Topic 1

1. Explain the sampling process and reconstruction:

The sampling process involves converting a continuous-time signal into a discrete-time signal by
taking measurements at regular intervals, known as the sampling rate. According to the Nyquist-
Shannon Sampling Theorem, to accurately reconstruct the original signal, the sampling rate must
be at least twice the maximum frequency present in the signal (Nyquist rate). If this condition is
not met, aliasing occurs—where higher frequency components of the signal are misrepresented
as lower frequencies. Once the signal is sampled, reconstruction is done using interpolation
techniques, most commonly with an ideal low-pass filter, to convert the discrete samples back
into a continuous-time signal. This filter removes frequency components above the Nyquist limit
and smooths the signal. In practical systems, reconstruction filters are approximations of ideal
filters and must balance accuracy, delay, and implementation complexity. The combination of
accurate sampling and effective reconstruction ensures minimal distortion and fidelity to the
original signal.

2. Analyze the performance of waveform coding techniques:

Waveform coding techniques aim to represent analog signals in digital form while preserving
signal quality and minimizing bit rate. Common methods include Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM), Differential PCM (DPCM), and Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM). PCM samples the signal
and quantizes each sample independently, leading to a high bit rate but good quality. DPCM
improves efficiency by encoding the difference between successive samples, reducing
redundancy and bit rate. ADPCM further adapts the quantizer step size based on signal
dynamics, offering better performance in variable signal conditions. Performance is typically
evaluated using metrics like signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), bit rate, and complexity. Trade-offs
exist between complexity, quality, and compression; higher compression can introduce
quantization noise or signal distortion. While waveform coding techniques are efficient for
smooth, predictable signals like speech, they may not perform well with highly dynamic or noisy
signals. Overall, waveform coding is fundamental in real-time applications like telephony, where
low latency and moderate quality are essential.

3. Describe the mathematical model of digital modulation techniques:

Digital modulation techniques map digital data onto analog carrier signals for transmission over
band-limited channels. The mathematical model of digital modulation expresses the modulated
signal as a sum of sinusoidal functions with varying amplitude, phase, and/or frequency. Key
digital modulation schemes include Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), and Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). Each symbol
in the digital stream corresponds to a unique signal waveform. For example, in Binary PSK
(BPSK), the carrier signal is multiplied by ±1 depending on the binary input, modeled as
s(t)=Acos⁡(2πfct+ϕ)s(t) = A\cos(2\pi f_ct + \phi)s(t)=Acos(2πfct+ϕ), where ϕ\phiϕ represents the
phase change based on the input bit. The signal space representation helps in visualizing these
signals as vectors in multidimensional space, facilitating analysis of their performance under
noise. The choice of modulation technique affects spectral efficiency, power efficiency, and
robustness to noise. Mathematical modeling enables design and optimization of modulation
schemes to balance these trade-offs for various communication environments.

4. Determine the error probability of bandpass transmission techniques:

Error probability in bandpass transmission techniques is the likelihood that a transmitted symbol
is incorrectly received due to channel noise or distortion. In digital communication systems, this
is commonly quantified as Bit Error Rate (BER). The error probability depends on the
modulation scheme, noise characteristics (usually modeled as Additive White Gaussian Noise—
AWGN), and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For example, in Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK), the probability of bit error is given by Pb=Q(2Eb/N0)P_b = Q(\sqrt{2E_b/N_0})Pb
=Q(2Eb/N0), where EbE_bEb is the energy per bit, N0N_0N0 is the noise power spectral
density, and QQQ is the Q-function. More complex modulation schemes like QAM and PSK
have their own expressions for error probability, often involving integrals or approximations of
the Q-function. Increasing the SNR reduces the error probability, but doing so may require more
transmission power or bandwidth. Techniques like forward error correction (FEC) and diversity
schemes are often used to further reduce error rates in practical systems. Understanding error
probability helps engineers design more reliable communication systems tailored to specific
application requirements.

5. Illustrate the concepts of information theory and coding:

Information theory, developed by Claude Shannon, deals with quantifying information and the
limits of data compression and communication. A key concept is entropy, which measures the
average amount of information in a message. Higher entropy means more unpredictability.
Source coding, such as Huffman or arithmetic coding, reduces redundancy to compress data
efficiently. Channel coding introduces controlled redundancy to detect and correct errors in data
transmission—common methods include block codes (e.g., Hamming, BCH) and convolutional
codes. Shannon’s Channel Capacity Theorem defines the maximum data rate that can be reliably
transmitted over a channel with noise, known as the channel capacity. Error-correcting codes
are crucial for approaching this capacity in real-world systems. Modern coding techniques like
Turbo and LDPC codes achieve performance close to this theoretical limit. Information theory
guides the design of robust communication systems by optimizing trade-offs between data rate,
bandwidth, and error resilience. It is foundational to data transmission in systems ranging from
wireless networks to deep-space communication.
Topic 2
1. Analyze and model linear systems using Block diagram reduction and signal flow graph:
Linear systems can be modeled and simplified using block diagrams and signal flow graphs to
understand the relationships between different system components. Block diagrams represent the
functional elements of a system and their interconnections. Reduction involves applying rules
such as moving summing points and take-off points, combining blocks in series or parallel, and
eliminating feedback loops to obtain a simplified transfer function from input to output.
Alternatively, signal flow graphs use nodes and directed branches to show signal paths, governed
by Mason’s Gain Formula to find the overall system transfer function. This method handles
complex interconnections efficiently, especially when multiple feedback paths exist. Both
techniques are essential for analyzing dynamic systems in control engineering, allowing
designers to derive mathematical models (usually transfer functions) for simulation and stability
analysis. These tools help in understanding how changes in one part of a system affect the
overall behavior, which is crucial in control design and system optimization.

2. Analyze the time domain behavior of the linear systems:

Time-domain analysis of linear systems involves evaluating how the system responds to different
input signals over time. This includes observing the system’s transient and steady-state behavior
in response to standard test signals like step, ramp, and impulse inputs. Key time-domain
characteristics include rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, settling time, and steady-state
value. These parameters describe how quickly and accurately a system reaches its final state.
First and second-order systems are often analyzed because they model many real-world
processes. Second-order systems exhibit behaviors such as oscillation and damping, described by
damping ratio (ζ) and natural frequency (ωn). Underdamped systems overshoot, while
overdamped systems respond slowly. Time-domain analysis is crucial for control system design
since it provides insight into system performance, speed, and accuracy. Engineers use these
analyses to ensure the system meets specifications for responsiveness and stability, and to tune
controllers accordingly.

3. Compute the steady state error for type 0, 1, 2 systems:

Steady-state error is the difference between a system’s output and the desired input as time
approaches infinity. It indicates how accurately a control system follows a reference input under
constant conditions. This error depends on the system type, determined by the number of poles at
the origin in the open-loop transfer function. Type 0 systems have no integrator, Type 1 has one
integrator, and Type 2 has two. For a Type 0 system, the steady-state error is finite for a step
input and infinite for ramp or parabolic inputs. Type 1 systems achieve zero error for a step
input, finite error for a ramp, and infinite for parabolic. Type 2 systems yield zero error for both
step and ramp inputs, but a finite error for parabolic inputs. The steady-state error is calculated
using error constants: position (Kp), velocity (Kv), and acceleration (Ka). These constants
depend on the system’s open-loop transfer function and the input type. Minimizing steady-state
error is essential for high-performance systems, often achieved through controller design or
adding integrators.

4. Analyze the stability of control system using time and frequency domain methods:
Stability in control systems refers to the system’s ability to return to equilibrium after a
disturbance. Time-domain methods analyze the system’s response to inputs like step or impulse,
determining if the output settles or diverges. Techniques include the Routh-Hurwitz criterion,
which uses the characteristic equation’s coefficients to check for sign changes in a tabular format
—indicating instability. Another method is root locus, which plots the system poles in the s-
plane as a parameter (usually gain) varies, helping visualize how pole positions affect stability.
In the frequency domain, Bode plots, Nyquist plots, and gain/phase margins are used. Bode
plots show magnitude and phase versus frequency, revealing system bandwidth, gain margin
(GM), and phase margin (PM)—key indicators of stability and robustness. The Nyquist
criterion assesses stability by mapping the frequency response and counting encirclements of the
critical point (−1,0). Both domains provide complementary insights and are used together in
practical design. Stability analysis ensures a system not only performs correctly but also resists
oscillations or runaway behavior.

5. Design proportional, integral, and derivative controller, PD, PI, PID controllers:
PID controllers are widely used in control systems to regulate output by correcting errors
between the desired and actual system behavior. A Proportional (P) controller adjusts the
output proportionally to the error, improving response speed but potentially causing steady-state
error. An Integral (I) controller accumulates error over time, eliminating steady-state error but
potentially slowing the response and introducing overshoot. A Derivative (D) controller
responds to the rate of change of error, providing predictive action that improves stability and
reduces overshoot. Combining these, PI controllers eliminate steady-state error and improve
speed, PD controllers enhance stability and transient response, and PID controllers offer a
balanced approach, optimizing accuracy, stability, and speed. Tuning PID parameters (Kp, Ki,
Kd) is critical for system performance and can be done manually (e.g., Ziegler-Nichols method)
or using software. PID controllers are robust, easy to implement, and suitable for a wide range of
applications from industrial automation to robotics and avionics.

Topic 3

1. Describe the architecture and organization of 8085, 8086 microprocessors:

The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit processor with a 16-bit address bus, enabling it to access
up to 64KB of memory. It has a simple architecture with components like the Accumulator,
ALU, General Purpose Registers (B, C, D, E, H, L), Program Counter, Stack Pointer, and Flag
Register. It supports 74 instructions and operates on a single +5V supply. Its architecture
includes a control unit, clock generator, and serial I/O control.
The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit processor with a 20-bit address bus, capable of accessing
1MB memory. It uses a segmented memory architecture, dividing memory into code, data, stack,
and extra segments. It features two units: the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) for prefetching and
instruction queueing, and the Execution Unit (EU) for instruction execution. It supports more
complex operations, pipelining, and a richer instruction set than the 8085.
While 8085 is simpler and ideal for learning, 8086 offers more powerful capabilities for
multitasking and larger applications. Understanding their architecture helps in effective
programming, hardware interfacing, and system design.

2. Describe the instruction sets of 8085, 8086 microprocessors:

The 8085 instruction set consists of 74 instructions categorized into data transfer, arithmetic,
logical, branch, and control instructions. It supports 8-bit operations and uses mnemonics like
MOV, ADD, SUB, JMP, and CALL. Instructions operate on registers, memory locations, or immediate
data. The simplicity of its instructions makes it easy for beginners.
The 8086 instruction set is more advanced, supporting both 8-bit and 16-bit operations. It
includes instructions for string manipulation (MOVS, LODS), bit manipulation,
multiplication/division, and advanced control flow. Segment-based memory access adds
complexity with register-pairs like CS:IP or DS:SI. 8086 supports more addressing modes
(direct, indirect, based, indexed, etc.), enabling efficient memory access and flexibility in coding.
Both microprocessors support flag manipulation, stack operations (PUSH, POP), and interrupt
handling. The richer instruction set of 8086 makes it suitable for more sophisticated applications
requiring larger memory and faster processing, while 8085 is best suited for simpler control-
oriented tasks.

3. Develop assembly language programs for 8085:

Writing assembly language programs for the 8085 involves using mnemonics to directly control
hardware operations. These programs typically consist of initialization, logic implementation,
and termination steps. Examples include arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction), logical
operations (AND, OR), data movement, and control structures (loops and jumps).
For instance, a simple program to add two 8-bit numbers:

asm
CopyEdit
MVI A, 25H ; Load 25H into accumulator
MVI B, 30H ; Load 30H into register B
ADD B ; Add contents of B to A
STA 2050H ; Store result in memory location 2050H
HLT ; Terminate program

Programs are assembled and loaded into memory using tools like simulators or actual hardware
kits. The 8085 assembly language is intuitive, making it ideal for embedded systems learning. It
emphasizes efficient memory use, control flow, and direct hardware access. Mastery of 8085
programming builds a strong foundation for understanding more complex microprocessors.
4. Design memory and I/O interfacing circuits with 8085:
Memory and I/O interfacing with the 8085 microprocessor involves connecting external devices
so that the processor can read from or write to memory and peripherals. The 8085 has a 16-bit
address bus and an 8-bit data bus. Memory is interfaced using address decoding, where devices
are enabled based on specific address ranges. This can be done using decoders (like 74LS138) or
logic gates.
For I/O, the 8085 supports memory-mapped I/O (using memory instructions) and I/O-mapped
I/O (using IN and OUT instructions). I/O devices are selected using address decoding and control
signals like IO/M̅ , RD̅ , and WR̅ . Proper interfacing ensures data integrity and efficient
communication.
The system also needs buffers and latches (e.g., 74LS373) to manage data flow and isolate buses.
Timing diagrams and control signals are essential to validate the design. Effective memory and
I/O interfacing ensures the processor can interact correctly with RAM, ROM, displays, sensors,
and other devices in embedded applications.

5. Explain interface of 8085 with 8255 PPI, 8254 PIT, 8259 PIC and 8257 DMA controller:
The 8085 microprocessor interfaces with several peripheral chips to enhance functionality:

 8255 PPI (Programmable Peripheral Interface): Used to interface with keyboards,

displays, ADCs, etc. It has three 8-bit ports (A, B, C) configurable for input/output using
control word instructions. It enables parallel communication.
 8254 PIT (Programmable Interval Timer): Provides programmable timing and
counting functions for events, delays, or clock generation. It contains three counters, each
configurable for different modes.
 8259 PIC (Programmable Interrupt Controller): Allows handling multiple interrupt
sources (up to 8 per 8259, expandable with cascading). It prioritizes and manages
interrupts efficiently, supporting both edge- and level-triggered inputs.
 8257 DMA (Direct Memory Access) Controller: Allows peripherals to directly access
system memory without CPU intervention. It supports high-speed data transfer by
temporarily taking control of buses.
Interfacing involves connecting data, address, and control lines along with proper
decoding and mode setting. These chips extend the microprocessor’s capability in
industrial control, communication, and data acquisition systems.

1. Discuss the basic terminologies of cyber security:

Cybersecurity involves protecting systems, networks, and data from digital attacks. Key
terminologies include:

 Threat – a potential cause of an unwanted incident (e.g., malware, hacking).

 Vulnerability – a weakness in a system that can be exploited by a threat.
 Risk – the potential loss or damage when a threat exploits a vulnerability.
 Attack – an attempt to compromise system integrity, confidentiality, or availability.
  Malware – malicious software like viruses, worms, ransomware, and spyware.
 Firewall – a network security device or software that filters traffic.
 Encryption – converting data into a coded format to prevent unauthorized access.
 Authentication – verifying a user’s identity, often via passwords or biometrics.
 Phishing – a social engineering attack tricking users into giving sensitive info.
Understanding these terms is essential for analyzing threats and implementing defense
mechanisms.

2. Explain the basic concept of networking and internet:

A network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate to share resources.
Networking involves both hardware (routers, switches, cables) and protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP).
The Internet is a global network of networks, using standardized communication protocols to
connect billions of devices.
Data is transmitted in packets using IP (Internet Protocol), and reliability is ensured by TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol). Devices use IP addresses to identify and communicate.
DNS (Domain Name System) translates domain names into IP addresses.
Networking concepts include LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network),
bandwidth, latency, and routing. The Internet enables services like email, websites, file
sharing, and streaming. Understanding networking is critical to managing online systems
securely and efficiently.

3. Apply various methods used to protect data in the internet environment in real-world
situations:
Data protection on the internet is vital to ensure privacy, integrity, and security. Real-world
methods include:

 Encryption (e.g., SSL/TLS): Secures data during transmission, preventing

eavesdropping.
 Multi-factor Authentication (MFA): Adds layers beyond passwords (e.g., OTP,
biometrics).
 Firewalls and antivirus software: Block unauthorized access and malicious software.
 Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Encrypt internet traffic and hide IP addresses.
 Regular updates and patches: Fix known vulnerabilities in systems and software.
 Access controls and user permissions: Limit who can view or modify data.
 Data backup: Ensures data recovery in case of ransomware or hardware failure.
Organizations use security policies and user training to minimize human error, while
penetration testing helps identify weaknesses. These methods combined ensure strong
cybersecurity in real-world environments like online banking, e-commerce, and cloud
computing.
4. Examine the concept of IP security and architecture:
IP Security (IPSec) is a suite of protocols used to secure Internet Protocol (IP) communications
by authenticating and encrypting each IP packet in a data stream. It operates at the network layer
and ensures confidentiality, integrity, and authentication of data.
IPSec includes two main protocols:

 Authentication Header (AH): Provides integrity and authentication but no encryption.

 Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP): Provides encryption, along with optional
authentication.
IPSec supports two modes:
 Transport mode: Encrypts only the data portion of the packet (used in host-to-host
communication).
 Tunnel mode: Encrypts the entire packet (used in VPNs for network-to-network
communication).
The architecture includes Security Associations (SAs), which define the parameters for
encryption and authentication. Internet Key Exchange (IKE) negotiates and manages
SAs.
IPSec is widely used in VPNs, ensuring secure communication over the internet and
protecting sensitive data from interception or tampering.

5. Compare various types of cyber security threats/vulnerabilities:

Cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities vary in form and impact:

 Malware: Includes viruses, worms, ransomware, and spyware that can damage or steal
data.
 Phishing: Deceptive emails or websites trick users into revealing credentials or installing
malware.
 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Attackers intercept data between two parties.
 Denial-of-Service (DoS/DDoS): Overwhelms servers to make them unavailable to users.
 Zero-day Exploits: Target unknown vulnerabilities before patches are available.
 SQL Injection: Exploits database queries to gain unauthorized access.
 Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): Injects malicious scripts into web pages viewed by others.
Vulnerabilities include outdated software, weak passwords, unpatched systems, and poor
configuration.
Comparing them involves assessing the attack method, exploit vector, severity, and
impact. Effective cybersecurity requires layered defenses to detect, prevent, and respond
to various threats.

6. Develop the understanding of cybercrime investigation and IT ACT 2000:

Cybercrime investigation involves identifying, tracking, and prosecuting crimes committed using
computers or networks. Common cybercrimes include hacking, identity theft, cyberbullying,
online fraud, and data breaches. Investigations begin with collecting digital evidence (logs, IP
addresses, email headers), preserving data integrity, and analyzing system behavior. Tools like
digital forensics software, packet sniffers, and log analyzers aid in tracing cybercriminal
activities.
The Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act) is India's legal framework for cyber laws. It
defines cybercrime, prescribes penalties, and legalizes digital signatures and electronic contracts.
Key sections include:

 Section 66: Hacking and data theft

 Section 67: Publishing obscene content
 Section 43: Unauthorized access and damage
 Section 72: Breach of confidentiality and privacy
The Act empowers law enforcement to investigate and prosecute cybercrimes.
Understanding this legal framework ensures lawful handling of cyber incidents and
protects digital rights in India.

Topic 4
1. Describe the Analytic functions:
Analytic functions are a special class of complex functions that are differentiable at every point
in an open region of the complex plane. A function f(z)f(z)f(z) is said to be analytic at a point if
it is complex differentiable in some neighborhood of that point. If it's analytic at every point in a
region, it is called holomorphic in that region.
Key conditions for a function to be analytic are given by the Cauchy-Riemann equations:

∂u∂x=∂v∂y,∂u∂y=−∂v∂x\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y}, \quad \frac{\

partial u}{\partial y} = -\frac{\partial v}{\partial x}∂x∂u=∂y∂v,∂y∂u=−∂x∂v

where f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y)f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y).

