Module 5

Analog and Digital Pulse Modulation & Demodulation

5.1a) Sampling theorem for low pass signal, proof with spectrum:
A signal has three properties like voltage (or amplitude), frequency and phase. The signals
are represented only in an analog form (if the digital form of technology is not available). Analog
signals are continuous in time and difference in voltage levels for different periods of the signal.
Here, the main drawback of this is, the amplitude keeps on changing along with the period of the
signal. This can be overcome by the digital form of signal representation. Here conversion of an
analog form of the signal into digital form can be done using the sampling technique. The output
of this technique represents the discrete version of its analog signal.
A continuous signal or an analog signal can be represented in the digital version in the form of
samples. Here, these samples are also called as discrete points. In sampling theorem, the input
signal is in an analog form of signal and the second input signal is a sampling signal, which is a
pulse train signal and each pulse is equidistance with a period of “Ts”. This sampling signal
frequency should be more than twice of the input analog signal frequency. If this condition
satisfies, analog signal perfectly represented in discrete form else analog signal may be losing its
amplitude values for certain time intervals. How many times the sampling frequency is more
than the input analog signal frequency, in the same way, the sampled signal is going to be a
perfect discrete form of signal. And these types of discrete signals are well performed in the
reconstruction process for recovering the original signal.

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Sampling theorem states that to convert a continuous time signal to discrete time signal,
sampling frequency must be greater than or equal to twice of highest modulating frequency
(fs ≥ 2fm ) so that successful reconstruction is possible.
Sampling theorem basically consists of two parts: First part
represents the signal in its samples and minimum sampling rate required to represent a
continuous-time signal into its samples. Second part represents the reconstruction of the original
signal from its samples by giving the required sampling rate for satisfactory reconstruction. The
process of reconstructing the continuous-time signal from its samples is known as interpolation
The rate of sampling should be such that the data in the message signal should neither be
lost nor it should get over-lapped. This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate.
The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of
sufficient sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are bandlimited

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 5.1b) Nyquist criteria:

5.1c) Sampling techniques:

There are three types of sampling techniques:

• Impulse sampling.
• Natural sampling.
• Flat Top sampling.

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5.1d) Aliasing error and aperture effect:
In signal processing and related disciplines, aliasing is an effect that causes different
signals to become indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when sampled. It
also refers to the distortion or artifact that results when the signal reconstructed
from samples is different from the original continuous signal.
Aliasing and aperture effect are both related to the process of sampling an analog signal and
converting it into a digital signal in digital communication. However, there are some key
differences between these two phenomena.

Aliasing occurs when a high-frequency analog signal is sampled at a low sampling rate, resulting
in the loss of high-frequency components and the appearance of low-frequency components in
the digital signal. This happens because the sampling rate is not sufficient to capture the high-
frequency components of the signal, which are then represented as lower frequency components
in the digital signal.

The aperture effect, on the other hand, occurs when the bandwidth of the signal being sampled is
greater than the Nyquist frequency, which is half the sampling rate. In this case, the high-

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frequency components of the signal are lost during the sampling process, which results in a
distorted reconstructed signal.

In summary, aliasing occurs when the sampling rate is not high enough to capture the high-
frequency components of the signal, while the aperture effect occurs when the bandwidth of the
signal exceeds the Nyquist frequency. While both phenomena result in distortion of the
reconstructed signal, they are caused by different factors and require different techniques to
mitigate them. Aliasing can be reduced by increasing the sampling rate, while the aperture effect
can be reduced by using an anti-aliasing filter to remove the high-frequency components of the
signal before sampling.

Applications of Aliasing:-
Aliasing mainly has a negative impact on signals, but sometimes it can have positive impact also
but it is quite rare. Here are some few applications of Aliasing:
To lower frequency of any signal: Aliasing can be used to convert any high frequency signal into
low frequency signal.
Medical image processing: Aliasing is used in medical fields to process signals in their correct
form.
Facial and text image analysis: Aliasing has been found useful in analyzing faces and text quite
efficiently by using pure sine wave signals.
Biometric Recognition: Aliasing can also recognize biometrics such as fingerprints quite
reliably.

Effects of Aliasing:-
There are a few effects of aliasing and why it should be prevented:
Signal Accuracy: Aliasing makes signal become distorted which can cause unwanted problems
in any signal. This can be a major problem in Audio, which can cause audio instruments to sound
distorted and also in Video, which can cause sharp/pixelated or jagged edges in pictures.

Reconstruction of Signal: Due to aliasing, it may become impossible to perfectly reconstruct

Signal processing: Aliasing can make signal processing complicated by producing unwanted
noise.

Poor signal quality: Aliasing can negatively impact any signals quality and cause distortion and
corruption of the signal.

Jagged or blocky appearance: Aliasing in imagery can also cause jagged edges, pixelated or
blocky patterns in the image.

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Advantages of Aliasing:-
Some of the Advantages of Aliasing are :

Bandwidth Reduction: In certain applications where bandwidth is limited, such as in

Simulation of Analog Systems: In certain contexts, aliasing can mimic the behavior of analog
systems.

Data Analysis: In signal processing and data analysis, aliasing can sometimes provide useful
insights or simplify analysis.

Disadvantages of Aliasing:-
It leads to noise, which can disrupt a signal.
It leads to distortion and pixelation of any signal.
It disrupts data signal transmission.
It can lead to degrade the quality of the signal which can lead to loss of data.
It can interfere with the accurate detection of signals, leading to missed or false detections.
It can cause misinterpretation of the signal.

5.2a) PAM, PWM, PPM generation, detection and applications:

5.2b) Basics of PCM system and differential PCM system: