Module - 1, 3, 4, 6

Module 1: Networking Today

Networks Affect Our Lives

● Networks Connect Us
● No Boundaries

Network Components

Host Roles:

host or end device - Every computer on a network

Servers - computers that provide information to end
devices.
Network Representations and Topologies

Network diagrams, often called topology diagrams,

use symbols to represent devices within the network.

Topology Diagrams

Physical topology diagrams - illustrate the physical

Clients - computers that send requests to the servers location of intermediary devices and cable
to retrieve information installation.

Peer-to-Peer: Logical topology diagrams - illustrate devices,

It is possible to have a device be a client and a server ports, and the addressing scheme of the network.
in a Peer-to-Peer Network. This type of network
design is only recommended for very small networks. Common Types of Networks

Small Home Networks – connect a few computers to

each other and the Internet

Small Office/Home Office – enables computer within

End Devices: a home or remote office to connect to a corporate
where a message originates from or where it is network
received. Data originates with an
end device, flows through the network, and arrives at Medium to Large Networks – many locations with
an end device. hundreds or thousands of interconnected computers

Intermediary Network Devices: World Wide Networks – connects hundreds of

An intermediary device interconnects end devices. millions of computers world-wide – such as the
Examples include switches, wireless internet
access points, routers, and firewalls.
Two most common types of networks:
Network Media
Communication across a network is carried through a Local Area Network (LAN) - network infrastructure
medium which allows a message to travel from that spans a small geographical area.
source to destination.
Wide Area Network (WAN) - network infrastructure
that spans a wide geographical area.
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The Internet
Internet - a worldwide collection of The Converging Network
interconnected LANs and WANs.
Before converged networks, an organization would
Intranets and Extranets have been separately cabled for telephone, video,
and data. Each of these networks would use different
An intranet is like a private internet just for an technologies to carry the signal.
organization. It connects different offices (LANs and
WANs) and is only accessible to employees or Converged networks can deliver data, voice, and
authorized members. Think of it as a company’s video over the same network infrastructure. The
private website where employees can share files, network infrastructure uses the same set of rules and
communicate, and access important tools. standards.

An extranet is like an intranet but allows certain Reliable Networks

people outside the organization to access specific
data securely. It helps businesses work with partners, Network Architecture - refers to the technologies
suppliers, or clients without giving full access to their that support the infrastructure that moves data across
private network. the network.

Internet Connections Four basic characteristics that the underlying

architectures need to address to meet user
Home and Small Office Internet Connections expectations:

1. Fault Tolerance
2. Scalability
3. Quality of Service (QoS)
4. Security

Two main types of network security that must be

addressed:

1. Network infrastructure security

● Physical security of network devices and
Preventing unauthorized access to the
devices
2. Information Security
Businesses Internet Connections
● Protection of the information or data
transmitted over the network

Three goals of network security:

1. Confidentiality – only intended recipients can
read the data
2. Integrity – assurance that the data has
not be altered with during transmission
3. Availability – assurance of timely and
reliable access to data for authorized
users
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Shell - The user interface that allows users to request
specific tasks from the computer. These requests can
be made either through the CLI or GUI interfaces.
Network Trends
Kernel - Communicates between the hardware and
1. Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) software of a computer and manages how hardware
2. Online collaboration resources are used to meet software requirements.
3. Video communications
4. Cloud computing Hardware - The physical part of a computer including
underlying electronics.
Four types of Clouds:
1. Public Clouds - Available to the general GUI
public through a pay-per-use model or for
free. A GUI allows the user to interact with the system
2. Private Clouds - Intended for a specific using an environment of graphical icons, menus, and
organization or entity such as the government. windows.
3. Hybrid Clouds - Made up of two or more
Cloud types Access Methods
4. Custom Clouds - Built to meet the needs of a
specific industry Console – A physical management port used to
access a device in order to provide maintenance,
Network Security such as performing the initial configurations.
Network security - an integral part of networking
regardless of the size of the network. Secure Shell (SSH) – Establishes a secure remote
CLI connection to a device, through a virtual
Threat vectors might be external or internal: interface, over a network. (Note: This is the
1. External Threats: recommended method for remotely connecting to a
a. Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses device.)
b. Spyware and adware
c. Zero-day attacks Telnet – Establishes an insecure remote CLI
d. Threat Actor attacks connection to a device over the network. (Note: User
e. Denial of service attacks authentication, passwords and commands are sent
f. Data interception and theft over the network in plaintext.)
g. Identity theft
Terminal Emulation Programs
2. Internal Threats:
a. lost or stolen devices Terminal emulation programs are used to connect
b. accidental misuse by employees to a network device by either a console port or by an
c. malicious employees SSH/Telnet connection.

