VOLCANOES

By Dr Vipan Goyal
 Volcanism
• A volcano is a vent in the earth’s crust from which
molten rock material (magma), explosive bursts of
gases and volcanic ashes erupt..
or
• A mountain or hill having a crater or vent through
which lava, rock fragments, hot vapour, and gas are or
have been erupted from the earth’s crust.
Volcanism
 Fissure Vent
• A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is a
linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any
explosive activity.
• The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometers long.
 Causes of Volcanism
• The chemical reactions of radioactive substances deep within the interior
of the earth generate tremendous amount of heat. Some heat is already
present in the form of residual heat (heat captured at the center during
earth’s formation) is already present at the earth’s interior.
• There is a huge temperature difference between the inner layers and the
outer layers of the earth due to differential amount of radioactivity. This
temperature difference gives rise to convectional currents in the outer
core as well as the mantle.
• The convectional currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent
boundaries.
• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten and sometimes
gaseous material appears on earth at the first available opportunity
(the best available weak zone – usually a plate margin). The
earthquakes may expose fault zones through which magma may
escape (This happens in fissure type volcano).
• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of denser plate creates
magma at high pressure which will escape to the surface. Because
of high pressure, the magma and gases escape with great velocity
as the pressure is released through eruptions.
 Lava types in Volcanism

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

 Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or
Stratovolcanic lava
• These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.
• They are light-colored, of low density, and have a high percentage of
silica.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant
cone is therefore steep sided.
• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-
pouring lava, resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many
volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
• Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a spine or plug at the
crater like that of Mt. Pelee in Martinique.
 Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava
• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000°C. (1,830°F.) and are highly fluid.
• They are dark colored like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in
silica.
• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive.
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles
per hour.
• They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great
distances before they solidify (This is how Deccan Traps were formed).
• The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a
flattened shield or dome.
 Destructive Effects of Volcanoes
• Volcanism can be a greatly damaging natural disaster. The damage
is caused by advancing lava which engulfs whole cities.
• Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to life.
• Violent earthquakes associated with the volcanic activity and
mudflows of volcanic ash saturated by heavy rain can bury nearby
places.
• Sometimes ash can precipitate under the influence of rain and
completely cover whole cities.
 Destructive Effects of Volcanoes
• In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called tsunamis in Japan) are an
additional danger which are generated by submarine earth faults where
volcanism is active.
• The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to people,
animals, agriculture, and property are sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen fluoride. Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air
pollution downwind from a volcano.
• Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of
sulfur aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to lower surface
temperatures and promote depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer.
 Positive Effects of Volcanoes
• Volcanism creates new landforms like islands, plateaus, volcanic
mountains etc.
• The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and
orchards.
• Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon weathering and
decomposition.
• Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive agriculture,
forestry operations on them provide valuable timber resources.
 Positive Effects of Volcanoes
• Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are brought to the
surface by volcanoes. Sometimes copper and other ores fill the gas-
bubble cavities. The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa, source
of diamonds, is the pipe of an ancient volcano.
• In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters in the depth are heated
from contact with hot magma giving rise to springs and geysers.
The heat from the earth’s interior in areas of volcanic activity is
used to generate geothermal electricity. Countries producing
geothermal power include USA, Russia, Japan, Italy, New Zealand
and Mexico.
 Positive Effects of Volcanoes
• The Puga valley in Ladakh region and Manikaran (Himachal
Pradesh) are promising spots in India for the generation of geothermal
electricity.
• Geothermal potential can also be used for space heating.
• As scenic features of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist trade, few
landforms outrank volcanoes.
• At several places, national parks have been set up, centered around
volcanoes.
• As a source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast,
and other engineering purposes, lava rock is often extensively used.
 Geysers and Hot Springs
• Almost all the world’s geysers are confined
to three major areas: Iceland, New Zealand
and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A.
• Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some
of them have been harnessed to heat
houses, swimming pools and for other
domestic purposes.
• Hot springs and geysers have become
tourist attractions e.g. in Japan and Hawaii.
 Geysers and Hot Springs
• Water that percolated into the porus
rock is subjected to intense heat by the
underlying hard rock which is in
contact with hot magma in the mantle
or the lower part of crust.
• Under the influence of intense heat
the water in the capillaries and narrow
roots in the porous rock undergoes
intense expansion and gets converted
to steam resulting in high pressure.
When this steam or water at high pressure finds a path
to the surface through narrow vents and weak zones,
appear at the surface as geysers and hot water springs.
Geyser Hot water spring

1. Steam or water at high pressure, along its

1. Steam or water at high pressure
path, gets accumulated in small
reservoirs, fissures and fractures. Once smoothly flows to the top through
the pressure exceeds the threshold limit, the vent and condense at the
the steam bursts out to the surface surface giving rise to a spring.
disrupting the water at the mouth. Hence 2. Usually a carter like structure is
the name geyser. created at the mouth of the spring.
2. Usually a carter like structure is created at
3. Some springs are very colorful
the mouth.
because of the presence
3. Silicate deposits at mouth gives them of cyanobacteria of different
their distinct colours
colors.
4. Found in very few regions. Iceland is
famous for its geysers. 4. Found all across the world
 Distribution of Volcanoes across the World

• Since the 16th century, around 480 volcanoes have been

reported to be active.
• Of these, nearly 400 are located in and around the Pacific
Ocean and 80 are in the mid-world belt across the
Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt and in the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans.
• The belts of highest concentration are Aleutian-Kurile Islands
arc, Melanesia and New Zealand-Tonga Belts.
 Distribution of Volcanoes across the World

• Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above

sea and terrestrial volcanic mountains are small when
compared to their submarine counterparts.
• Most known volcanic activity and the earthquakes
occur along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic
ridges.
• There is a strikingly close agreement between volcanic and
earthquake zones of the earth.
Pacific Ring of Fire
 Pacific Ring of Fire
• Circum-Pacilic region, popularly termed the ‘Pacific
Ring of Fire’, has the greatest concentration of active
volcanoes. Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely
overlap along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’.
• ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’ is estimated to include two-
thirds of the world’s volcanoes.
 Regions with active volcanism along
‘Pacific Ring of Fire’
• Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,
• the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
• Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island,
New Zealand.
• Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and
Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to Alaska.
• It is said that there are almost 100 active volcanoes in the
Philippines, 40 in the Andes, 35 in Japan, and more than 70 in
Indonesia.
 Along the Atlantic coast
• In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have comparatively
few active volcanoes but many dormant or extinct
volcanoes, e.g. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and
Canary Islands etc..
• But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are
active.
 Great Rift region
• In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East
African Rift Valley, e.g. Kilimanjaro and Mt.
Kenya, both probably extinct. The only active
volcano of West Africa is Mt. Cameroon.
• There are some volcanic cones in Madagascar,
but active eruption has not been known so far.
 The West Indian islands
• The West Indian islands have experienced some
violent explosions in recent times. E.g. Pelee.
• The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies Islands) are
made up mainly of volcanic islands and some of
them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness.
 Mediterranean volcanism
• Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly
associated with the Alpine folds,
e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of the
Mediterranean) and those of the Aegean islands.
• A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt.
Elbruz). The Himalayas have, surprisingly, no active
volcano at all.
 Mediterranean volcanism
• The volcanism of this broad region,
stretching from Spain to the
Caucasus, is largely the result of
convergence between the Eurasian
Plate and the northward-moving
African Plate.
• This type of volcanism is mainly
due to breaking up of
Mediterranean plate into multiple
plates due to interaction of African
and Eurasian plate.
 Other regions
• Elsewhere in the interiors of continents—Asia, North
America, Europe and Australia, active volcanoes are
rare.
• There are no volcanoes in Australia.
 The Distribution of Earthquakes
• The world’s distribution of earthquakes coincides very closely with that of
volcanoes.
• Regions of greatest seismicity are Circum-Pacific areas, with the epicentres
and the most frequent occurrences along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire.
• It is said that as many as 70 per cent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-
Pacific belt.
• Another 20 per cent of earthquakes take place in the Mediterranean-
Himalayan belt including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and parts of north-
west China.
• Elsewhere, the earth’s crust is relatively stable and is less prone to
earthquakes, though nowhere can be said to be immune to earth tremors.
 Volcanos in India
• There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in the Indian
peninsula.
• Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair became active
again in 1991 and 1995. After its activity in the nineteenth century,
it passed through a mild solfataric stage as evidenced by the
sublimations of sulphur on the walls of the crater.
• The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about
150 km north-east of Barren Island; it is probably extinct. Its crater
wall has been completely destroyed.
Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes
 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes
• Before a volcano becomes extinct, it passes through a waning stage
during which steam and other hot gases and vapours are exhaled.
These are known as fumaroles or solfataras.
• The Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India,
Vesuvius (Italy) and Krakatao (Indonesia) which were thought to be
extinct, erupted recently and stayed active for few years and are
now in dormant stage.
• Krakatao volcano became active in 1883, killing 36,000 people in
West Java. Today, Krakatao is no more than a low island with a
caldera lake inside its crater.
 Some significant Volcanic Eruptions

In the history of mankind perhaps the most

disastrous eruptions were those of

Mt. Krakatau
Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Pelee.
and
 Mt. Vesuvius
• Vesuvius is a Stratovolcano (composite volcano) in Italy.
• Vesuvius, standing 4,000 feet above the Bay of Naples, erupted violently in
A.D. 79.
• The city of Pompeii, located to the south-west, was buried beneath twenty
feet of volcanic ashes cemented by the torrential downpours of heavy
rain.
• Fertility of the solidified Volcanic ashes tempted many farmers to begin
anew on the slopes of Vesuvius.
• Then came the catastrophic eruption of December 1631, ruined fifteen
towns and killed inhabitants.
 Mt. Krakatau
• The greatest volcanic explosion known to men is perhaps that of
Mt. Krakatau in August 1883.
• Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the Sunda Straits, between
Java and Sumatra.
• The explosion could be heard in Australia, almost 3,000 miles away.
• Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited and nobody was killed by
the lava flows, the vibration set up enormous waves over 100 feet
high which drowned 36,000 people in the coastal districts of
Indonesia.
 Mt. Pelee
• The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West Indies in May
1902 was the most catastrophic of modem times.
• Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on the path of
the lava, was completely destroyed within minutes.
• Its entire population of 30,000 was killed almost
instantly.
 Volcanic Landforms
• Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive
landforms based on weather magma cools within the crust or
above the crust.
• Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the crust are
called ‘Plutonic rocks’.
• Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the surface are
called ‘Igneous rocks’.
• In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer all rocks of
volcanic origin.
 Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
• Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out
during volcanic activity.
• The materials thrown out during volcanic activity includes lava
flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and
gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and
minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
 Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma
flows out violently. Conical vents are common in andesitic
(composite or stratovolcano) volcanism.
• A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure,
is a narrow, linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually
without any explosive activity. The vent is often a few meters wide
and may be many kilometers long. Fissure vents are common in
basaltic volcanism.
 Mid-Ocean Ridges
• These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a
system of mid-ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that
stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion
of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
• The lava is basaltic in nature (Less silica and hence less
viscous).
• Cools slowly and flows through longer distances.
• The lava here is responsible for see floor spreading.
 Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
• They are conical or central type volcanic
landforms.
• Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of
pyroclastic material and ashes find their way
to the ground.
• Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
openings leading to formation of layers, and
this makes the mounts appear as composite
volcanoes.
 Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
• The highest and most common
volcanoes have composite cones.
• They are often called strato –
volcanoes.
• Stromboli ‘Lighthouse of the
Mediterranean’, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt.
Fuji etc. are examples.
 Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
• The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most
famous examples.
• These volcanoes are mostly made up of
basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid
when erupted.
• These volcanoes are not steep.
• They become explosive if somehow water
gets into the vent; otherwise, they are less
explosive.
• Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
 Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms
[Lava Plateaus]
• Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks
and fissures in the earth’s surface and flows after
intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area,
finally producing a layered, undulating (wave like), flat
surface.
• Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), Snake Basin,
U.S.A, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield etc..
 Caldera Lake
• After the eruption of magma has
ceased, the crater frequently
turns into a lake at a later time.
This lake is called a ‘caldera’.
• E.g. Lake Toba, Indonesia, the
largest volcanic crater lake in the
world. Crater Lake in Oregon,
USA.
• Lonar in Maharashtra is an example of meteor crater lake and
not volcanic caldera.
 Cinder cone
• A cinder cone is a steep
conical hill of loose
pyroclastic fragments, such
as either volcanic clinkers,
cinders, volcanic ash, or
scoria that has been built
around a volcanic vent.
 Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
• Intrusive landforms are
formed when magma cools
within the crust [Plutonic
rocks (intrusive igneous
rock)].
• The intrusive activity of
volcanoes gives rise to various
forms.
 Batholiths
• These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and
solidification of hot magma inside the earth.
• They appear on the surface only after the denudation
processes remove the overlying materials.
• Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be
exposed on surface after erosion.
• These are granitic
 Laccoliths
• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies
connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
• These are basically intrusive counterparts of an
exposed domelike batholith.
• The Karnataka plateau is spotted with dome hills
of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated,
are examples of laccoliths or batholiths.
 Lapolith
• As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same
may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a
weak plane. It may get rested in different forms. In case it
develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is
called Lapolith.
 Phacolith
• A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in
folded igneous country.
• Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to
source beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths). These are
called the Phacoliths.
 Sills
• These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the
earth.
• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous
rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the
thickness of the material.
• The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick
horizontal deposits are called sills.
 Dykes
• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures
developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the
ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure.
Such structures are called dykes.
• These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western
Maharashtra area. These are considered the feeders for the
eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
Basically, four types of volcanism can be identified.
• Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
• Effusive (Lava outpouring)
• Explosive (Violent ejection solid material)
• Subaqueous Volcanism
 Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
• This includes the discharge of
material in gaseous form,
 steam, fumes and  Carbon monoxide.
 Hydrochloric acid  Hydrogen sulphide
 Ammonium chloride  Hydrogen
 Sulphur dioxide  Nitrogen
 Carbon dioxide
 Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
• These gases may escape through
vents which are in the form of hot
springs, geysers, fumaroles and
solfataras.
• This kind of volcanism indicates
the volcano is reaching its
• Associated landforms ==> sinter
mounds, cones of precipitated
minerals and mud volcanoes.
Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
 Effusive (Lava outpouring)
• Effusive: Geology relating to or
denoting igneous rocks poured out
as lava and later solidified.
• This type of activity refers
to abundant outpourings of
lava from a vent or fissure.
• Lava is silica poor basic one
like basalt. Hence flows through
larger distances.
 Effusive (Lava outpouring)
• The Deccan traps, which are
composed of such lavas today,
cover an area of 5,00,000 square
km. The original extent of the
formation must have been at
least 14 lakh square km.
• Columnar structure is sometimes
developed in fine-grained plateau
basalts.
• Columnar basalts are seen in the
Deccan traps near Bombay.
 Explosive (Violent ejection of
solid material)
• This type of activity results in fragmentation and ejection of solid
material through vents.
• Volcanic eject that settle out of air or water are sometimes called
pyroclastic sediments.
• Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the volcanoes.
• Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra
• Lappilli: These are gravel sized particles either in molten or solid
state.
• Blocks: Cobble or boulder-sized solid ejecta.
 Explosive (Violent ejection of
solid material)
• Bombs: a lump of lava thrown out by a volcano.
• Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes
• Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel through air for many
kilometres and may remain suspended in the air for a long
time.
• The heavier particles like bombs and blocks fall only as far
from the vent or fissure as the explosive force is able to hurl
them.
 Volcanism – Acid Rain and Ozone
Destruction
• The volcanic gases that pose the
greatest potential hazard to
people, animals, agriculture, and
property are sulfur dioxide, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride
etc..
• Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead
to acid rain and air pollution
downwind from a volcano.
 Volcanism – Acid Rain and Ozone
Destruction
• Globally, large explosive
eruptions that inject a
tremendous volume of
sulfur aerosols into the
stratosphere can lead to
lower surface temperatures
and promote depletion of
the Earth’s ozone layer.
 Subaqueous Volcanism
• This type of volcanic activity
takes places below the
surface of water.
• When lava flows over the
deep ocean floor or is
otherwise in contact with
water, it consolidates to
produce a structure like that
of a heap of pillows
 Subaqueous Volcanism
• Pillow lava of Pre-Cambrian
Age are found in parts of
Karnataka.
• Highly viscous lavas erupted
at lesser depths develop
glassy margins on pillows. The
related volcanic product is
hyaloclastite. Most
hyaloclastites identified are in
Iceland.
 Eruptive Volcanism Types
Based on the typical pattern or mode of eruptions:
• Hawaiian Eruption or Icelandic Eruption
• Strombolian Eruption
• Vulcanian Eruption
• Pelean Eruption
• Icelandic volcano
Hawaiian Eruption or Icelandic Eruption
• It involves the effusive outpouring of basalt
lava from craters, lava lakes or fissures.
• A single flow spreads widely over open slopes or
flows down the valleys as lava rivers.
• Little gas or tephra is produced.
• Examples: The great basalt plateaus of Columbia
and Iceland.
 Strombolian Eruption
• In this case, more viscous lava is ejected upward
in a fountain like fashion from a lava lake in the
crater at regular intervals of around 15 minutes.
• Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near Italy.
• It is called the ‘lighthouse of the Mediterranean’.
 Vulcanian Eruption
• The eruption in this mode is
• The molten lava which fills the crater solidifies and is explosively
ejected as a great cauliflower cloud of dark tephra.
• Bombs, blocks, lapilli and other ejecta fall in the surrounding area.
• Only minor lava flows result.
• After each eruption cycle, the volcano is dormant for decades or for
centuries.
 Pelean Eruption
• This type of eruption is the result of very viscous,
gas-rich, acidic lava flowing violently over the crater
rim or breaking out laterally.
• Hot gas and lava mixture is not carried skyward to
become cold tephra but spreads downslope as
a nuce ardente, continuing to evolve gas that
cushions the flowing fragments.
 Icelandic volcano
• The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of
molten basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel
fissures. Such outpourings often build lava plateaus.
Thank You