Data Storage, Indexing Structures

for Files
Chapter 7
Overview of Database Miniworld
Design Process
REQUIREMENTS - COLLECTION & ANALYSIS

Functional requirements Data requirements

DBMS–independent

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

High-level transaction Conceptual schema

specification
LOGICAL DESIGN
(DATA MODEL MAPPING)
DBMS–specific

APPLICATION PROGRAM Database schema

DESIGN
PHYSICAL DESIGN

TRANSACTION
Internal schema
IMPLEMENTATION

Application program
2
Application Design Database Design
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
3
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
4
Disk Storage Devices
 Preferred secondary storage device for high storage
capacity and low cost.
 Data stored as magnetized areas on magnetic disk
surfaces.
 A disk pack contains several magnetic disks connected
to a rotating spindle.
 Disks are divided into concentric circular tracks on
each disk surface .
 Track capacities vary typically from 4 to 50 Kbytes.

5
Disk Storage Devices (cont.)

6
Disk Storage Devices (cont.)

Track
Sector

Spindle

7
Disk Storage Devices (cont.)
 A track is divided into smaller blocks or sectors.
 because a track usually contains a large amount of
information .
 A track is divided into blocks.
 The block size B is fixed for each system.
 Typical block sizes range from B=512 bytes to B=4096
bytes.
 Whole blocks are transferred between disk and main
memory for processing.

8
Disk Storage Devices (cont.)
 A read-write head moves to the track that contains the
block to be transferred.
 Disk rotation moves the block under the read-write head for
reading or writing.
 A physical disk block (hardware) address consists of:
 a cylinder number (imaginary collection of tracks of same
radius from all recorded surfaces)
 the track number or surface number (within the cylinder)
 and block number (within track).
 Reading or writing a disk block is time consuming because
of the seek time s and rotational delay (latency) rd.
 Double buffering can be used to speed up the transfer of
contiguous disk blocks.

9
Disk storage devices (cont.)

10
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
11
Records
 Fixed and variable length records.
 Records contain fields which have values of a
particular type.
 E.g., amount, date, time, age.
 Fields themselves may be fixed length or variable
length.
 Variable length fields can be mixed into one record:
 Separator characters or length fields are needed so that
the record can be “parsed”.

12
Records (cont.)

(a)A fixed-length record with 6 fields and size of 71 bytes.

(b)A record with 2 variable-length fields and 3 fixed-length fields.
(c)A variable-field record with 3 types of separator characters.
13
Blocking
 Blocking: refers to storing a number of records in one
block on the disk.
 Blocking factor (bfr): refers to the number of records
per block.
 There may be empty space in a block if an integral
number of records do not fit in one block.
 Spanned Records: refer to records that exceed the
size of one or more blocks and hence span a number of
blocks.

14
Blocking (cont.)

(a)Unspanned records
(b)Spanned records
15
Files of Records
 A file is a sequence of records, where each record is a
collection of data values (or data items).
 A file descriptor (or file header) includes
information that describes the file, such as the field
names and their data types, and the addresses of the
file blocks on disk.
 Records are stored on disk blocks.
 The blocking factor bfr for a file is the (average)
number of file records stored in a disk block.
 A file can have fixed-length records or variable-
length records.

16
Files of Records (cont.)
 File records can be unspanned or spanned:
 Unspanned: no record can span two blocks
 Spanned: a record can be stored in more than one block
 The physical disk blocks that are allocated to hold the
records of a file can be contiguous, linked, or indexed.
 In a file of fixed-length records, all records have the same
format. Usually, unspanned blocking is used with such files.
 Files of variable-length records require additional
information to be stored in each record, such as separator
characters and field types.
 Usually spanned blocking is used with such files.

17
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
18
Operation on Files
 OPEN: Reads the file for access, and associates a
pointer that will refer to a current file record at each point
in time.
 FIND: Searches for the first file record that satisfies a
certain condition, and makes it the current file record.
 FINDNEXT: Searches for the next file record (from the
current record) that satisfies a certain condition, and makes
it the current file record.
 READ: Reads the current file record into a program
variable.
 INSERT: Inserts a new record into the file, and makes it
the current file record.

19
Operation on Files (cont.)
 DELETE: Removes the current file record from
the file, usually by marking the record to indicate that
it is no longer valid.
 MODIFY: Changes the values of some fields of
the current file record.
 CLOSE: Terminates access to the file.
 REORGANIZE: Reorganizes the file records. For
example, the records marked deleted are physically
removed from the file or a new organization of the file
records is created.
 READ_ORDERED: Read the file blocks in order of a
specific field of the file.

20
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
21
Unordered Files
 Also called a heap or a pile file.
 New records are inserted at the end of the file.
 A linear search through the file records is
necessary to search for a record.
 This requires reading and searching half the file blocks on
the average, and is hence quite expensive.
 Record insertion is quite efficient.
 Reading the records in order of a particular field
requires sorting the file records.

22
Ordered Files
 Also called a sequential file.
 File records are kept sorted by the values of an ordering
field.
 Insertion is expensive: records must be inserted in the
correct order.
 It is common to keep a separate unordered overflow (or transaction)
file for new records to improve insertion efficiency; this is
periodically merged with the main ordered file.
 A binary search can be used to search for a record on its
ordering field value.
 This requires reading and searching log2 of the file blocks on the
average, an improvement over linear search.
 Reading the records in order of the ordering field is quite
efficient.
23
Ordered Files
(cont.)

24
Average Access Times
 The following table shows the average access time to
access a specific record for a given type of file:

25
Hashed Files
 Hashing for disk files is called External Hashing.
 The file blocks are divided into M equal-sized buckets,
numbered bucket0, bucket1, ..., bucketM-1.
 Typically, a bucket corresponds to one (or a fixed number of) disk
block.
 One of the file fields is designated to be the hash key of the
file.
 The record with hash key value K is stored in bucket i,
where i=h(K), and h is the hashing function.
 Search is very efficient on the hash key.
 Collisions occur when a new record hashes to a bucket that
is already full.
 An overflow file is kept for storing such records.
 Overflow records that hash to each bucket can be linked together

26
Hashed Files (cont.)

27
Hashed Files (cont.)
 There are numerous methods for collision resolution,
including the following:
 Open addressing: Proceeding from the occupied position specified by
the hash address, the program checks the subsequent positions in
order until an unused (empty) position is found.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 h(K) = K mod 7
1 3 11 6

 Insert 8 1 8 3 11 6

 Insert 15 1 8 3 11 15 6

 Insert 13 13 1 8 3 11 15 6

28
Hashed Files (cont.)
 There are numerous methods for collision resolution,
including the following:
 Chaining:
 Various overflow locations are kept: extending the array with a number of
overflow positions.
 A pointer field is added to each record location.
 A collision is resolved by placing the new record in an unused overflow
location and setting the pointer of the occupied hash address location to
the address of that overflow location.

 Multiple hashing:
 The program applies a second hash function if the first results in a
collision.
 If another collision results, the program uses open addressing or applies a
third hash function and then uses open addressing if necessary.

29
Hashed Files (cont.) - Overflow
handling

30
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
31
Parallelizing Disk Access using RAID
Technology
 Secondary storage technology must take steps to keep
up in performance and reliability with processor
technology.
 A major advance in secondary storage technology is
represented by the development of RAID, which
originally stood for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive
Disks.
 The main goal of RAID is to even out the widely
different rates of performance improvement of disks
against those in memory and microprocessors.

32
RAID Technology (cont.)
 A natural solution is a large array of small independent
disks acting as a single higher-performance logical disk.
 A concept called data striping is used, which utilizes
parallelism to improve disk performance.
 Data striping distributes data transparently over multiple
disks to make them appear as a single large, fast disk.

33
RAID Technology (cont.)
 Different raid organizations were defined based on
different combinations of the two factors of granularity of
data interleaving (striping) and pattern used to compute
redundant information.
 Raid level 0 has no redundant data and hence has the best write
performance.
 Raid level 1 uses mirrored disks.
 Raid level 2 uses memory-style redundancy by using Hamming
codes, which contain parity bits for distinct overlapping subsets of
components. Level 2 includes both error detection and correction.

34
RAID Technology (cont.)
 Raid level 3 uses a single parity disk relying on the disk
controller to figure out which disk has failed.
 Raid levels 4 and 5 use block-level data striping, with
level 5 distributing data and parity information across all
disks.

35
RAID Technology (cont.)
 Raid level 6 applies the so-called P + Q redundancy
scheme using Reed-Soloman codes to protect against up
to two disk failures by using just two redundant disks.

36
Use of RAID Technology (cont.)
 Different raid organizations are being used under different
situations:
 Raid level 1 (mirrored disks)is the easiest for rebuild of a disk from
other disks
 It is used for critical applications like logs.
 Raid level 2 uses memory-style redundancy by using Hamming
codes, which contain parity bits for distinct overlapping subsets of
components. Level 2 includes both error detection and correction.
 Raid level 3 ( single parity disks relying on the disk controller to
figure out which disk has failed) and level 5 (block-level data
striping) are preferred for large volume storage, with level 3 giving
higher transfer rates.
 Most popular uses of the RAID technology currently are: Level 0
(with striping), Level 1 (with mirroring) and Level 5 with an extra
drive for parity.
 Design decisions for RAID include – level of RAID, number of disks,
choice of parity schemes, and grouping of disks for block-level
striping.

37
Storage Area Networks
 The demand for higher storage has risen considerably
in recent times.
 Organizations have a need to move from a static fixed
data center oriented operation to a more flexible and
dynamic infrastructure for information processing.
 Thus they are moving to a concept of Storage Area
Networks (SANs).
 In a SAN, online storage peripherals are configured as nodes
on a high-speed network and can be attached and detached
from servers in a very flexible manner.
 This allows storage systems to be placed at longer
distances from the servers and provide different
performance and connectivity options.

38
Storage Area Networks (cont.)
 Advantages of SANs are:
 Flexible many-to-many connectivity among servers and
storage devices using fiber channel hubs and switches.
 Up to 10km separation between a server and a storage system
using appropriate fiber optic cables.
 Better isolation capabilities allowing nondisruptive addition of
new peripherals and servers.
 SANs face the problem of combining storage options
from multiple vendors and dealing with evolving
standards of storage management software and
hardware.

39
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
40
Indexes as Access Paths
 A single-level index is an auxiliary file that makes it
more efficient to search for a record in the data file.
 The index is usually specified on one field of the file
(although it could be specified on several fields)
 One form of an index is a file of entries <field
value, pointer to record>, which is ordered by
field value
 The index is called an access path on the field.

41
Indexes as Access Paths (cont.)
 The index file usually occupies considerably less
disk blocks than the data file because its entries are
much smaller.
 A binary search on the index yields a pointer to the
file record.
 Indexes can also be characterized as dense or
sparse:
 A dense index has an index entry for every search key value
(and hence every record) in the data file.
 A sparse (or nondense) index, on the other hand, has index
entries for only some of the search values

42
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
43
Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
 Primary Indexes

 Clustering Indexes

 Secondary Indexes

44
Primary Index
 Defined on an ordered data file.
 The data file is ordered on a key field.

 One index entry for each block in the data file

 First record in the block, which is called the block anchor

 A similar scheme can use the last record in a block.

45
 Primary key field
ID Name DoB Salary Sex
1
2
Index file 3
(<K(i), P(i)> entries)
4
Primary Block 6
key value pointer
7
1
4 8
8 9
12 10

12
13
15
46
Primary Index
 Number of index entries?
 Number of blocks in data file.

 Dense or Nondense?
 Nondense

 Search/ Insert/ Update/ Delete?

47
Example
Given the following data file: EMPLOYEE(NAME, SSN, ADDRESS,
JOB, SAL, ... )
Suppose that:
 record size R = 150 bytes
 block size B = 512 bytes
 Number of records r = 30.000 records
 SSN Field size VSSN = 9 bytes,
 record pointer size PR = 7 bytes
 block pointer size PB = 6 bytes

Then, we get:
 blocking factor: bfr = B/R = 512/150 = 3 records/block
 number of blocks needed for the file: b = r/bfr= 30.000/3  =
10.000 blocks

48
Example
For a dense index on the SSN field:
 index entry size: Ri = (VSSN+ PR)=(9+7)=16 bytes
 index blocking factor bfri = B/RI = 512/16 = 32 entries/block
 number of blocks for index file: bi = r/bfri= (30000/32)= 938
blocks
 binary search to retrieve a record in index file needs: log2bi  =
log2938  = 10 block accesses
 To search for a record using the index, we need one additional
block access to the data file for a total of 10 + 1 = 11 block
accesses

This is compared to an average linear search cost of:

(b/2)= 10000/2 = 5000 block accesses
If the file records are ordered, the binary search cost would be:
 log2b  =  log210000  = 14 block accesses
49
Example
For a primary index on the ordering key field SSN : (using block
pointer)
 index entry size: Ri =(VSSN+ PB)=(9+6)=15 bytes
 index blocking factor bfri = B/RI = 512/15 = 34 entries/block
 number of blocks for index file: bi= r/bfri= (10000/34)= 295
blocks
 binary search to retrieve a record in index file needs: log2bi  =
log2295  = 9 block accesses
 To search for a record using the index, we need one additional
block access to the data file for a total of 9 + 1 = 10 block
accesses

This is compared to an average linear search cost of:

(b/2)= 10000/2 = 5000 block accesses
If the file records are ordered, the binary search cost would be:
 log2b  =  log210000  = 14 block accesses
50
Clustering Index
 Defined on an ordered data file.
 The data file is ordered on a non-key field.

 One index entry each distinct value of the field.

 The index entry points to the first data block that contains
records with that field value

51
 Clustering field

Dept_No Name DoB Salary Sex

1
1
Index file 2
(<K(i), P(i)> entries)
2
Clustering Block
field value pointer 2
1 2
2
2
3
3
4
3
5
4
4
5
52
 Clustering field Dept_No Name DoB Salary Sex
1
1

Index file 2
2
(<K(i), P(i)> entries)
2
Clustering Block
field value pointer 2

1
2 3
3
3
4
4
5
4

53
Clustering Index
 Number of index entries?
 Number of distinct indexing field values in data file.

 Dense or Nondense?
 Nondense

 Search/ Insert/ Update/ Delete?

 At most one primary index or one clustering
index but not both.

54
Secondary index
 A secondary index provides a secondary means of accessing
a file.
 The data file is unordered on indexing field.
 Indexing field:
 secondary key (unique value)
 nonkey (duplicate values)

 The index is an ordered file with two fields.

 The first field: indexing field.
 The second field: block pointer or record pointer.

 There can be many secondary indexes for the same file.

55
 Index file Secondary
(<K(i), P(i)> entries) key field
Index field Block 5
value pointer
13
3
8
4
5 6
6 15
8 3
9
9
11
21
13 … 11
15
18 4
21 23
23 18

Secondary index on key field

56
Secondary index on key field
 Number of index entries?
 Number of record in data file

 Dense or Nondense?
 Dense

 Search/ Insert/ Update/ Delete?

57
Secondary index on non-key field
 Discussion: Structure of Secondary index on non-key
field?
 Option 1: include duplicate index entries with the
same K(i) value - one for each record.

 Option 2: keep a list of pointers <P(i, 1), ..., P(i, k)> in

the index entry for K(i).

 Option 3:
 more commonly used.
 one entry for each distinct index field value + an extra
level of indirection to handle the multiple pointers.

58
 Secondary
Index on
non-key
field:
option 3

59
Secondary index on nonkey field
 Number of index entries?
 Number of records in data file
 Number of distinct index field values

 Dense or Nondense?
 Dense/ nondense

 Search/ Insert/ Update/ Delete?

60
Summary of Single-level indexes
 Ordered file on indexing field?
 Primary index
 Clustering index
 Indexing field is Key?
 Primary index
 Secondary index
 Indexing field is not Key?
 Clustering index
 Secondary index

61
Summary of Single-level indexes
 Dense index?
 Secondary index

 Nondense index?
 Primary index
 Clustering index
 Secondary index

62
Summary of Single-level indexes

63
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
64
Multi-Level Indexes
 Because a single-level index is an ordered file, we can
create a primary index to the index itself.
 The original index file is called the first-level index and the
index to the index is called the second-level index.
 We can repeat the process, creating a third, fourth, ...,
top level until all entries of the top level fit in one
disk block.
 A multi-level index can be created for any type of first-
level index (primary, secondary, clustering) as long as
the first-level index consists of more than one disk
block.

65
 A two-level primary
index resembling
ISAM (Indexed
Sequential Access
Method)
organization.

66
Multi-Level Indexes
 Such a multi-level index is a form of search tree.
 However, insertion and deletion of new index entries is
a severe problem because every level of the index is an
ordered file.

67
A Node in a Search Tree with Pointers to
Subtrees below It

68
A search tree of order p = 3

69
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-
2.3
70 Trees
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-
Trees and B+-Trees
 Most multi-level indexes use B-tree or B+-tree data
structures because of the insertion and deletion
problem.
 This leaves space in each tree node (disk block) to allow for
new index entries
 These data structures are variations of search trees
that allow efficient insertion and deletion of new
search values.
 In B-Tree and B+-Tree data structures, each node
corresponds to a disk block.
 Each node is kept between half-full and completely full.

71
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-
Trees and B+-Trees (cont.)
 An insertion into a node that is not full is quite
efficient.
 If a node is full, the insertion causes a split into two
nodes.
 Splitting may propagate to other tree levels.
 A deletion is quite efficient if a node does not
become less than half full.
 If a deletion causes a node to become less than half
full, it must be merged with neighboring nodes.

72
Difference between B-tree and B+-tree
 In a B-Tree, pointers to data records exist at all levels of
the tree.
 In a B+-Tree, all pointers to data records exist at the
leaf-level nodes.
 A B+-Tree can have less levels (or higher capacity of
search values) than the corresponding B-tree.

73
B-tree Structures

74
The Nodes of a B+-Tree

75
Contents
1 Data Storage
1.1 Disk Storage Devices
1.2 Files of Records
1.3 Operations on Files
1.4 Unordered Files & Ordered Files & Hashed Files
1.5 RAID Technology and Storage Area Networks
2 Indexing Structures for Files
2.1 Types of Single-level Ordered Indexes
2.2 Multilevel Indexes
2.3 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Trees and B+-Trees
76
77
Exercise
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.
1. Calculate the record size R in bytes.
2. Calculate the blocking factor bfr and the number of
file blocks b, assuming an unspanned organization.

78
Exercise (cont.)
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.

3. This file is ordered by the key field SSN. Calculate the

number of block accesses needed to search for and
retrieve a record from the file - given its SSN value.

79
Exercise (cont.)
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.

4. This file is ordered by the key field SSN and we want

to construct a primary index on SSN. Calculate:
a) the index blocking factor bfri
b) the number of index entries and the number of
index blocks
80
Exercise (cont.)
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.

4. This file is ordered by the key field SSN and we want

to construct a primary index on SSN. Calculate:
c) the number of block accesses needed to search
for and retrieve a record from the file - given its
SSN value
81
Exercise (cont.)
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.
5. If we make it into a multilevel index .
a) Calculate the total number of blocks required by
the second index
b) the number of block accesses needed to search
for and retrieve a record from the file - given its
SSN value
86
Exercise (cont.)
 A file has r = 30,000 EMPLOYEE records of fixed length.
 Each record has the following fields: Name (30 bytes),
SSN (9 bytes), Department_code (9 bytes), Address (40
bytes), Phone (10 bytes), Birth_date (8 bytes), Sex (1
byte), Job_code (4 bytes), and Salary (4 bytes). An
additional byte is used as a deletion marker.
 Block size B = 512 bytes, block pointer P = 6 bytes, record
pointer PR = 7 bytes.
6. If we make it into a multilevel index.
a) the number of block accesses needed to search
for and retrieve a record from the file - given its
SSN value

88