Security must be implemented in multiple layers (M2 more on command, not include in taking notes)
using more than one security solution.
Module 3: Protocols and Models
Module 2: Basic Switch and End Device
Configuration The Rules

Cisco IOS Access Communications Fundamentals

Operating Systems Three elements to any communication:

1. source (sender)
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2. destination (receiver) 2. Message formatting and encapsulation -
3. channel (media) that provides for the path of When a message is sent, it must use a
communications to occur. specific format or structure.
3. Message size - Encoding between hosts
must be in an appropriate format for the
Communications Protocols medium.
4. Message timing
All communications are governed by protocols. Message timing includes the following:
Protocols are the rules that communications will 1. Flow Control – Manages the rate of
follow. data transmission and defines how
much information can be sent and the
speed at which it can be delivered.
2. Response Timeout – Manages how
long a device waits when it does not
hear a reply from the destination.
3. Access method - Determines when
Rule Establishment someone can send a message.
5. Message delivery options
Individuals must use established rules or agreements Message delivery may one of the following
to govern the conversation. methods
1. Unicast – one to one communication
Protocols must account for the following 2. Multicast – one to many, typically not
requirements: all
3. Broadcast – one to all:
1. An identified sender and receiver
2. Common language and grammar Protocols
3. Speed and timing of delivery
4. Confirmation or acknowledgment Network protocols define a common set of rules.
requirements
Can be implemented on devices in Software,
Network Protocol Requirements Hardware or Both

Common computer protocols must be in agreement Protocols have their own Function. Format, Rules
and include the following requirements:
1. Message encoding - process of converting
information into another acceptable form for
transmission.

Devices use agreed-upon protocols to communicate

Protocols may have one or functions.

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Protocol Interaction

TCP/IP protocols operate at the application, transport,

and internet layers.

Protocol Suites

Protocols must be able to work with other protocols.

A group of inter-related protocols necessary to

perform a communication function

The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:

Higher Layers Standards Organizations

Lower Layers- concerned with moving
data and provide services to upper Open standards encourage interoperability,
layers competition, innovation

Evolution of Protocol Suites Standards organizations are vendor-neutral, non-

profit organizations, established to develop and
Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP- The most promote the concept of open standards.
common protocol suite and maintained by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes the open
development and evolution of internet
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols -
Developed by the International Organization for Internet Architecture Board (IAB) - Responsible for
Standardization (ISO) and the International management and development of internet standards
Telecommunications Union (ITU)
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - Develops,
AppleTalk- Proprietary suite release by Apple Inc. updates, and maintains internet and TCP/IP
technologies
Novell NetWare- Proprietary suite developed by
Novell Inc. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - Focused on
long-term research related to internet and TCP/IP
protocols
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Standards organizations involved with the
development and support of TCP/IP:

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and

Numbers (ICANN) - Coordinates IP address
allocation, the management of domain names, and
assignment of other information

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) -

Oversees and manages IP address allocation, The TCP/IP Reference Model
domain name management, and protocol identifiers
for ICANN

Electronic and Communications Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) - dedicated to
creating standards in power and energy, healthcare,
telecommunications, and networking

Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - develops

standards relating to electrical wiring, connectors, and
the 19-inch racks used to mount networking
equipment

Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) -

develops communication standards in radio
equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP)
devices, satellite communications, and more

International Telecommunications Union-

Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU- Data Encapsulation
T) - defines standards for video compression,
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband Segmenting - process of breaking up messages into
communications, such as a digital subscriber line smaller units.
(DSL)
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits
Reference Models Increases speed and Increases efficiency:

Two layered models describe network operations Multiplexing - processes of taking multiple streams
1. Open System Interconnection (OSI) of segmented data and interleaving them together.
Reference Model
2. TCP/IP Reference Model Sequencing messages - process of numbering the
segments so that the message may be reassembled
The OSI Reference Model: at the destination.

TCP is responsible for sequencing the individual

segments.
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Encapsulation - process where protocols add their 1. Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6)
information to the data. 2. Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6)

Module 4: Physical Layer

Purpose of the Physical Layer

The Physical Connection

Before any network communications can occur, a

physical connection to a local network must be
established.

Physical Layer Characteristics

Encapsulation is a top down process and Data is de-
encapsulated as it moves up the stack.

Data Access

Addresses

Both the data link and network layers use addressing

to deliver data from source to destination.

Network layer source and destination addresses - Physical Components

Responsible for delivering the IP packet from original
source to the final destination. Physical Layer Standards address three functional
areas:
Data link layer source and destination addresses 1. Physical Components - hardware devices,
– Responsible for delivering the data link frame from media, and other connectors that transmit the
one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on signals that represent the bits.
the same network. 2. Encoding - Encoding converts the stream of
bits into a format recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
3. Signaling - The signaling method is how the
bit values, “1” and “0” are represented on the
physical medium.

Layer 3 Logical Address Bandwidth

The IP packet contains two IP addresses: Bandwidth - capacity at which a medium can carry
data.
1. Source IP address - The IP address of the
sending device, original source of the packet. Digital bandwidth - measures the amount of data
2. Destination IP address - The IP address of that can flow from one place to another in a given
the receiving device, final destination of the amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in
packet. a second.

An IP address contains two parts:

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Latency - Amount of time, including delays, for data

to travel from one given point to another

Throughput - The measure of the transfer of bits

across the media over a given period of time

Goodput - The measure of usable data transferred

over a given period of time
Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead

Copper Cabling

Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling

used in networks today.

Types of Copper Cabling

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) - UTP is the most

common networking media.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) - Similar to UTP but

with extra shielding for better performance in noisy
environments.

Coaxial Cable - Best for long-distance signals (TV,

internet) with strong shielding

Fiber-Optic Cabling

Not as common as UTP because of the expense

UTP Cabling involved

Properties of UTP Cabling Types of Fiber Media

UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires

twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath. No shielding is used.
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Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse

over time. Increased dispersion means increased
loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion
than SMF, with the maximum cable distance for MMF
is 550 meters.

Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage

1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling

applications and interconnecting infrastructure
devices

2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide

always-on broadband services to
homes and small businesses Fiber versus Copper

3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for
to connect countries and cities high-traffic, point-to-point connections between data
distribution facilities and for the interconnection of
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide buildings in multi-building campuses.
reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions capable
of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to
transoceanic distances.

Fiber-Optic Connectors
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Wireless Media ● Accepts a frame from the network medium.
● De-encapsulates the frame to expose the
It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary encapsulated packet.
digits using radio or microwave frequencies. This ● Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame.
provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless ● Forwards the new frame on the medium of the
connection numbers continue to increase. next network segment.

Some of the limitations of wireless Coverage area, Data Link Layer Standards
Interference, Security and Shared medium
Data link layer protocols are defined by engineering
Wireless Standards: organizations:
1. Institute for Electrical and Electronic
1. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) Engineers (IEEE).
2. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) 2. International Telecommunications Union
3. WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) (ITU).
4. Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) 3. International Organizations for
Standardization (ISO).
Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices: 4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

1. Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate

wireless signals from users and connect to the
existing copper-based network infrastructure Topologies
2. Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless
communications capability to network hosts There are two types of topologies used when
describing networks:

Module 6: Data Link Layer 1. Physical topology – shows physical

connections and how devices are
Purpose of the Data Link Layer interconnected.
2. Logical topology – identifies the virtual
The Data Link layer is responsible for connections between devices using device
communications between end-device network interfaces and IP addressing schemes.
interface cards.
WAN Topologies
The Data Link Layer consists of two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC) - communicates There are three common physical WAN
between the networking software at the upper topologies:
layers and the device hardware at the lower
layers. Point-to-point – the simplest and most common
2. Media Access Control (MAC) - responsible WAN topology. Consists of a permanent link between
for data encapsulation and media access two endpoints. Physical point-to-point topologies
control. directly connect two nodes.

Providing Access to Media Hub and spoke – similar to a star topology where a
central site interconnects branch sites through point-
Packets exchanged between nodes may experience to-point links.
numerous data link layers and media transitions.
Mesh – provides high availability but requires every
At each hop along the path, a router performs four end system to be connected to every other end
basic Layer 2 functions: system.
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● When transmitting, devices also include the
LAN Topologies time duration needed for the transmission.
● Other devices on the shared medium receive
End devices on LANs are typically interconnected the time duration information and know how
using a star or extended star topology. Star and long the medium will be unavailable.
extended star topologies are easy to install, very
scalable and easy to troubleshoot. Data Link Frame

Bus – All end systems chained together and Data is encapsulated by the data link layer with a
terminated on each end. header and a trailer to form a frame.

Ring – Each end system is connected to its data link frame has three parts:
respective neighbors to form a ring. 1. Header
2. Data
Half-duplex communication - Only allows one 3. Trailer
device to send or receive at a time on a shared
medium. The amount of control information carried within the
frame varies according to access control information
Full-duplex communication - Allows both devices to and logical topology.
simultaneously transmit and receive on a shared
medium.

Access Control Methods

Contention-based access - All nodes operating in

half-duplex, competing for use of the medium.

Controlled access - Deterministic access where

each node has its own time on the medium.

Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD
● Operates in half-duplex mode where only one
device sends or receives at a time.
● Uses a collision detection process to govern
Layer 2 Addresses
when a device can send and what happens if
● Also referred to as a physical address.
multiple devices send at the same time.
● Contained in the frame header
● Used only for local delivery of a frame on the
CSMA/CD collision detection process:
link.
● Devices transmitting simultaneously will result
● Updated by each device that forwards the
in a signal collision on the shared media.
frame.
● Devices wait a random period of time and
retransmit data.

CSMA/CA
(same with CSMA/CD)

CSMA/CA collision avoidance process: