Lesson 5.
Electromotive Force
General Physics 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Our water-current
analogy extends to the
concept of
electromotive force.
Think of charges as the
water that spouts to
and from a fountain.
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Any given electronic
circuit requires a device
that will ensure the
continuous flow of
current, just as a
fountain utilizes pumps
in its system to expel
the water back upwards
after it has gone down.
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Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain the concepts of electromotive force and
internal resistance.
• Differentiate between idealized and real emf
sources.
• Solve problems related to electromotive force,
internal resistance, and terminal voltage.
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Electromotive Force
Imagine an electric field E within an isolated conductor of a
given resistivity of a given resistivity, ⍴.
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Electromotive Force
The electric field facilitates the formation of current I.
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Electromotive Force
The current causes charge to build up at the ends.
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Electromotive Force
What happens with the current due to charge build-up?
Does the current flow readily? Or is the flow reduced?
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Electromotive Force
An opposing electric field E₂ reduces the total electric
field Etotal.
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Electromotive Force
After some time, E₂ = E₁, and Etotal = 0. What happens to the
current?
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Electromotive Force
• For a complete circuit to sustain a stable current,
electric potential energy must be maintained as a
charge Q travels around the circuit.
• However, this cannot happen. Why is it so?
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Electromotive Force
• A conductor has resistance; thus, the potential energy
is always bound to decrease.
• A source of electromotive force is to be provided to
allow this increase in electric potential energy.
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Electromotive Force
In a fountain, which
part can be analogized
to the source of
electromotive force?
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Electromotive Force
• In the presence of an electromotive force (emf), a
charge Q moves from lower to higher electrical
potential energy.
• Emf is defined as a potential difference (ℰ or V) that
brings about a rise in electric current.
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Remember
Electromotive force (emf), denoted by the
script capital ℰ, is not a force but a
quantity like electric potential that
measures the energy present in a unit
charge. The SI unit for emf is also volt (V).
An emf source is essential to maintain a
steady current for a complete circuit.
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Electromotive Force
When an emf source is
attached to the bulb,
charges will travel from
one terminal of the emf
source to the other,
thus causing the bulb to
light up.
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Electromotive Force
Charges will then move
to the other terminal of
the emf source.
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Electromotive Force
The emf source acting
as a charge pump,
negative charges must
proceed from the
positive to the negative
terminal.
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What is an electromotive force?
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Idealized vs Real Electromotive Sources
• An emf source converts other forms of energy like
mechanical or chemical energy into electrical potential
energy.
• Ideally, an emf source must sustain a fixed voltage
between its terminals regardless of the electric current
flowing through it.
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Idealized vs Real Electromotive Sources
The voltage between the two
ends can be represented as
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Idealized vs Real Electromotive Sources
The potential rise, 𝜀, is equal to
the potential drop, Vab = IR.
Some examples of emf sources
are batteries, dynamos, solar
and fuel cells, and
thermocouples.
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Idealized vs Real Electromotive Sources
Internal Resistance
• In a real emf source, charges do experience resistance,
or more specifically, internal resistance (r).
• For an ohmic material, the voltage (specifically terminal
voltage) is given by
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Remember
For a real source of an electromotive
force, the terminal voltage and the emf
will only be equal to each other if there is
no current passing through the source.
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Idealized vs Real Electromotive Sources
• Since the current in the external circuit attached to the
emf source’s two terminals (a and b) may still be
determined using the relation V = IR, emf may be
calculated as
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What is the relationship between
electromotive force, current, and
the total resistance of a circuit?
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Let’s Practice!
A battery contains an emf of 15.0 V. Determine the
current once it is connected to a 12.50-Ω load if the
internal resistance of the emf source is equal to 0.110
Ω.
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Let’s Practice!
A battery contains an emf of 15.0 V. Determine the
current once it is connected to a 12.50-Ω load if the
internal resistance of the emf source is equal to 0.110
Ω.
The current flowing through the circuit amounts to 1.19
A.
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Try It!
A battery contains an emf of 25.5 V.
Determine the current flowing through
the circuit once it is connected to a 17.75-
Ω load if the internal resistance of the
emf source is equal to 0.165 Ω.
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Let’s Practice!
Determine the terminal voltage of a 17.5-V battery
with an internal resistance of 0.132 Ω once it is
connected to a 13.21-Ω load.
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Let’s Practice!
Determine the terminal voltage of a 17.5-V battery
with an internal resistance of 0.132 Ω once it is
connected to a 13.21-Ω load.
The terminal voltage of the battery is 17.33 V.
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Try It!
Solve the terminal voltage of a 23.45-V
battery with an internal resistance of
0.250 Ω once it is connected to a 15.55-Ω
load.
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Let’s Practice!
The terminal voltage of the 25.5-V battery in the
circuit shown below is 20 V. Determine the (1)
battery’s internal resistance and (2) the circuit
resistor’s resistance.
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Let’s Practice!
The terminal voltage of the 25.5-V battery in the
circuit shown below is 20 V. Determine the (1)
battery’s internal resistance and (2) the circuit
resistor’s resistance.
The (a) battery’s internal resistance (r) is 1.1 Ω and the
resistance of the resistor is 3.9 Ω.
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Try It!
Using the same figure, assume that ℰ
= 50.0 V, VAB = 45.0 V, and I = 3.5 A.
Calculate the (1) battery’s internal
resistance and (2) the circuit resistor’s
resistance.
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Check Your Understanding
Identify whether each of the following statements is
true or false.
1. A complete circuit is not necessary to establish a stable
current for a conductor.
2. An emf source converts other forms of energy like
mechanical or chemical energy into electrical potential
energy.
3. In an emf source, a charge Q moves from higher to
lower electrical potential energy in an electromotive
force.
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Check Your Understanding
Answer the questions that follow.
1. An 8.5-V battery is connected to a circuit with a load of
terminal voltage 7 V. Calculate the internal resistance of
the battery if the current flowing through the circuit is 6
A.
2. A battery contains an emf of 20.0 V. Determine the
current flowing through the circuit once it is connected
to a 30.50-Ω load if the internal resistance of the emf
source is equal to 0.234 Ω.
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Check Your Understanding
Answer the questions that follow.
Consider a battery with an emf of 25.0 V and an internal
resistance of 0.233 Ω. Suppose it is connected to a 17.0-Ω
load.
3. How much current is flowing through the circuit?
4. What is the battery’s terminal voltage?
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• The tendency of current to travel from lower to
higher potential is caused by electromotive
force (emf). It may also be defined as a potential
difference that brings about a rise in electric
current.
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• Electromotive force (emf), denoted by the script
capital ℰ, is not a force but a quantity like electric
potential that measures the energy present in a
unit charge. The SI unit for emf is also volt (V). An
emf source is essential to maintain a steady
current for a complete circuit.
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• Real emf sources have charges that experience
resistance, or more specifically, internal
resistance (r). During the course of the current’s
movement from the negative terminal (b) to the
positive terminal (a) of the emf source, terminal
voltage is produced.
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• For a real source of an electromotive force, the
terminal voltage VAB and the emf will only be
equal to each other if there is no current passing
through the source.
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Lesson 5.5
Ohm’s Law
General Physics 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Ohm’s law is considered
as one of the
foundations of
electronics. Its uses
span across both
domestic and industrial
applications.
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It is so prevalent that
even our own nervous
system operates in
accordance with it.
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What does Ohm’s law state?
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Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• State Ohm’s law.
• Determine the relationships among voltage,
resistance, and current.
• Solve problems related to voltage, resistance, and
current.
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What relations among current,
resistance, and voltage can we
deduce from the formula V = IR?
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Recall
Can you define current, voltage, and resistance?
What analogy can you think of these variables?
Can you identify real-life scenarios that involve these
variables?
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Recall
A conductive path that permits the continuous flow of
charge, called current, driven by the voltage and opposed
to some degree by resistance, forms an electric circuit.
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Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the amount of current in a given
circuit is determined by the amount of voltage and
resistance present in the system.
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Ohm’s Law
Key Quantities in Ohm’s Law
Unit of
Quantity Symbol Definition
Measurement
rate of the flow of
current I ampere (A)
charges
voltage V (or E) volt (V) drives electron flow
controls and
resistance R ohm ( ) restricts electron
flow
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Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s discovery revealed that “the amount of current
flowing through a conducting material in a circuit is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it”.
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Ohm’s Law Triangle
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What does the Ohm’s law state?
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Ohm’s Law Triangle
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Remember
The unit for charge, C, stands for
coulomb. Current is denoted by the letter
I, which stands for “intensity”, or more
specifically, current intensity.
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Calculating Power from Ohm’s Law
• Power dissipates or disperses from the resistance as
current passes through it.
• Its SI unit is the J/s or watt (W).
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Calculating Power from Ohm’s Law
Several derivations may be formulated from this equation:
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How do we determine the power
dissipating from resistance using
Ohm’s law?
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Limitations of Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law is viewed only as an “idealized model” that is
only relevant for materials that obey its provisions.
• We have defined these materials as “ohmic or linear
conductors,” and distinguished them from “nonohmic
objects.”
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Limitations of Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law does not apply in unilateral electrical
components, or those whose current is conducted in
only one direction.
• Temperature affects resistance. The temperature must
always be kept fixed to maintain the constant value of R.
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What are the limitations of
Ohm’s law?
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Let’s Practice!
A household electric iron has a resistance of 55.0 Ω. If
5.5 A of current is flowing through the resistance, how
much voltage is available between the two terminals?
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Let’s Practice!
A household electric iron has a resistance of 55.0 Ω. If
5.5 A of current is flowing through the resistance, how
much voltage is available between the two terminals?
The voltage available between the two terminals is
equal to 302.5 V.
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Try It!
An equipment has a resistance of 50.0 Ω.
If 3.2 A of current is flowing through the
resistance, what is the potential
difference between the two terminals?
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Let’s Practice!
A 2.5 mm in diameter silver wire moved a charge of
magnitude 400 C in 1 hour. Determine (a) the current
in the silver wire, and (b) the resistance if the
potential difference is 75.5 V.
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Let’s Practice!
A 2.5 mm in diameter silver wire moved a charge of
magnitude 400 C in 1 hour. Determine (a) the current
in the silver wire, and (b) the resistance if the
potential difference is 75.5 V.
The current that flows through the silver wire is 0.11 A
and the resistance is 686.36 Ω.
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Try It!
An aluminum wire moved a charge of
magnitude 350.75 C in 1.5 hours.
Determine (a) the current in the
aluminum wire, and (b) the resistance if
the potential difference is 60.0 V.
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Let’s Practice!
A voltage of 5.65 V is applied between the terminals of
a wire with the following dimensions: l = 35.5 cm and r
= 0.675 mm. The current resulting from this is
measured at 18.55 A. Determine the (a) area, (b)
resistance, and (c) resistivity of the wire.
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Let’s Practice!
A voltage of 5.65 V is applied between the terminals of
a wire with the following dimensions: l = 35.5 cm and r
= 0.675 mm. The current resulting from this is
measured at 18.55 A. Determine the (a) area, (b)
resistance, and (c) resistivity of the wire.
The (a) area of the wire is 1.43 ✕ 10⁻⁶ m², (b) its
resistance is 0.30 Ω, and (c) its resistivity is 1.21 ✕ 10⁻⁶
Ωm.
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Try It!
A 4-meter long wire that has a radius of
.750 mm has been subjected to a voltage
of 10.0 V, resulting in a current with
intensity of 23.45 A. Determine the (a)
area, (b) resistance, and (c) resistivity of
the wire.
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Check Your Understanding
Identify whether each of the following statements is
true or false.
1. Current refers to the flow of charges.
1. The symbol for current, I, is short to “induction” of
current.
1. Power dissipates from voltage as current flows through
it.
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Check Your Understanding
Answer the questions that follow.
1. An electric heater receives 4.5 A from a 220 V source.
What is its resistance?
1. What is the voltage drop across a resistor with 10 kΩ of
resistance if 600 μA is passing through it?
1. How much current in mA is passing through a circuit if it
has a 50 V source with 7.5 kΩ of resistance?
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• A conductive path that permits the continuous
flow of charge, called current, driven by the
voltage and opposed to some degree by
resistance, forms an electric circuit.
• Ohm’s law states that “the amount of current
flowing through a conducting material in a circuit
is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it”.
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Let’s Sum It Up!
• Ohm’s law enables us to calculate the power
dissipating from resistance, given that it is the
product of potential difference and current.
• Ohm’s law does not apply in unilateral
electrical components, or those whose current
is conducted in only one direction, as in the case
of transistors, diodes, and water volt-ammeters.
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Key Formula
Concept Formula Description
Use this equation to
solve for the voltage
where
• V is the voltage between the
between the ends of a
Ohm’s law terminals of a conductor; conductor when the
• I is the current in a conductor, and current and resistance
• R is the resistance of a conductor. are given.
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