that day.

20. Dynamic Verb

The Verbs that entail continuous or progressive action of the Subject are called Dynamic or Fientive Verbs.
They express the Subject’s state of being on the move.
Examples:
o He’s running fast.
o Keep hitting the ball hard.
o The dog goes for a walk every afternoon.

21. Non-continuous Verb

The Verbs that are usually never used in their continuous forms are called Non-continuous Verbs.
Examples:

I like to swim. I'm liking to swim.

I love to do the chords. I'm loving to do the chords.

He does not hate you. He's hating you.

She just feels a bit dizzy, no need to worry. She's just feeling a bit dizzy.
22. Intensive Verb

The Verbs that focus intensely on just the Subject are called Intensive Verbs. Intensive Verbs are also called
Linking or Copular Verbs.
Examples:
o You seem happy.
o It appears to be just perfect.
o She looks stunning.
o He's become rather irritable.

23. Extensive Verb

All the Verbs that do not focus intensively on just the Subject (as the Intensive Verbs) of the sentence are
Extensive Verbs.
Examples:
o He loves her.
o She runs too fast.
o Ron sells fish.

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24. Participle

A participle is a Verb form where they retain some of the characteristics and functions of both Verbs and
adopt those of the Adjectives.
Examples:
Present Participle (Verb + -ing)

o Have I become a laughing stock?

o Cycling is a well-rounded exercise.

Past Participle

o I have taken a hint.

o Have you given it enough thought?

Perfect Participle (Having + Past Participle)

o Having said that, I was quite worried.

o Having stepped out of my comfort zone, I saw a whole new world.

25. Gerund

The Verbs having -ing endings that function like Nouns in sentences are called Gerunds.
Examples:
o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Walking is good for health.
o I love swimming.
26. Infinitive

The 'to + Verb' forms where the Verbs are at their base or stem forms while they function as Nouns,
Adjectives or Adverbs instead of Verbs.
Examples:
o I wanted to help you out.
o Are you trying to go there?
o I just love to flaunt my new Ferarri.

ADVERB: Definition & Types

An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It tells when, where,
and how an action is performed or indicates the quality or degree of the action.
Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not adverbs. Many words
can be both adverbs and adjectives according to their activity in the sentence.
Example:
o Robin is always hungry for success. o Alex works hard.
o I love her very much. o He wrote that willingly.
o He is running fast.

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Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that modify the verbs, adjectives or other
adverbs in the sentence.
Example:
o He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause)
o He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase)
o We were panicked without any reason. (Adverb Phrase)

Types of Adverbs:

1. Conjunctive Adverbs
2. Sentence Adverbs
3. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
4. Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
5. Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
6. Adverbs of Manner (How?)

1. Conjunctive Adverbs:
A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It provides transitions between ideas and
shows relationships. Conjunctive adverbs are also called connectors.
Example:
o It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been canceled.
o We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.
o Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could not grow crops.
2. Sentence Adverbs:
A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence.

Example:

o Hopefully, we will win the match.

o Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.

o Certainly, I did not think of coming here.

3. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)

Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action in the sentence. They answer the
question ‘when/how frequently is the action performed?’.

Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once, forever, seldom, before, Sunday,
Monday, 10 AM, 12 PM, etc. are common adverbs of time/frequency.

Example:
o I went to school a little late yesterday.
o He always gets a good result.
o I will leave Monday.
o He smokes occasionally.

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4. Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)

Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the sentence. They answer the
question ‘ where is the action performed?’.
Across, over, under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here, sideways, upstairs, in the park, in the
field, in that place, etc. are some common adverbs of place/direction.
Example:
o I went through the jungle.
o He plays in the field.
o Alex is going to school.
o He is staying at my home.
5. Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)

Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of
degree. They answer the question ‘how much is the action performed?’.
Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are common
adverbs of degree.
Example:
o She completely forgot about her anniversary.
o I read the newspaper thoroughly.
o I am so excited about the new job.
o Robin hardly studies
6. Adverbs of Manner (How?)
Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of
manner. They answer the question ‘how is the action performed?’.
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully, earnestly, nicely,
tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs of manner. These adverbs usually end in ly.
Example:
o Let's divide the prizes equally. o Mike is walking slowly.
o Please, handle the camera carefully. o He is running fast.

ADJECTIVE: Definition & Types

An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally indicates quality, size,
shape, duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns they modify/describe by
answering the questions: What kind? How many? Which one? How much? Adjectives enrich your writing
by adding precision and originality to it.
Example:
o The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?)
o I have ten candies in my pocket. (How many?)
o I loved that red car. (Which one?)
o I earn more money than he does. (How much?)
However, there are also many adjectives which do not fit into these questions. Adjectives are the most used
parts of speech in sentences. There are several types of adjectives according to their uses.

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Types of Adjectives
1. Descriptive Adjectives
2. Quantitative Adjectives
3. Proper Adjectives
4. Demonstrative Adjectives
5. Possessive Adjectives
6. Interrogative Adjectives
7. Indefinite Adjectives
8. Articles
9. Compound Adjectives

1. Descriptive Adjectives:
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong in this
type. These adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe.
Descriptive adjectives are also called qualitative adjectives.
Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.
Examples:
o I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car)
o I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)
o The hungry cats are crying.
o I saw a flying Eagle.
2. Quantitative Adjectives:
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs
to the question category of ‘how much’ and ‘how many’.
Examples:
o I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much)
o They have three children. (How many)
o You should have completed the whole task. (How much)

3. Proper Adjectives:
Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify or describe other
nouns/pronouns, they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means ‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or ‘polite.’
A proper adjective allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of writing/saying ‘a food
cooked in Chinese recipe’ you can write/say ‘Chinese food’. Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as
proper nouns are.
Example:
o American cars are very strong.
o Chinese people are hard workers.
o I love KFC burgers.
o Marxist philosophers despise capitalism.

4. Demonstrative Adjectives:
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone. Demonstrative adjectives include the
words: this, that, these, those.