Analytic functions are smooth, and they possess power series expansions (Taylor or Laurent
series). Examples include eze^zez, sin⁡z\sin zsinz, and log⁡z\log zlogz (in specific domains). These
functions play a central role in complex analysis and have applications in fluid dynamics,
electromagnetism, and engineering.

2. Solve the Complex Integral Problems:

Complex integrals are evaluated over paths or contours in the complex plane and form a
foundation of complex analysis. The Cauchy Integral Theorem states that if a function is
analytic on and within a closed contour, then the integral around that contour is zero.

∮Cf(z) dz=0\oint_C f(z) \, dz = 0∮Cf(z)dz=0

The Cauchy Integral Formula allows the evaluation of functions and their derivatives within a
contour:

f(a)=12πi∮Cf(z)z−a dzf(a) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_C \frac{f(z)}{z-a} \, dzf(a)=2πi1∮Cz−af(z)dz

Complex integrals are also solved using residue theorem, especially for evaluating real integrals
or those with singularities. The residue at a pole is used to compute:

∮Cf(z) dz=2πi∑Residues of f(z) inside C\oint_C f(z) \, dz = 2\pi i \sum \text{Residues of } f(z) \
text{ inside } C∮Cf(z)dz=2πi∑Residues of f(z) inside C

These tools simplify difficult integrals and are widely used in electrical engineering, control
theory, and physics.

3. Find the Optimal Solution using Various Methods of Linear Programming Problem:
Linear Programming Problems (LPPs) aim to maximize or minimize a linear objective function
subject to linear equality and inequality constraints.
The standard form:

Maximize or Minimize Z=c1x1+c2x2+⋯+cnxnSubject to: aijxj≤bi,xj≥0\text{Maximize or

Minimize } Z = c_1x_1 + c_2x_2 + \dots + c_nx_n \\ \text{Subject to: } a_{ij}x_j \leq b_i, \quad
x_j \geq 0Maximize or Minimize Z=c1x1+c2x2+⋯+cnxnSubject to: aijxj≤bi,xj≥0

Graphical Method is used for two-variable problems, plotting constraints and identifying
feasible regions.
Simplex Method is a tabular approach for solving multi-variable LPPs iteratively, improving the
objective function at each step until the optimum is found.
Dual Simplex, Big M, and Two-Phase Methods handle special constraints or artificial
variables.
Applications include resource allocation, production planning, and transportation problems,
offering efficient decision-making tools in engineering and management.

4. Apply different numerical methods in engineering problem:

Numerical methods offer approximate solutions to mathematical problems that are difficult or
impossible to solve analytically. In engineering, they help simulate and solve real-world
problems. Key methods include:

 Root-finding methods: Bisection, Newton-Raphson, and Secant methods to solve

nonlinear equations.
 Interpolation: Newton’s and Lagrange’s methods for estimating values between known
data points.
 Numerical differentiation and integration: Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules for
approximating integrals.
 Solving systems of linear equations: Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition, and
iterative methods like Gauss-Seidel.
These methods are essential in thermal analysis, fluid mechanics, structural analysis, and
electronics where analytical solutions may not exist or are computationally expensive.
 With software tools, engineers use these techniques to model, simulate, and optimize
designs effectively.

5. Solve Ordinary Differential Equation by Numerical Techniques:

Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) model dynamic systems in engineering. When
analytical solutions are not feasible, numerical methods are used.
Popular numerical techniques include:

 Euler’s Method: Simplest method using tangent line approximation:

yn+1=yn+hf(xn,yn)y_{n+1} = y_n + h f(x_n, y_n)yn+1=yn+hf(xn,yn)

 Modified Euler and Heun’s Method: Improves accuracy using average slope.
 Runge-Kutta Methods (especially 4th order): Highly accurate and widely used for
solving initial value problems.
 Predictor-Corrector Methods: Combines prediction and correction for improved
results.
These methods discretize the interval and approximate solutions step-by-step. They’re
widely used in mechanical systems, circuits, control systems, and signal processing to
simulate real-time behavior. Choosing the right step size is key to maintaining stability
and accuracy.