Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear
disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material
containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay
are alpha, beta, and gamma decay. The weak force is the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay,
while the other two are governed by the electromagnetic and nuclear forces.[1]

Radioactive decay is a random process at the level of single atoms. According to quantum theory, it is
impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has
existed.[2][3][4] However, for a significant number of identical atoms, the overall decay rate can be
expressed as a decay constant or as a half-life. The half-lives of radioactive atoms have a huge range:
from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe.

The decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide (or parent radioisotope), and the process
produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from a
nuclear excited state, the decay is a nuclear transmutation resulting in a daughter containing a different
number of protons or neutrons (or both). When the number of protons changes, an atom of a
different chemical element is created.

There are 28 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive, consisting of
35 radionuclides (seven elements have two different radionuclides each) that date before the time of
formation of the Solar System. These 35 are known as primordial radionuclides. Well-known examples
are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such
as potassium-40. Each of the heavy primordial radionuclides participates in one of the four decay chains.
Nuclear Stability

Nuclear stability in the context of radioactive decay refers to the tendency of a nucleus to remain
unchanged over time, resisting spontaneous decay and the release of radioactivity. Unstable nuclei, on
the other hand, undergo radioactive decay, transforming into other nuclei and releasing particles or
radiation. The stability of a nucleus is influenced by the balance of forces within the nucleus, including
the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force, as well as the neutron-to-proton ratio.

Elaboration:

• Nuclear Stability:

A stable nucleus is one that does not spontaneously decay, meaning it doesn't emit radiation or change
into a different element.

• Factors Influencing Stability:

• Neutron-to-Proton Ratio: The ratio of neutrons to protons in a nucleus plays a crucial role
in stability. For lighter elements, the ratio is close to 1:1. As the atomic number increases,
the ratio shifts to more neutrons than protons to compensate for the increasing
electrostatic repulsion between protons.

• Binding Energy: Nuclei with high binding energy per nucleon are more stable, meaning
more energy is required to separate the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.

• Magic Numbers: Certain numbers of protons or neutrons (magic numbers) lead to

• Strong Nuclear Force: The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons together,
overcoming the electrostatic repulsion between protons.
Beta Decay

In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits
a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron), transforming into an isobar of that nuclide. For
example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron
accompanied by an antineutrino; or, conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a
positron with a neutrino in what is called positron emission. Neither the beta particle nor its associated
(anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this
process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons. The probability of a nuclide
decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy. The binding
energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability.[1] For either
electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below)
or Q value must be positive.

Beta decay is a consequence of the weak force, which is characterized by relatively long decay times.
Nucleons are composed of up quarks and down quarks,[2] and the weak force allows a quark to change
its flavour by means of a virtual W boson leading to creation of an electron/antineutrino or
positron/neutrino pair. For example, a neutron, composed of two down quarks and an up quark, decays
to a proton composed of a down quark and two up quarks.

Types of Beta Decay

The two types of beta decay are known as beta minus and beta plus. In beta minus (β−) decay, a neutron
is converted to a proton, and the process creates an electron and an electron antineutrino; while in beta
plus (β+) decay, a proton is converted to a neutron and the process creates a positron and an electron
neutrino. β+ decay is also known as positron emission.[4]

Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the lepton number, or the number of electrons and
their associated neutrinos (other leptons are the muon and tau particles). These particles have lepton
number +1, while their antiparticles have lepton number −1. Since a proton or neutron has lepton
number zero, β+ decay (a positron, or antielectron) must be accompanied with an electron neutrino,
while β− decay (an electron) must be accompanied by an electron antineutrino.
β− decay

In β decay, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic
number increased by one, while emitting an electron (e−
) and an electron antineutrino (ν
−
e).β
decay generally occurs in neutron-rich nuclei.[24] The generic equation is:
A

ZX →A
−
Z+1X′ + e
+ν
[1]
e

where A and Z are the mass number and atomic number of the decaying nucleus, and X and X′ are the
initial and final elements, respectively.

Another example is when the free neutron (1

n → p + e−
+ν

At the fundamental level (as depicted in the Feynman diagram on the right), this is caused by the
conversion of the negatively charged (−⁠1/3⁠ e) down quark to the positively charged (+⁠2/3⁠ e) up quark,
which is promoted by a virtual W−
boson; the W−
boson subsequently decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino:

d → u + e−
+ν
β+ decay

In β+decay, or positron emission, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with
atomic number decreased by one, while emitting a positron (e+
) and an electron neutrino (ν
+
e). β decay generally occurs in proton-rich nuclei. The generic equation is:

ZX →A
+
Z−1X′ + e
+ν
[1]
e

This may be considered as the decay of a proton inside the nucleus to a neutron:

p → n + e+
+ν
[1]
e

However, β+
decay cannot occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy, due to the mass of the neutron
being greater than the mass of the proton. β+
decay can only happen inside nuclei when the daughter nucleus has a greater binding energy (and
therefore a lower total energy) than the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes
into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino and into the kinetic
energy of these particles. This process is opposite to negative beta decay, in that the weak interaction
converts a proton into a neutron by converting an up quark into a down quark resulting in the emission
of a W+
or the absorption of a W−
. When a W+
boson is emitted, it decays into a positron and an electron neutrino:

u → d + e+
+ν

e.
Alpha Decay

Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha
particle (helium nucleus). The parent nucleus transforms or "decays" into a daughter product, with
a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is
identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a
charge of +2 e and a mass of 4 Da. For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234.

Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. Theoretically, it can occur only in nuclei somewhat
heavier than nickel (element 28), where the overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a maximum
and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this
mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest
known alpha emitter being the second lightest isotope of antimony, 104Sb.[1] Exceptionally,
however, beryllium-8 decays to two alpha particles.

Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay, where the parent atom ejects a
defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind. It is the most common
form because of the combined extremely high nuclear binding energy and relatively small mass of the
alpha particle. Like other cluster decays, alpha decay is fundamentally a quantum tunnelling process.
Unlike beta decay, it is governed by the interplay between both the strong nuclear force and
the electromagnetic force.

Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (or ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, 110 TJ/kg) and
have a speed of about 15,000,000 m/s, or 5% of the speed of light. There is surprisingly small variation
around this energy, due to the strong dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy
produced. Because of their relatively large mass, the electric charge of +2 e and relatively low velocity,
alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, and their forward
motion can be stopped by a few centimetres of air.

Approximately 99% of the helium produced on Earth is the result of the alpha decay of underground
deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-
product of natural gas production.
Gamma Decay

Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay, which normally occurs after other forms of decay occur,
such as alpha or beta decay. A radioactive nucleus can decay by the emission of an α or β particle.
The daughter nucleus that results is usually left in an excited state. It can then decay to a lower energy
state by emitting a gamma ray photon, in a process called gamma decay.

Gamma decay may also follow nuclear reactions such as neutron capture, nuclear fission, or nuclear
fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of relaxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei following other
types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, so long as these states possess the necessary component
of nuclear spin. When high-energy gamma rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited
atoms emit characteristic "secondary" gamma rays, which are products of the creation of excited nuclear
states in the bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear gamma fluorescence, form a topic
in nuclear physics called gamma spectroscopy. Formation of fluorescent gamma rays are a rapid subtype
of radioactive gamma decay.

In certain cases, the excited nuclear state that follows the emission of a beta particle or other type of
excitation, may be more stable than average, and is termed a metastable excited state, if its decay takes
(at least) 100 to 1000 times longer than the average 10−12 seconds. Such nuclei have half-lifes that are
more easily measurable, and rare nuclear isomers are able to stay in their excited state for minutes,
hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before emitting a gamma ray. The process of isomeric transition is
therefore similar to any gamma emission, but differs in that it involves the intermediate metastable
excited state(s) of the nuclei. The rate of gamma decay is also slowed when the energy of excitation of
the nucleus is small.[6]

The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which a gamma
ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a "virtual gamma ray" may be thought to
mediate the process).
Fundamental Laws of Radioactive Disintegration

1. Radioactivity is spontaneous process which does not depend upon external factors.
During disintegration either α or β-particle is emitted. Both are never emitted simultaneously.

2. Emission of α-particle decreases atomic number by two and mass number by 4.

3. Emission of β-particle increases atomic number by one but mass number remains the same.

4. Emission of γ-ray does not change atomic or mass number.

5. The number of atoms disintegrated per second is directly proportional to the number of radioactive
atoms actually present at that instant.

This law is called radioactive decay law.

−dNdt ∝ N
or −dNdt = λN, ...(i)
where λ is a constant called disintegration constant and depends upon the nature of the radioactive
substance.
Now from (i) , we have
1NdN = −λdt
or ∫1NdN = λ∫dt
or logeN = λt+C, ...(ii)

where C is constant of integration. To determine its value.

when t = 0,N = N0
loge = N = 0+C

Substituting the value of C in (ii) , we have

Disintegration constant (λ) is defined as the time after which the number of radioactive atoms reduce to
1/e times the original number of atoms.
Half life period (T) is the time during which the number of atoms of a radioactive material reduces to half
of the original number .
Radioactive Series

A radioactive series, also known as a radioactive decay series or decay chain, is a sequence of radioactive
isotopes that undergo successive nuclear reactions (alpha and beta decay) until a stable, non-radioactive
isotope is formed. These series typically involve elements with atomic numbers greater than 81
(thallium) and are characterized by a specific pattern of decay. There are four main natural radioactive
series: thorium (4n), uranium (4n+2), and actinium (4n+3), along with the artificial neptunium series
(4n+1).

• Natural Radioactive Series:

These series are headed by naturally occurring isotopes like thorium-232, uranium-238, and uranium-
235. They involve a sequence of alpha and beta decays until a stable lead isotope is reached.

• Artificial Radioactive Series:

The neptunium series (4n+1) is an artificial series, meaning its isotopes are not found naturally and are
produced through nuclear reactions.

• Decay Patterns:

The mass numbers (number of protons + neutrons) in each radioactive series are related by the formula
4n, 4n+1, 4n+2, or 4n+3, where 'n' is an integer. This pattern helps classify the series based on the initial
isotope.

• End Products:

Each natural radioactive series terminates with a stable lead isotope, while the neptunium series ends
with a stable bismuth isotope.

• Examples:

• Thorium Series (4n): Begins with thorium-232 and ends with stable lead-208.

• Uranium Series (4n+2): Begins with uranium-238 and ends with stable lead-206.

• Actinium Series (4n+3): Begins with uranium-235 and ends with stable lead-207.

• Neptunium Series (4n+1): Begins with neptunium-237 and ends with stable bismuth-209.