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A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative adjective always
comes before the word it modifies.
Examples:
o That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the speaker)
o This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)
o These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker)
o Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker)

5. Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of something to
someone/something. Some of the most used possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your.
All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words demand a noun
after them.
Examples:
o My car is parked outside.
o His cat is very cute.
o Our job is almost done.
o Her books are interesting.

6. Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective must be followed by a noun or a
pronoun. The interrogative adjectives are: which, what, whose. These words will not be considered as
adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them. ‘Whose’ also belongs to the possessive adjective type.
Examples:
o Which phone do you use?
o What game do you want to play?
o Whose car is this?

7. Indefinite Adjectives:
An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun un-specifically. They provide indefinite/unspecific
information about the noun. The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, any, each,
every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.
Examples:
o I gave some candy to her.
o I want a few moments alone.
o Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
o Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.

8. Articles
Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles are also adjectives. Articles determine the specification of nouns.
‘A’ and ‘an’ are used to refer to an unspecific noun, and ‘the’ is used to refer to a specific noun.
Examples:
o A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the noun ‘cat’ refers to any cat, not specific.)
o The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific cat.)
o An electronic product should always be handled with care.

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9. Compound Adjectives:

When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become a compound adjective. This
type of adjective usually combines more than one word into a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. They
are often separated by a hyphen or joined together by a quotation mark.
Example:

o I have a broken-down sofa.

o I saw a six-foot-long snake.
o He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you now” look.

The Degree of Adjectives:

There are three degrees of adjectives:
(i) Positive (ii) Comparative (iii) Superlative
These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives.
Examples:
Positive degree: He is a good boy.
Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.
Superlative: He is the best boy.

PREPOSITION: Definition & Types

A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words of a sentence.
They explain relationships of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of
the sentence. They help us understand order, time connections, and positions.
Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about prepositions.
FIRST, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the language. We
use a fixed set of prepositions.
SECOND, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything
else.
THIRD, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to be
confused about it.
FOURTH, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are
called phrasal prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions: because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf
of, on account of, in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition

Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are common in every type of
preposition as they function in a versatile way.

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1. Simple Preposition 6. Detached Preposition

2. Double Preposition 7. Prepositions of Time

3. Compound Preposition 8. Prepositions of Place and Direction

4. Participle Preposition 9. Prepositions of Agents or Things

5. Disguised Preposition 10. Phrasal Prepositions

1. Simple Preposition
These are among the most common type of prepositions. The prepositions used to express the relationship
the Nouns and Pronouns of a sentence have with the rest of the words in it are called Simple Prepositions.
They are often used to join two clauses in terms of Complex Sentence and Compound Sentence.
Examples:

Most Popular Prepositions

and but at to on in

for of up off from out

with during down below beside over

by near behind inside among along

2. Double Preposition
Two Simple Prepositions joining together to form one which connects the Noun(s) or Pronoun(s) to the rest
the words in a sentence.
Examples:

o Are you out of your mind?

o I was allowed the inside of the temple.

o She’s sandwiched in between two of her cousins.

3. Compound Preposition
Compound Prepositions are composed of prepositions as well as other words. Compound Prepositions are
easily confused with Double Prepositions since they both require other prepositions or words to help with
acting like a preposition.
Examples:

o According to my calculations, this color should work just fine.

o I started for home, with a view to celebrating Eid with my family.

o On behalf of our family, my father attended the family reunion.

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4. Participle Preposition
Present Participles (-ing) and Past Participles (-ed and -en) that are used as Prepositions instead of Verbs,
are called Participle Prepositions. These are participles as well as prepositions.
Examples:

Present Participle Prepositions Past Participles Prepositions

Assuming Respected

Barring Given

Considering Gone

During Barred

Notwithstanding Provided

Regarding Taken
Participle Prepositions Used in Sentences:
o Barred from the entrance, he threw a fit.
o I was happy given the fact that I got great marks.
o Assuming the possibility of rain, she carried an umbrella.

5. Disguised Preposition
These prepositions are usually disguised as some other element in the English language. Often these
prepositions are disguised as "a" and "o" in sentences.
Examples:
o I wake up at 5 o'clock. (Of the clock)
o Keep striding ahead. (on the head)
o Pope went ashore. (onshore)
o Rimi visits the riverbank once a day. (in a day)
6. Detached Preposition
A preposition that has been detached and sent to the very end of the sentence is called Detached
Preposition. These prepositions are detached from the interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs but
get detached for the sake of the integrity of sentences.
Examples:
o Where are you coming from?
o Is that the neighborhood you are headed to?
o I won't tolerate being screamed at.

7. Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence. On,
at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October.
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday.

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8. Prepositions of Place and Direction

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of, behind, above,
over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions of place/direction.
Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house.
o I live across the river.

9. Prepositions of Agents or Things

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the
sentence. Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things.
Example:
o This article is about smartphones.
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers.
10. Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words that
function as a preposition. Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary
to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with
regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.
CONJUNCTION: Definition & Types

Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing sentences.
Conjunctions make a link between/among words or groups of words to other parts of the sentence and
show a relationship between/among them.
Example:
o Alex and Robin are playing together.
o Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
o I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
o When he was sick, I went to see him.
Types of Conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

2. Correlative Conjunctions

3. Subordinating Conjunctions

4. Compound Conjunction

5. Adverbial Conjunction

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1. Coordinating Conjunctions
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or independent clauses, which are
parallel in structure. There are seven coordinating conjunctions which are by far the most common
conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
It's easier to memorize the seven Coordinating Conjunctions with the acronym - FANBOYS.
For - I was meaning to leave soon, for I was getting late to the next class.
And - Freya left quickly and I was worried about her.
Nor - They weren’t up for athletics nor was I.
But - We were running late but it wasn’t possible to get out of here anytime soon.
Or - Is it okay or should I go for the last laugh?
Yet - It was early in the morning yet we were all ready to go home.
So - He was panicking so we were cautious.
Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want ice cream or would some chocolates be more preferable?
o Go away and never come back.
2. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show a contrast or to compare
the equal parts of a sentence. The words of correlative conjunctions have a special connection between
them. The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both - and, not - but,
whether - or etc.
Example:
o Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and cereal
o He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
o Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.
o She didn’t know whether to call in or wait her turn.
3. Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparallel sentence structure. These elements are usually
a dependent clause and an independent clause. The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as much as, inasmuch as,
unless, while, because, provided, until, who/whom, before, since, what, whoever and whomever.

Time Comparison Condition

After Than If
Before Rather than If only
As soon as Whether Unless
Until Whereas Provided
Whenever Provided that
Now Supposing
Now that Assuming
When Assuming that
Now when
Once
Till
While
As long as

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Reason Relativity Opinion

As That Though
Because What Although
Since Whatever Even though
Inasmuch as Which As though
In order to Whichever As if
In order that Who How
So that Whoever
Why Whom
Lest Whomever
Whose
Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
o Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.

4. Compound Conjunction

These are conjunctions that have two or three parts. Each and every part of these does not have to be
conjunctions themselves. The parts become inseparable in the sense that they tend to pop up next to one
another more often and not.
Examples:
o We love to go skinny dipping as well as busking in the sun.
o He acted as if it were his first time under the sun.
o I made a deal to see them provided that I was assured police protection.
o I hurried out of the room so that I didn’t have to listen to her anymore.
5. Adverbial Conjunction

They help bring together two complete thoughts like some of the other Conjunctions while also
being Adverbs themselves. They are also called Conjunctive Adverbs.
List of Adverbial Conjunctions

To compare To contrast Time To emphasize

Similarly But Lately Undoubtedly

Like However Since Definitely
As Instead Now Certainly
Likewise Rather Meanwhile Of course
In spite of Before Indeed

To summarize To exemplify Effect Sequence

Briefly For example Accordingly First

Merely For instance Consequently Next
Quickly Namely Hence Finally
In conclusion Typically Therefore Furthermore
In summary Representatively Then In addition
Moreover

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Examples:
o I was looking for a tea stall; additionally, I needed a salon for a complete makeover.
o Tim was banking on his skills as a salesman. Meanwhile, he should have researched the clients.
o I shouted my discomfort out, that is, I didn’t like the stares I was getting.
o Mila was on her way back home, therefore, the world she left behind her didn’t bother her as
much.

Punctuations with Conjunctions

Two independent clauses in a sentence must be separated by a comma and that goes for no matter what
conjunction is used. If the clauses attached by the conjunction can stand as complete sentences, a comma
must be used between them.
Examples:
o I'm doing fine, but I have my own struggles.
o You were running the marathon, and I was cheering you on.
o My father was unsure of the result, though he was keeping it together.
While using the Subordinating Conjunctions to attach Dependent and Independent Clauses in a sentence,
there are two ways to construct these complex sentences and one of them requires a comma separating
the two clauses. The comma becomes an integral part of the sentence when the Subordinating Conjunctions
are placed at the start of the sentence.
Examples:
o (Comma) If you are going for gold, I'll come with you.
o (No comma) I'll come with you if you are going for gold.
o (Comma) Though we are running late, we can help you install your home theatre.
o (No comma) We can help you install your home theatre though we are running late.
In the case of Adverbial Conjunctions joining two independent clauses, the most common punctuational
practice is to use a semicolon before It and a comma after that while the two complete thoughts are
situated on either side. Some opt for two commas on both sides of the conjunction and there is another
practice to separate the two clauses with a period while the capitalized conjunction starts the next sentence
followed by a comma.
Examples:
o Sam was worried about the rain; therefore, she didn’t do her laundry today.
o I was there with her 24/7. Moreover, I kept a close eye on her every move.
o Matt was agitated, however, the rest of us were trying to convince him to stay.

INTERJECTION: Definition & Types

An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech. Actually, it is a brief and abrupt pause
in speech for expressing emotions.
They are unique and have some interesting features:
o Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in sentence construction.
o They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
o They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence.
o They are highly context-sensitive.

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In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our reaction to something which
influences our emotion. They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense. However, for
formal speech or writing, using interjections is not appropriate.

Types of Interjections
1. Primary Interjection
2. Secondary Interjection
3. Mild Interjection
4. Strong Interjection
5. Volitive Interjection
6. Emotive Interjection
7. Cognitive Interjection
There are basically two types of it and they are -

1. Primary Interjection
The words that are exclusively interjections and cannot be classified as any other Parts of Speech are
called Primary Interjections.
Examples:

List of Primary Interjections

Phew Wow Oh Blah

Huh Aw God Oops

Hurray Yuck Gee Ugh

Ouch Alas Geez Meh

o Oops, My bad. o Wow! You had time to o Alas! I couldn’t be there

join us. on time.

2. Secondary Interjection
The Nouns, Adjectives, and other Parts of Speech that act as interjections on occasions are called Secondary
Interjections.
Examples:
o Indeed, I was waiting for your premonitions.
o Goodness! How did you go through all these books in a day?
o Holy cow! You're the last person I expected.
Based on the severity of the expressions, Interjections are categorized into two types -

1. Mild Interjection

The relatively mild expression of feelings and emotions is usually called Mild Interjections. These types are
typically separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Examples:
o Oh, I was looking for you. o Hmm, I'm doing well.
o Well, it wasn't very easy.

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2. Strong Interjection

The strong outbursts of expression are determined as Strong Interjections. These types are typically
separated from the rest of the sentence by exclamation marks.
Examples:
o Yay! I finally passed.

o Bingo! Found it.

o Ouch! That hurt.

Based on the kind of emotions conveyed, Interjections are divided into three categories -

1. Volitive Interjection

Commands, requests, and wishes are usually expressed with Volitive Interjections. In the speech, "I want"
expressions are replaced with Volitive Interjections.
"Enough" expresses the wish to stop listening to someone and maybe put forward a contesting statement.
"Shoo" tends to express the speaker's wish to drive someone away.
Examples:
o Shh (I want you to be quiet) - Shh! We have to keep it quiet.
o Ahem (I request your attention) - Ahem! I was looking at another problem.
o Psst (I want to attract attention in secrecy) - Psst! I've started working out.
2. Emotive Interjection

The words to express sudden spur of emotions like surprise, delight, sorrow, disgust and fear are Emotive
Interjections. These types usually replace the "I feel" expressions in speech.
"Eww" means to convey - "I feel disgusted" and "Phew" means to express - "I feel relieved".
Examples:
o Ugh (I feel disgusted) - Ugh! What is that filthy smell?
o Ouch (I feel hurt) - Ouch! These ants sting.
o Yippee (I feel elated) - Yippee! We ended the year victorious.

3. Cognitive Interjection

Words that are born off cognition and used as exclamations are called Cognitive Interjections. These types
are used to convey the feelings and emotions that people come across and understand through experience.
Examples:
o Well, I'll try harder.
o Bravo! What a performance!
o Gosh, you're so fast.
Interjections mainly have four roles:

RULE 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There are also many
taboo words that are usually used in everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into
the category of interjections.

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Example:
o Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
o Aw, I did not want him to come.
o What? You never told me that!
RULE 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s attention for a
moment. These are just sounds, not words because these sounds do not make any sense.
Example:
o Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
o I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.
RULE 3: Some interjections express only yes or no.
Example:
o Yes! I will most definitely do it.
o Nah, we are not going.
RULE 4: Some are used to get someone’s attention.
Example:
o Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
o Hey! Will you give me that ball?
o Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?
Examples of Interjections for Greeting
Definition of Interjections for Greeting: Interjections for greeting are used to greet any person.
Examples of Interjections for Greeting:
o Hi! How is your health now?
o Hello! How are you, Peter?
o Hey! Where are you going?
o Hi! How’s your business going on?
o Hello! Is there anyone here?
o Hey! You must be kidding.
o Hello! Jack, after such a long time we have met.
o Hey! Don’t be so hopeless.
o Hey! Listen to me.
o Hi! How’s everyone at home?
o Hello! I am talking to you.
o Hi! Are you new here?
o Hey! Why are you so worried?
o Hi! Come here.
o Hello! What has brought you here?
o Hey! Why are you feeling so helpless?
o Hey! Don’t be so rude.
o Hi! Have you done the assignment?
o Hey! Are you going?
o Hi! Take your sit.

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Examples of Interjections for Joy

Definition of Interjections for Joy: Interjections for joy express happiness or joy.
Examples of Interjections for Joy:
o Hurray! My team has won the tournament.
o Wow! The scenery is so eye-catching.
o Yippee! We are going for a picnic.
o Hurray! I have won the first prize.
o Wow! The house is so well decorated.
o Wow! The movie was marvelous.
o Wow! The program is magnificent.
o Hurray! My poem is published in magazine.
o Hurray! My article is published in magazine.
o Wow! The dress is so gorgeous.
o Wow! The bird is so beautiful.
o Yippee! We are going to the concert.
o Wow! The song is so melodious.
o Wow! The painting is mind-blowing.
o Hurray! I have won the lottery.
o Yippee! We are going to the fair.
o Wow! The bungalow is so huge.
o Hurray! I have stood first in the test.
o Wow! Actor’s performance was brilliant.
Examples of Interjections for Surprise
Definition of Interjections for Surprise: Interjections for surprise express an intense sense of surprise on
the happening of something.
o What! You have broken the show-piece.
o Eh! You have done a mess.
o Ah! What have you done?
o Oh! What a hot and humid day!
o Hey! Are you sure about it?
o Oh! What a glorious victory!
o Oh! What a heavenly beautiful scenery!
o Ah! You have done a blunder.
o Eh! You have spoiled the dish.
o What! You did not sit for the exam.
o What! You are playing on the field now.
o Hey! What have you done?
o Oh! You shouldn’t have done it.
o Oh! What will happen now?
o Ah! John has spoiled our plan.
o What! Ben is not coming.
o Oh! The movie is too long.
o Oh! Don’t say that you have done it.
o What! Allen denied doing the task.
o What! Albert is not performing.

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Examples of Interjections for Grief/Pain

Definition of Interjections for Grief/Pain: Interjections for grief/pain express an intense sense of grief/ pain
in any unfortunate event.
Examples of Interjections for Grief/Pain:
o Ah! Our team lost the match.
o Alas! John’s father died yesterday.
o Ouch! I hurt my ankle.
o What a pity! You have lost your tab.
o Ah! Our plan has failed.
o Ah! The project turned into a failure.
o Ouch! I have hurt my knee.
o Ouch! I have fallen down.
o Ouch! I have hurt my toe.
o Ouch! I hurt my wrist.
o Ouch! I hurt my elbow.
o Ah! The program was boring.
o Ah! The plan did not work.
o Oh! The story was really sad.
o Oh! The man is so weak.
o Oh! Two of our team members are sick.
o Ah! Aric has broken his leg.
o Alas! Andrew’s uncle died yesterday.
o Ah! Allen has broken his hand.
o Ah! Bob has met with an accident.
Examples of Interjections for Approval
Definition of Interjections for Approval: Interjections for approval express an intense approval on
something that has occurred.
Examples of Interjections for Approval
o Bravo! John has taken a wicket. o Well done! Your design is beautiful.
o Well done! You have done a good job. o Brilliant! Your plan is outstanding.
o Brilliant! Your article is so helpful. o Bravo! Lisa has won the quiz contest.
o Splendid! I like your work. o Bravo! Jeff has stood first.
o Well done! You have got the highest marks. o Bravo! Alice has got the highest marks.
o Bravo! Richard has scored a goal. o Well done! You acted really well.
o Well done! You sang really well. o Brilliant! Your writing is flawless.
o Yummy! The cake is so delicious. o Well done! You painted really good.
o Yummy! The pudding is really tasty. o Splendid! I like your design.
o Yummy! I loved your cooking. o Bravo! Allen has become the highest scorer.

