Module No.

& Title : MTE 111 - History of Mathematics

Module Overview :

Hello Students! Welcome to Module 2 of MTE 111 – Mathematics in Early

Civilizations and The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics. This module helps you define
the many clay tablets found in Egypt that contains their history, culture and their mathematical
methods in solving problems. Outlined also are the contributions of famous Greek
mathematicians and philosophers. You will enjoy learning because some of their
remarkable contributions are formulas that you’re familiar with. Have fun learning!

Module Objectives/Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the different tablets containing ancient mathematical methods.
2. Learn some techniques of solving practical problems using ancient
mathematical methods.
3. Compare the ancient methods to mathematics of today.
4. Enumerate the contributions of famous Greek mathematicians like Thales,
Pythagoras, Plato, Hippocrates, etc.
5. Describe the life of Greek mathematicians and their followers (especially the
Pythagoreans)

Lessons in the module:

Lesson 1: a. The Rhind Papyrus
b. Egyptian Mathematical Papyri
c. A Key to Deciphering: The Rosetta Stone
d. Egyptian Arithmetic
e. Early Egyptian Multiplication
f. Early Egyptian Division C of Davao
g. . Egyptian Arithmetic
h. The Unit Fraction Table
i. Representing Rational Numbers
j. Splitting Method
k. Fibonacci Method

Module No. and Title : M2 - Mathematics in Early Civilizations and The

Beginnings of Greek Mathematics.
Lesson No. and Title : L1- Mathematics in Early Civilizations
Learning Outcomes :
 • Discuss the different tablets containing ancient
mathematical methods.
• Learn practical techniques of solving practical problems
using ancient mathematical methods.
• Compare the ancient methods to mathematics of today.
Time Frame : 3 hours
Introduction:
Hello dear students! Welcome to Lesson 1 – Mathematics in Early
Civilizations. In this lesson, you will learn the tablets that was found and deciphered
by notable ancient historians. It is their key to understanding Egyptian computation
and numeration. You may begin now.

Activity: SIMPLE DIVISION AND MULTIPLICATION

Can you multiply two digit number by two digit number, say 20 x 45? How
many minutes will it take you to get the correct answer? How about division by 450
divide it by 50?

Analysis:
1. Where did we learn the process of multiplication and division of
numbers?
2. What is the difference between ancient methods of computation and the
modern mathematics?

Abstraction:

Mathematics in Early Civilizations

With the possible exception of astronomy, mathematics is the oldest and
most continuously pursued of the exact sciences. Its origins lie shrouded in the
mists of antiquity. We are often told that in mathematics all roads lead back to
Greece. But the Greeks themselves had other ideas about where mathematics
began.
• Aristotle: “The mathematical sciences originated in the neighborhood of
Egypt, because there the priestly class was allowed leisure.”
Mathematics rose from practical needs.
• Herodotus: Egypt the gift of the Nile, and geometry a second gift.
• Proclus: According to most accounts geometry was first discovered among the
Egyptians and originated in the measuring of their lands. This was necessary
 for them because the Nile overflows and obliterates the boundaries between
their properties.

Most historians date the beginning of the recovery of the ancient past in
Egypt from Napoleon Bonaparte’s ill-fated invasion of 1798 (38,000 soldiers,
328 ships, 167 scholars). England’s Admiral Nelson destroyed much of the
French fleet a month after the army debarked near Alexandria. 12 months
later, Napoleon abandoned the cause and hurried back to France. Yet what had
been a French military disaster was a scientific triumph.
With mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Jean-Baptiste Fourier—charged
with making a comprehensive inquiry into every aspect of the life of Egypt in
ancient and modern times. They were captured by the British but generously
allowed to return to France with their notes and drawings. In due course, they
produced a truly monumental work with the title D´escription de l’Egypte.

Description de l’Egypte
• This work ran to 9 folio volumes of text and 12 volumes of plates,
published over 25 years.
• The text itself was divided into four parts: ancient Egyptian civilization,
monuments, modern Egypt, and natural history.
• This aroused immense interest in European cultural and scholarly circles
• Historical records of this early society were in a script that no one had
been able to translate into a modern language

There are two main documents which contain the majority of the
information we have about Egyptian mathematics:
• The Rhind Papyrus was written in hieratic script, about 1650 B.C. It was
nearly 18 feet long and 13 inches high. When it was donated to the
British museum, it has missing parts and only in about 1922 were they
all pieced together.
• The Golenischev/Moscow Papyrus was written in hieratic text, roughly
1850 BC. Approximately 5½ m (18 ft) long and varying between 3.8 and
7.6 cm (1.5 and 3 in) wide, its format was divided into 25
problems. The Moscow Papyrus is older than the Rhind Papyrus, while
the latter is the larger of the two.
 Another artifact that was critical is the Rosetta Stone, a polished black
basalt stone, which was discovered by Napoleon’s expedition . It is made up of
three panels. Each panel is written in different languages:
• The top is in ancient hieroglyphics,
• The middle is in demotic script, and
• The bottom is in Greek.
Four plaster casts were made for the universities of Oxford, Cambridge,
Edinburgh, and Dublin.

Key to Deciphering: The Rosetta Stone

The way to read Greek had never been lost; the way to read
hieroglyphics and demotic had never been found. The translation became easy,
once it was believed that each of the panel contained the same content. The
Greek was still readable and from this they were able to translate the other
two panels and thus we are able to read hieroglyphics and demotics as well.

Jean Francois Champollion (1790–1832).

• The greatest of all names associated with the study of Egypt
(Egyptology)
 • At the age of 11, he met the mathematician Jean-Baptise Fourier, who
showed him some papyri and stone tablets bearing hieroglyphics.
Although assured that no one could read them, the boy made the
determined reply, “I will do it when I am older.”
• When he deciphered the hieroglyphics, he cried, “I’ve got it!” and fall
into a dead faint.

Egyptian Multiplication and Division

The Rhind Papyrus starts with a bold premise. Its content has to do with “a
thorough study of all things, insight into all that exists, knowledge of all obscure
secrets.” It soon becomes apparent that we are dealing with a practical
handbook of mathematical exercises, and the only “secrets” are how
tomultiply and divide. Nonetheless, the 85 problems contained therein give us
a pretty clear idea of the character of Egyptian mathematics. The Egyptian
arithmetic was essentially “additive,” meaning that its tendency was to reduce
multiplication and division to repeated additions.
How to multiply Egyptian style?
To multiply two numbers was done by successively doubling on of the
numbers and then adding the appropriate duplications to form the product.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Find the product of 25 and 83.
Solution:
1 83 We could have also done 25 * 83 as
2 166 1 25
4 332 2 50
8 664 4 100
16 1328 8 200
Since 25 = 16 + 8 + 1, we have that 16 400
25 * 83 = 1328 + 664 + 83 = 2075. 32 800
64 1600
Since 83 = 64 + 16 + 2 + 1, we have
that 25* 83 = 1600 + 400 + 50 + 25 =
2075.
Please click the link below for more examples:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHVq0g6XWes

How to divide Egyptian style?

Division is sort of like multiplication in reverse, as the divisor is
repeatedly doubled to give the dividend.
Note: To do a/b = x means the same as finding x so that bx = a. That is to say,
what must we multiply by b to get a?

EXAMPLE 2.2
Divide 120 by 5.
Solution:
Repeatedly double 5 until a sum of 120 is reached.
1 5
2 10
4 20
8 40
16 80
Since 120 = 80 + 40, we have that when we add the corresponding numbers in
the left column 120/5 = 24.
EXAMPLE 2.3
Divide 35 by 8.

Solution:
To divide, say, 35 by 8, the scribe would begin
by doubling the divisor, 8, to the point at which
the next duplication would exceed the
dividend, 35. Then he would start halving the
divisor in order to complete the remainder.
 EXAMPLE 2.4
Divide 37 by 6.
Solution:
1 6
2 12
4 24
2/3 4
1/3 2
1/6 1
Thus, since 37 = 12 + 24 + 1, we have that 37/6 = 2 + 4 + 1/6 = 6 + 1/6

Please click the link below for more examples:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKqQGISplMo

Egyptians’ Fraction

The Egyptians believed in fractions of the form 1/n, unit fractions, only.
They did not understand fractions of the form a/b. The only one they ever used
was 2/3. They constructed tables to be able to express fractions like a/b as
sums of unit fractions using conventional division.

EXAMPLE 2.5
How would we write 3/5 as a sum of unit fractions?
1 5
½ 2+½
1/5 1
1/10 ½
Thus, we can conclude that 3/5 = ½ + 1/10.

The Unit Fraction Decompositions

Formula for decomposing fractions of the form 2/3k:
2/3k = 1/2k + 1/6k
EXAMPLE 2.6
2 2 2 1 1 1 1
• = ⟹ 𝑘 = 3. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = + = + .
9 3∗3 9 2∗3 6∗3 6 18

2 2 2 1 1 1 1
• = ⟹ 𝑘 = 5. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = + = + .
15 3∗5 15 2∗5 6∗5 10 30

General Formula for fractions of the form 2/n:

2/n = 1/n + 1/2n + 1/3n + 1/6n

EXAMPLE 2.7
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⟹ 𝑛 = 9. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = + + + = + + + .
9 9 9 2∗9 3∗9 6∗9 9 18 27 54

Fraction Decomposition of m/n

We shall discuss two methods:
1) “Splitting method”
2) Fibonacci’s method

Splitting Method:
1/n = 1/(n+1) + 1/n(n+1)
This way if we have for instance
2/13 = 1/13 + 1/13 we can rewrite one of them using other unit fractions as
1/13 = 1/14 + 1/182

EXAMPLE 2.8
Express 2/7 as a sum of distinct unit fractions.
Solution:
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⟹ 𝑛 = 7. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = + = + ((7+1) + )= + + .
7 7 7 7 7 7(7+1) 7 8 56

The Fibonacci Method (13th century)

Suppose 0 < a/b < 1, find an integer n1 so that
1/n1 ≤ a/b < 1/(n1 – 1)
Which means that n1 – 1 < b/a ≤ n1
This implies that n1a– a < b ≤ n1a, or
n 1a – b < a
Now subtract from 1/ n1 from a/b which is
a/b – 1/ n1 = (n1 a– b)/b n1 = a1/b1
So, a/b = 1/ n1 + a1/b1
Where a1 is a smaller numerator than a. This process can be continued until
the ai ‘s go to 1.

Example 2.9
Take a/b = 3/7.
Step 1: 2 < 7/3 < 3
1/3 < 3/7 < ½
3 1 9−7 2
Hence n1 = 3. Subtracting gives: − = =
7 3 21 21
3 1 2
Thus, = +
7 3 21
Step 2: Let a/b = 2/21. Then
10 < 21/2 < 11
So, we have that n1 =11, since
1/11 < 2/21 < 1/10
2 1 22−21 1
Subtracting gives − = =
21 11 231 231

3 1 2 1 1 1
Hence, = + = + +
7 3 21 3 11 231

Method of False Position

The Rhind Papyrus contained some problems that would today translate
to linear equations. The process they described in solving these equations is
called the false position / false assumption.
Idea: Assume a convenient value for the solution, perform the operation given.
The actual answer has the same relation to the assumed answer than the given
number has to the number calculated.

Example 2.10
 A quantity and its ¼ are added together become 17. What is the
quantity? (Problem 26 of the Rhind Papyrus)

Solution:
Algebra: x + x/4 = 17
Assume x = 4, then we have 4 + 1 = 5.
Since 5 must be multiplied by 17/5 to give us 17, we must multiply x = 4 by
17/5 = 3 + 1/3 + 1/15 (Use Fibonacci Method)
We get that x = (3 + 1/3 + 1/15)*4
(= 12 + 4/3 + 4/15)
= 13 + 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/60

A Curious Problem
Getting back to the Rhind Papyrus, we can consider Problem 28 the
earliest example of a “think of a number” problem.

EXAMPLE 2.11
Think of a number, and add 2/3 of this number to itself. From this sum
subtract 1/3 its value and say what your answer is. Suppose the answer was
10. Then take away 1/10 of this 10, giving 9. Then this was the number first
thought of.

Problem 79 is extremely concise and contains a curious set of data—which

seems to indicate an acquaintance with the sum of a geometric series:
Example
 s

The Rhind Papyrus closes with the following prayer, expressing the principal
worries of an agricultural community: “Catch the vermin and the mice,
extinguish the noxious weeds; pray to the God Ra for heat, wind, and high
water.”

Egyptian Mathematics as Applied Arithmetic

Looking at the extant Egyptian mathematical manuscripts as a whole, we
find that they are nothing but collections of practical problems of the kind that
are associated with business and administrative transactions. The teaching of
the art of calculation appears to be the chief element in the problems.
Everything is stated in terms of specific numbers, and nowhere does one find
a trace of what might properly be called a theorem or a general rule of
procedure.
As evidenced by the Akhmin Papyrus (named after the city on the upper
Nile where it was discovered), it appears that the methods of the scribe Ahmes
were still in vogue centuries later. Why did Egyptian mathematics remain so
remarkably the same for more than 2000 years? Perhaps the Egyptians entered
their discoveries in sacred books, and in later ages, it was considered heresy to
modify the method or result.

Egyptian Geometry
Geometry is from the two Greek words meaning “earth” and
“measure”. The task of surveying was performed by specialists called rope-
stretchers, or rope-fasteners, because their main tool apparently was a rope
with knots or marks at equal intervals. Democritus once boasted: “No one can
surpass me in the construction of plane figures with proof, not even the so-
called rope-stretchers among the Egyptians.”
The geometrical problems of the Rhind Papyrus are largely concerned with
the amounts of grain stored in rectangular and cylindrical granaries. Perhaps
the best achievement of the Egyptians in two-dimensional geometry was their
method for finding the area of a circle.
“Problem 50: Example of a round field of a diameter 9 khet. What is its area?
Take away 1/9 of the diameter, namely 1; the remainder is 8. Multiply 8 times
8; it makes 64. Therefore, it contains 64 setat of land. “
o What is this problem proposing to solve?
o What does it look like in a formula? How accurate is it?

Note 1 khet is 100 cubits, and 1 meter is about 2 cubits. A setat is a

measurement of area equal to what we would call a square khet. Then,

In Old Babylonian period, the circumference of a circle was found by taking

three times its diameter, C = 3d. Implying that π = 3. A cuneiform tablet
discovered at Susa by a French archaeological expedition in 1936 seems to
indicate that the Babylonian writer adopted 3 1/8 as the value of π. Problem
14 of the Moscow Papyrus shows that the Egyptians of about 1850 B.C. were
familiar with the formula for the volume of a truncated square pyramid (or
frustum).
Speculations About the Great Pyramid
• The Great Pyramid at Gizeh, erected about 2600 B.C. by Khufu, whom
the Greeks called Cheops.
• According to Herodotus, 400,000 workmen labored annually for 30
years—four separate groups of 100,000, employed for three months.
• Ten years were spent constructing a road to a limestone quarry, and
over this road were dragged 2,300,000 blocks of stone averaging 2 1/2
tons and measuring 3 feet in each direction.
• The largest building of ancient times and one of the largest ever erected.
• When it was intact, it rose 481.2 feet (the top 31 feet are now missing).
• These blocks were fitted together that a knife blade cannot be inserted
in the joints.
Some extraordinary claims:
• Built so that half the perimeter of the base divided by the height will be
exactly equal to π.
• The Egyptians intended to use the golden ratio as a theoretical basis for
building the Great Pyramid - John Taylor
• The area of the base is to the sum of the areas of the triangular faces as
this sum is to the sum of the areas of the faces and base.
• the Egyptians had erected the pyramids as dikes to keep the sands of
the desert from moving and covering the cultivated area along the Nile
• They were granaries the captive Hebrews were forced to build for
storing corn during the years of plenty – mosaics in the Church of Saint
Mark in Venice
• Charles Piazzi Smyth, the astronomer royal of Scotland, worked out the
so-called the pyramid inch, equal to 1.001 of our inches. He concluded
that the Great Pyramid was designed by God as an instrument of
prophecy, a so-called Bible in stone
• There would be found in the pyramid all sorts of significant information
about the history and future of humanity: the Great Flood, the birth of
 Christ, the beginning and end of World War I, and so on - British
Egyptologist Flinders Petrie

Conclusion:
Egyptian geometry never advanced beyond an intuitive stage, in which
the measurement of tangible objects was the chief consideration. The
geometry of that period lacked deductive structure—there were no
theoretical results, nor any general rules of procedure.

Babylonian Mathematics
• The mathematics developed in Mesopotamia, first by the Sumerians
and then later by the Akkadians.
• The exhaustive studies of Otto Neugebauer, revealed the mathematical
tables and texts, and thus a key to the “reading” of the found tablets
was found.
• Also had strong empirical roots that are clearly present in most of the
tablets that have been translated, it seems to have tended towards a
more theoretical expression.
• Can claim to have discovered the Pythagorean theorem.
• The sexagesimal notation enabled them to calculate with fractions as
readily as with integers and led to a highly developed algebra.
• Numerous tables give the squares of numbers 1 to 50, and also the
cubes, square roots, and cube roots of these numbers.
• Solving cubic equations.
• They interpreted a divided by b to mean that a is multiplied by the
reciprocal of b.
• There are scores of clay tablets that indicated that the Babylonians were
familiar with our formula for solving the quadratic equation.
• The Greek historian Polybius tells us that unscrupulous members of
communal societies cheated their fellow members by giving them land
of greater perimeter (but less area) than what they chose for themselves
 • Babylonian mathematics was much more sophisticated due to the fact
that they did not have to do the kind of division that the Egyptians had
to do.
• In Old Babylonian period, the circumference of a circle was found by
taking three times its diameter, C = 3d. Implying that π = 3.
• A cuneiform tablet discovered at Susa by a French archaeological
expedition in 1936 seems to indicate that the Babylonian writer adopted
3 1/8 as the value of π.
Plimpton 322
• Was deciphered by Neugebauer and Sachs in 1945
• Contains the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean Triples
• Well-known formulas for finding right triangles with sides of integral
length

Some of the most impressive treasures of the Babylonian past have been
unearthed at Susa. Discovered in the acropolis of Susa, one of the outstanding
landmarks in the history of humanity: the code of laws of King Hammurabi I
(circa 1750 B.C.)

The Cairo Mathematical Papyrus

• Unearthed in 1938, establishes that the Egyptians of 300 B.C. not only
knew that the (3, 4, 5) triangle was right-angled, but also that the (5, 12,
13) and (20, 21, 29) triangles had this property.
• Methods for approximating the square root of a number that was not a
perfect square.
• Contains the concept of Pythagorean theorem

References:
Burton, 2006. The History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 6th Edition, Mc
Graw Hill

Hodgkin,L. ,2005. A history of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity,

Oxford University Press

 Activity 2

A. Use the Egyptian method of doubling to find the following products:

1) 18 x 25

2) 26 x 33

3) 85 x 21

4) 105 x 59PWC of Davao

B. Find, in the Egyptian fashion, the following quotients:

1) 184 ÷ 8

2) 19 ÷ 8

3) 47 ÷ 9

4) 1060 ÷12

5) 61 ÷ 8:

C. Expand using splitting and Fibonacci method. The process can be found in
this module

1.) 4/5

2.) 3/19

3.) 5/27