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ARTICLE: Definition & Types

There is no doubt that articles are adjectives since they modify the nouns after them. But articles have some
special significance as determiners. Articles determine the standard of nouns.
There are two types of articles:
1. Definite Article - the
The makes the noun something particular and definite.
Example:
o Give me the ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a particular ball about which the speaker and the
listener both are aware. There is no possibility of the ball to be anything else rather than the speaker and
the listener idea of that particular ball.)
2. Indefinite Article - a & an
A & an - make the noun something general and indefinite.
Example:
o Give me a ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a random ball about which the listener is not
particularly aware of, and s/he might ask ‘which/what kind of ball you want?’.)
o Give me an egg. (It can be any kind of egg – the possibility is open.)
Rules of Using Articles with Examples

Definite article or Indefinite article, each of the articles has different uses in different situations.
Using Indefinite Article: a & an
Rule 1: A common noun in the singular number always requires an article before it. But a plural common
noun does not require an article always. A plural common noun can have the article ‘the’ if we want to
particularize that noun.
Example:
o I saw a snake. (Refers to a random snake)
o I saw snakes in a zoo. (No article is required)
o I have seen the snake again. (Refers to the snake I have already seen earlier)
o I have seen the snakes again before leaving the zoo. (Refers to the particular snakes of the zoo
which I saw earlier.)
Rule 2: The choice between the two indefinite articles – a & an – is determined by sound. Words beginning
with consonant sounds precede ‘a’ and words beginning with vowel sounds precede ‘an’. There are some
special cases also. For instance,

o a university, a union, a useful book, etc.

o a one-dollar note, a one-man army, etc.

o an MA, a BA, an LLB, a BSC, etc.

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Rule 3: A or an - sometimes makes a Proper Noun a Common Noun. Proper nouns generally do not take any
articles, but when a proper noun needs to be used as a common noun, you must bring a or an - for it.
Example:
o He thinks he is a Shakespeare. (Here, ‘Shakespeare’ does not refer to the actual person but
someone like him.)
o He seems to be an Australian. (‘Australia’ is a proper noun but ‘Australian’ is a common noun
because there is only one Australia but a million of Australians.)
Rule 4: Sometimes indefinite articles are used to refer the number ‘one’/’each’/’per’.
Example:
o I earned a thousand dollar in that job. (One thousand dollar)
o I have a car. (One car)
o It goes 50 miles an hour. (Per Hour)
Rule 5: Indefinite articles often precede descriptive adjectives.
Example:
o He is a good boy.
o What a nice car!
Rule 6: ‘A’ sometimes comes before determiners, for example, a few, a little, a lot of, a most, etc. but in the
case of many, a or an - comes after.
Example:
o I have a few friends coming over.
o There is a little milk in the jar.
o Many a fan welcomed
Using Definite Article: the
Rule 1: ‘The’ is used to indicate a particular person(s) or thing(s) in the case of common nouns. Proper nouns
generally do not take an article.
Example:
o The man is running. (A particular man)
o I saw the boy stealing.
o Where is the pen I gave you last year?
o I gave him a ball, but he lost the ball. (‘a ball’ became ‘the ball’ in the second clause because that
ball was not a random ball anymore.)
Rule 2: Sometimes ‘the’ is used to generalize a group/whole class.
Example:
o The dog is a faithful animal. (Refers to the whole species of dog.)
o The English are industrious. (Refers to the people of England as a nation)
o The honest are respected. (The + adjectives = plural noun)
o The poor are not always dishonest. (The + adjectives = plural noun)

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Rule 3: To particularize a non-count noun ‘the’ is required before it.

Example:
o The water of the Arctic ocean is freezing.
o Please return the money I lent you last year.
Rule 4: ‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in the universe.
Example:
o The moon is shining tonight.
o The earth is moving around the sun.
Use of ‘the’ before geographical places :
Rule 5: Using ‘the’ with geographical nouns generally depends on the size and plurality of the things those
nouns refer to. ‘The’ is generally used everywhere except some cases. So, it’s better to know those
exceptions first.
‘The’ must not precede:
o Names of continents: Asia, Europe, Australia, Africa, South America, North America, Antarctica.
o Names of countries: Australia, Bolivia, England, France, Spain, etc.
o Names of states, cities, or towns: Los Angeles, Alaska, Sydney, London,
o Names of streets: George street, Albion Street, New town street,
o Names of singular lakes and bays: Lake Carey, Lake Eyre, Lake Hillier, Shark Bay,
o Names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Solitary, Mount Bindo, Mount Fuji, etc.
o Names of single islands: Easter Island, Bare Island, Bird Island, Fatima Island,
o Names of languages: Spanish, Russian, English, (When ‘the’ precedes these nouns, they refer to
the population of those languages.)
o Names of sports: cricket, football, basketball,
o Names of discipline/subject of studies: biology, history, computer science,mathematics,
NOTE: ‘The’ is a widely used article in English. Except for the list mentioned above and proper nouns, ‘the’ is
used before almost all the nouns which mean something definite/particular. The above list has some
opposite factors also. Those factors are explained in the following list:
‘The’ must precede:
o Names of oceans, gulfs, seas, and rivers: the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Coral Sea, the Timor Sea,
the Persian Gulf, the Nile, the Murray River, the Darling River, etc.
o Names of countries with united states or islands: the United States of America (the USA), the UK,
the UAE, the Philippines, etc.
o Names of great lakes: the Great Lakes, the African Great Lakes
o Names of mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, etc.
o Names of a group of Islands: the West Indies, the Andamans, etc.

NUMBER: Types, Rules & Examples

In grammar, the number refers to the count of a noun or pronoun.

Example: Boy-boys, wife-wives, my-our, ox-oxen, it-they, etc.

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Types of Number: Two types exist

• Singular Number
• Plural Number

1. Singular Number
It refers to the count of only one of a noun or pronoun.
Example: pen, table, aunt, father, goose, etc.
2. Plural Number
It refers to the count of more than one of a noun or pronoun.
Example: pens, tables, aunts, fathers, geese, etc.
How to change number
Numerous RULES are there to change the number from singular to plural. They are as follows-
Rule 1: In general “s” is used at the end of a singular noun to make it plural. Example:
Singular Plural

Pencil Pencils

Cow Cows

House Houses

Dog Dogs

Mobile Mobiles
Rule 2: If there exist s, sh, ch, x and z in the end, “es” gets to be used. Examples:
Singular Plural

Bus Buses

Dish Dishes

Branch Branches

Fox Foxes

Fez Fezes
Rule 3: While pronunciation of ch is like “k”, just “s” is added at the end. Example:
Singular Plural

Monarch Monarchs

Patriarch Patriarchs

Matriarch Matriarchs

Stomach Stomachs

Hierarch Hierarchs

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Part 1: when there’s a “y” in the end & a Consonant before that “y”, “i” substitutes it and an “es” thereafter.
Singular Plural

Story Stories

Hobby Hobbies

Army Armies

Fly Flies

Baby Babies
Part 2: but if there’s a vowel ahead of that “y”, no need to change it, only “s” to add.
Example

Singular Plural

Donkey Donkeys

Toy Toys

Day Days

Joy Joys

Play Plays
Rule 4: “v” replaces f or fe and then adds an “es” to finish it. Example:
Singular Plural

thief Thieves

Wife Wives

Knife Knives

Wolf Wolves

Leaf Leaves
Part 1: “es” to be added if the noun is finished by “o” and a consonant places ahead. Example:
Singular Plural

Hero Heroes

Mango Mangoes

Zero Zeroes

Potato Potatoes

Echo Echoes

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Part 2: but when there’s a vowel before that “o”, only “s” is enough.
Example
Singular Plural

Cuckoo Cuckoos

Bamboo Bamboos

Studio Studios

Portfolio Portfolios

Cameo Cameos
Exception 1: though there’s an “o” and a consonant ahead of it, some nouns use only “s”.
Example:
Singular Plural

Photo Photos

Piano Pianos

Radio Radios

Canto Cantos

Memo Memos
Exception 2: for some, “s” and “es” both are correct.
Singular Plural

Mosquito Mosquitos/mosquitoes

Commando Commandos/commandoes

Portico Porticos/porticoes

Calico Calicos/calicoes

Memento Mementos/mementoes
Rule 5: Some require changing the middle-vowel of the word to make it plural. Example:
Singular Plural

Man Men

Woman Women

Foot Feet

Mouse Mice

Tooth Teeth

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Rule 6: Some require en, ren and ne to add at last.Example:

Singular Plural

Ox Oxen

Child Children

Brother Brethren (brothers also correct)

Cow Kine (cows also correct)

Sister Sistren (sisters also correct)

Part 1: if “man” means human being in a compound noun(a noun that contains two or more words that
jointly make a single noun), “men”replaces that “man”. Example:
Singular Plural

Fisherman Fishermen

Workman Workmen

Boatman Boatmen

Man-of-war Men-of-war

Salesman salesmen
Part 2: but when “man” is just a part of the word, or it refers to any ethnic group, race or civilian, there
comes “s”.
Singular Plural

Mussalman Mussalmans

Brahman Brahmans

German Germans

Norman Normans
Rule 7: “s” to be added when there’s a “ful” in the end.
Example:
Singular Plural

Handful Handfuls

Mouthful mouthfuls

Spoonful Spoonfuls

armful Armfuls

cupful cupfuls

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Part 1: If compound noun contains several words, “s” comes to join with the main part of that noun.
Example:
Singular Plural

Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law

Passers-by Passers-by

Step-brother Step-brothers

Commander-in-chief Commanders-in-chief

Maid-servant Maid-servants
Part 2: in some cases, “s” comes in every part to make it so.
Example:
Singular Plural

Lord-justice Lords-justices

Man-servant Men-servants

Woman-servant Women-servants
Rule 8: Besides, adding “s” only in the end gets it done for few.
Example:
Singular Plural

Book-shelf Book-shelves

Book-case Book-cases

Major-general Major-generals

Poet-laurete Poet-lauretes

Forget-me-not Forget-me-nots
Rule 9: Some singular nouns have no plural form, only used in singular.
Example:
Furniture

Scenery

Issue

Bread

Expenditure

Advice

Information

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Rule 9: Adversely, some are always used as a plural form.

Example:
Mumps

Scissors

Trousers

Spectacles

Assets
Rule 10: Though some nouns seem like singular, but actually they are plural.
Example:
Government

Peasantry

People

Cattle

Mankind
Rule 11: Similarly, some nouns seem like plural though they are singular.
Example:
Physics

Politics

Ethics

News

Wages
Rule 12: Some have the same singular and plural form. Example:
Deer

Sheep

Species

Corps

Canon
Rule 12: In case of letters, numbers and other symbols, it takes an apostrophe and s to change it.
Example:
Sam, write your g’s and y’s clearly.

John, add two 5’s and three 8’s.

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Rule 13: There is no specific rule for changing the number of pronouns. It’s all about memorizing.
Singular Plural Singular Plural

I We Him/her Them

My Our Your Your

Mine Ours This These

Me Us That Those

You You It They

He/she they His/her their

TENSES: Definition, Structure & Examples

Tenses demonstrate the time of action in sentences usually performed by or centered around the subject
of the sentence. The actions are called verbs. Verbs change according to tenses and other issues. As verbs
are the most important elements of English sentences, tenses also carry paramount importance in English
grammar.
Tenses are mainly categorized into three types.
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense
PRESENT TENSE : Definition, Structure & Examples

Each of the types of tenses has four different forms.

1. Present Indefinite Tense
2. Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense
3. Present Perfect Tense
4. Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

1. Present Indefinite Tense

The present indefinite tense, also known as simple present tense, denotes a stative or habitual or eternally
true action. Generally, simple present tense is used to indicate an action which happens – always, regularly,
every day, daily, normally, generally, usually, occasionally, sometimes, often, rarely, frequently, nowadays,
naturally, seldom, constantly, never, every week, every year, once a year, on a week, at times, at present,
now and then, or all the time.
Structure:

Subject (third person singular number) + verb in simple present form + s/es + . . . . .

Subject (all other kinds) + verb in simple present form + . . . . .

NOTE: When ‘be’ verbs work as the main verb in a sentence, they are different from the above structures.

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Person
/Number Singular Plural

First I am a good cricket player. We are good cricket players.

Second You are an irresponsible person. You all are always irresponsible.

Third The earth is smaller than Jupiter. Junk food is not good for health.
There are some stative verbs that are usually used in simple tenses whether present or past or future.
The stative verbs are:

Have Hate Appear Smell Sound

Understand Need See Want Own
Know Hear Like Taste
Believe Love Seem Wish
Examples:
o I know Billy Bob.
o He understands it.
o They love swinging in the park.
o Some people do not believe in God.
o I usually wake up at 6:00 AM.
o He plays cricket, but his brother plays football.
o Earth is bigger than Mercury.
o The heat of the sun reaches the least to the polar.
How the Forms of Verbs Change in Different Types of Sentences

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I sing on stage. Do I sing on stage? I don’t sing on stage.

We run behind the train. Do we run behind the train? We don’t run behind the train.

You are on the roof. Are you on the roof? You aren’t on the roof.

Allan writes well. Does Allan write well? Allan does not write well.

She hands out leaflets. Does she hand out leaflets? She doesn’t hand out leaflets.

They love dancing in the rain. Do they love dancing in the rain? They don’t love dancing in the rain.

2. Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense

The present progressive tense is used to indicate the ongoing time (now). However, the stative verbs do not
usually take the form of present progressive tense even though they refer to the present time.

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Now, continually, perpetually, at this moment, at the moment, right now, this season, this year,
forever, etc. words or word pairs are usually signs that the verb in a sentence is in the present progressive
form. However, these signs are not necessary all the time for a verb to be of present progressive tense.
Structure:

Subject + am/is/are + verb + ing + . . . . . . . . .

Example:
o I am going to the college field.
o He is coming here for some tips.
o They are making a basketball ground.
o Why are you working in that horrible place? (Interrogative)
o Four teams are playing at this moment.
o John is not joining the class today. (Negative)
This structure is also used to demonstrate future time.
Example:
o Alex is leaving for Portugal.
o I am going to complete my task.
o We are leaving at 6:00 PM.
o They are flying to Australia next month.
3. Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used when one intends to indicate:

o an action that occurred at a time which is indefinite and has its effect on the subject
o or an action that occurred many times and has the possibility to occur in the present/future
o or an action that began in the past and still going on in the present.
Structure:

Subject + have / has + verb in the past participle form + . . . . . . .

The Present-Past-Past Participle Chart:

Present Form Past Form Past Participle Form

Shout Shouted Shouted

Read Read Read

Give Gave Given

Take Took Taken

Sing Sang Sung

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Example:
o Alex has read the book through. (No time is indicated)
o I have read this poem many times. (Not habitual but occurred many times in the past)
o He has lived in this apartment for 15 years. (Still going on)
More examples:
o Their event has not been approved this year. (Negative)
o Have we really done so bad? (Interrogative)
Just, already, yet, just now, ever, lately, recently, etc. are some of the signs for present perfect tense.

Note: Already comes between have/has and the past participle; yet appears with a negative form at the end
of the sentence.

Example:
o Alex has already reached there.
o Alex has not reached yet.
o I have already cleaned the house.
o I have not cleaned the house yet.(Negative)
o Has she already gone home? (Interrogative)

4. Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

It is the least used form of present tense. Present perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action
that began in the past and is still occurring in the present. Both present perfect and present perfect
continuous tense can be used to indicate this type of action.
Structure:

Subject + have/has + been + [verb + ing] + . . . . .+ for/since + time frame.

Example:
o Alex has been reading for 3 years.
o I have been sleeping since 10.00 AM.
o Robert has been working in that shop for 6 years.
o We have been living together for four years.
o Have we really been waiting for a miracle for fifteen years? (Interrogative)
o She hasn’t been doing her job well enough for the last 5 years. (Negative)

PAST TENSE: Definition, Structure & Examples

Past tense also has four forms.
1. Past Indefinite Tense
2. Past Progressive (Continuous) Tense
3. Past Perfect Tense
4. Past Perfect Progressive Tense

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1. Past Indefinite Tense

The past indefinite tense, also known as simple past tense, is used to indicate a finished or
completed action/task that occurred/happened at a specific point in time in the past. ‘A specific time’ can
be diverse and can cover a long period of time but it cannot be undeterminable.
Structure:

Subject + verb in the past form + . . . . . + adverb of time + . . . . .

NOTE: Adverb of time can also be at the beginning of the sentence. Other sentences can also refer to that
adverb and can use simple past tense.

Example:
o Alex went to Mexico last year.
o I ate a mango a few minutes ago.
o He had an exam yesterday.
o I used to travel around the world when I was fit. (It can also indicate a habit of the past which is
not a habit in the present.)
2. Past Progressive (Continuous) Tense
The past progressive tense is used to demonstrate an action that was happening in the past for a period of
time in a particular context. The context can be a specific time or another action.
Structures:

Subject + was/were + verb + ing + . . . . . a specific time

Alex was sleeping yesterday at 6.30 AM

I was cleaning the dishes at around 5.30-6.30 yesterday.

When + subject + simple past tense + subject + was/were + verb+ing . . . .

When I went out, you were shouting from behind.

When Alex came, I was sleeping.

Subject + was/were + verb+ing + when + subject + simple past tense . . . .

You were shouting from behind when I went outside.

I was sleeping when Alex came home.

While + subject + was/were + verb+ing + subject + was/were + verb+ing . . . .

While I was sleeping, you were making noises.

While Alex was playing, I was sleeping.

Note: While can also be placed between the two clauses, and one of the clauses can be of simple past tense.

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3. Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect is used to demonstrate an action that occurred before another action in the past. There
are usually two completed actions in the sentence; one happens before the other.
Structures:

Subject + had + past participle form of the main verb + before + subject + simple past tense . . . .

Alex had completed the task before the teacher asked.

I had bought a phone before you came here.

Before + subject + simple past tense + subject + had + past participle form of the verb +. . . .

Before I went to the office, I finished some business with her.

Before she went home, she had taken a test.

Subject + simple past tense + after + subject + had + past participle . . . .

Mark ate after I had bought him a bat.

I went to the office after I had finished some business with her.

After + subject + had + past participle + subject + simple past tense . . . .

After I had bought a phone, she came to the shop.

After she had gone, I came in.

Note: When can be used in place of before or after in any of the above structures.

4. Past Perfect Progressive Tense

The past perfect progressive tense is an extension to the past perfect tense and its structures. Past perfect
progressive is used to demonstrate an action which continued for a specific period of time but stopped
before another action.
Structure:

Subject + had + been + verb+ing + . . . . . + for/since + . . . . .+ before + subject + past simple tense
Alan had been playing cricket for 18 years before he retired.
Jack had been living in Sydney since 2010 before he moved to Melbourne.

NOTE: This tense can be replaced by the past perfect tense withdrawing for/since.

FUTURE TENSE: Definition, Structure & Examples

Any action that is scheduled to happen in the future comes under the agenda of the future tense. Like any
other tense, Future Tense too can be detected by the verb form and the auxiliaries used.

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Markers of Future Tense

Tomorrow Years to come Coming week Ensuing year

Next Next day Coming month Following day

Following Next month Coming year Following week

Days to come Next week Ensuing week Following month

Months to come Next year Ensuing month Following year

Future tense also has four forms. However, one of the forms has no practical use.
1. Simple Future (Future Indefinite) Tense
2. Future Continuous Tense
3. Future Perfect Tense
4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Simple Future (Future Indefinite) Tense

The simple future tense is used when an action is promised/thought to occur in the future. The simple
foreseen outcomes are stated in the future indefinite tense. "Shall/will'" marks the future indefinite tense.
Structure:

Subject + shall/will + verb + . . . . . . . .

Example:
o We shall move to another city.
o He will come to New York tomorrow.
o They will make a phone which has artificial intelligence.
o It will rain in the coming hours.
o There will be a hard few days ahead of us.

NOTE: In some cases, the present progressive tense can be used when an action is
promised/arranged/planned to take place in the future.

Example:
o We are moving to Texas next week.
o We are leaving at 6.00 PM.
o They're going to do as you say.
o Dan is meeting me at 9 AM.
o I am hoping to see you soon.

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2. Future Continuous Tense

The future continuous tense is used when an action is promised/thought to be going on at a specific
time/context in the future.

Structure:

Subject + shall/will + be + verb+ing . . . . . . . .

Example:
o I shall be sleeping at around 6.00 AM tomorrow.

o They will be playing at this time tomorrow.

o She will be watching TV when I come home.

o I will be working in the office while you watch a movie.

Future Continuous Tense often adds an extra layer of politeness to normal speech. "Will you be starting to
decorate the room today?" is politer and considerate in a manner than the simple "Are you starting to
decorate the room today?" which sounds more like a command that is late to be followed.

Future Indefinite Tense VS Future Continuous Tense

The sentences in Future Indefinite Tense and Future Continuous Tense pose a very similar kind of attitude
and some may seem identical in manner. The major difference here is the tone that sets the tenses apart.
Let's compare the tone and attitude between them to get a clear idea about how they differ.

Future Indefinite Tense Future Continuous Tense

Ben will take the trash out. Ben will be taking the trash out.
(Just decided) (Previously decided upon)

Will you join us for dinner? Will you be joining us for dinner?
(Invitation) (Reconfirming possible previous arrangements)

She will help decorate the house. She will be helping to decorate the house.
(Willing) (A previous arrangement)

Future Continuous Tense often hints at possible pre-arrangements where the Simple Future Tense indicates
definite decisions, invitations, and willingness.

3. Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense is used to demonstrate an action which is promised to be done by a certain time
in the future. There is a certain definitive commitment in the Future Perfect Tense that most future tenses
tend to lack. This is because a certain point in type is mentioned. "Shall/will have" before the Past Participle
verb form is the definitive marker of all perfect tenses.

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Structure:

Subject + shall/will + have + verb in the past participle . . . . . . . .

Example:
o I shall have completed the assignment by Monday.
o She will have cleaned the house before her father comes.
o Alex will have submitted the tender by tomorrow.
o Before I go to see her, she will have left the place.
o They will have finished making the bridge by January.

4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Future Perfect Continuous or Progressive Tense expresses the action that will be continuing in the future
for a set amount of time that the speaker is sure of. The common backstory here would be the speaker
posits themselves in the future and foretells something that is bound to continue happening for a certain
period of time in the foreseeable future. "Will have been" is the marker of Future Perfect Continuous Tense
while the "for/since + time frame" at the end is the exclusive marker for all perfect continuous tenses.

Structure:
Subject + will + have + been + verb + ing . . . . . . … + for/since + time frame
Examples:

o He will have been running on the treadmill for one hour tomorrow.

o We will have been basking in the afternoon sun for the whole winter.

o I will have been touring the Australian terrains since next year.

o Will you have been staring at the moon for one whole hour?

NOTE: There is close to no practical use of this Future Perfect Continuous tense in the English language
unless the period mentioned covers sometime in the past, the present and the future.

Future perfect continuous tense is normally used to stress the fact that something has been going on for a
long time and it will continue till a particular point in time in the future. It requires pointing out the exact
time in the future it will carry on until and for how long it will have been going on in total.

Examples:

o Next month, we will have been living in this house for 10 years.

o This Friday, I will have been working in the neighborhood for over 30 years.

o Next Thursday, he will have been roaming the streets homeless for two long years.

o This year, Helen will have been looking for a perfect care facility for herself for three years.

o Tomorrow, Jill's father will have been going door to door as a salesman for several months.

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