Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115

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Composites: Part A
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

Fire structural resistance of basalt fibre composite

T. Bhat a,b, V. Chevali a,b, X. Liu b,c, S. Feih a,d, A.P. Mouritz a,⇑
a
Sir Lawrence Wackett Aerospace Research Centre, School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
b
Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures Ltd (CRC-ACS), 1/320 Lorimer Street, Port Melbourne, VIC 3027, Australia
c
Advanced Composite Structures Australia Pty Ltd, 1/320 Lorimer Street, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
d
Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Basalt fibres are emerging as a replacement to E-glass fibres in polymer matrix composites for selected
Received 9 July 2014 applications. In this study, the fire structural resistance of a basalt fibre composite is determined exper-
Received in revised form 6 January 2015 imentally and analytically, and it is compared against an equivalent laminate reinforced with E-glass
Accepted 10 January 2015
fibres. When exposed to the same radiant heat flux, the basalt fibre composite heated up more rapidly
Available online 20 January 2015
and reached higher temperatures than the glass fibre laminate due to its higher thermal emissivity.
The tensile structural survivability of the basalt fibre composite was inferior to the glass fibre laminate
Keywords:
when exposed to the same radiant heat flux. Tensile softening of both materials occurred by thermal
A. Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs)
B. Thermomechanical
softening and decomposition of the polymer matrix and weakening of the fibre reinforcement, which
C. Analytical modelling occur at similar rates. The inferior fire resistance of the basalt fibre composite is due mainly to higher
Basalt fibre emissivity, which causes it to become hotter in fire.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction There is growing interest in using basalt fibre for high temper-
ature applications. Basalt fibre is slightly inferior, similar or supe-
There is growing interest in reinforcing polymer matrix com- rior to E-glass fibre depending upon the specific thermal,
posites with mineral basalt fibres because of their moderate cost, physical or high temperature property [1,3–6]. Both basalt and
high stiffness and strength, excellent corrosion and oxidation resis- glass fibres have similar thermal conductivity values (typically in
tance, and heat resistance and thermal stability [1]. Basalt is the the range of 0.031–0.038 W/(m K)) and specific heat capacity val-
generic term for solidified volcanic lava, and it can be melt ues (840–860 J g1 K1), which indicates they provide a similar
extruded into continuous filaments using a process similar to glass level of heat insulation. Basalt fibre is superior to E-glass for high
fibre production. Several types of basalt fibre are commercially temperature properties such as elastic modulus at elevated tem-
available, with slightly different properties depending on the perature [4], operating temperature limit (650 °C for basalt com-
chemical composition of the basalt rock and the process conditions pared to 460 °C for E-glass), and higher softening temperature
used to extrude the molten basalt into fibres. The stiffness and (1050 °C for basalt and 600 °C for E-glass). For these reasons basalt
strength properties of basalt fibre is higher than E-glass fibre, is being used or considered for use in high temperature applica-
which is the most common reinforcement for polymer matrix com- tions, such as in hot gas filtration systems and fire resistant electri-
posites [1,2]. The Young’s modulus of basalt fibre (100–110 GPa cal cable systems [1]. However, other properties of basalt are
depending on the chemical composition and source of the basalt inferior to E-glass, including lower creep onset temperature and
rock) is much higher than E-glass (76 GPa). The tensile failure tensile strength at elevated temperature [6].
stress of basalt fibre (4.15–4.8 GPa) is also greater than E-glass Despite the high temperature applications of basalt fibre, the
(3.45 GPa). Basalt fibre is resistant to most chemicals, and is less fire resistance of basalt reinforced polymer composites is not
prone to damage from alkali solutions and water than E-glass [3]. known. It is not known whether the higher stiffness, operating
Because of these properties, basalt fibre is being used or considered temperature and softening temperature of basalt fibre translates
as a replacement to E-glass for several applications, including wind into superior fire resistance when used as the reinforcement to
turbine blades, automotive components, and reinforcement in civil polymer composite materials. A large body of research has been
structures and concrete [1]. published on the fire structural resistance of E-glass reinforced
composites under compressive and tensile loading [7–19]. Simi-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 99256269; fax: +61 3 99256108. larly, the fire resistance of carbon fibre laminates have also been
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.P. Mouritz). studied [20,21]. However, the structural response and failure of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.01.006
1359-835X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
108 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115

basalt fibre composites under combined loading and one-sided measured by loading a basalt tow with a gauge section of 150 mm
heating by fire has not been investigated. at an extension rate of 2 mm/min to failure using a 10 kN load
This study investigates the fire structural resistance of a basalt capacity Instron machine (Model: 4501). The tensile strength value
fibre reinforced polymer composite. The fire resistant properties of the basalt tows measured at high temperature was similar to
of a woven basalt fibre composite are experimentally determined that measured at room temperature after thermal treatment.
using fire structural tests involving combined tensile loading and Table 1 shows the residual failure stress of basalt tows measured
one-sided unsteady-state heating representative of one possible at 20 °C following heating at several temperatures. Also given in
fire. These tests provide new insights into the mechanical integrity the table is the failure stress of the basalt tows measured in-situ
and survivability of basalt fibre composite structures in fire. The at elevated temperature. The bundle strength at high temperature
effects of the applied tensile stress and the radiant heat flux on was measured using the procedure described by Feih et al. [15].
the structural survivability of basalt fibre composite are assessed. Table 1 shows that the basalt tow strengths measured at high tem-
In addition, the mechanisms controlling the tensile softening and perature and at 20 °C following high temperature exposure are
failure of basalt fibre composite in fire are investigated by residual very similar (within about 5%). It appears that any weakening of
property testing of basalt fibre tows following exposure to high the basalt tow that occurs at high temperature is ‘locked-in’ and
temperature. The fire structural survivability of the basalt fibre does not change when cooled slowly to room temperature. For
composite is compared against an equivalent E-glass fibre compos- convenience, therefore, the tensile strength of the tows was mea-
ite to assess their relative performance. This comparison is per- sured at 20 °C after thermal treatment rather than in-situ at high
formed because of the growing interest in replacing glass fibre temperature.
composites with basalt fibre composites in certain applications [1]. For comparison, the tensile failure load of E-glass tows (280 tex)
were measured for the same heat treatment and test conditions as
the basalt tows. Feih et al. [18] have shown that any weakening of
2. Materials and experimental methods
E-glass fibre at high temperature is also ‘locked-in’ when cooled to
room temperature. Therefore, similar to the basalt tows, the resid-
2.1. Composite materials
ual tensile properties of the E-glass tow were measured at 20 °C
following heat-treatment at different temperature and heating
Basalt fibre composite was produced for high temperature and
times.
fire structural testing using woven basalt fabric and vinyl ester
Five tows of basalt and E-glass were tested at 20 °C following
resin. The basalt fabric was plain woven by the supplier (Zhejiang
exposure to identical temperature and heating time conditions to
GBF Fiber Co. Ltd.) using 300 tex tows to an areal density of 350 g/
determine the scatter in the failure load.
m2. The basalt fibres had an average diameter of 12.7 lm (standard
deviation of 1.4 lm). The basalt fabric was stacked so the warp
2.2.2. Mechanical testing of composites
tows were aligned to create a cross-ply fibre pattern. Vinyl ester
The tensile properties of the basalt and glass fibre composites
resin (SPV 1349 Nuplex Composites) was infused into the fabric
were measured at temperatures between 20 and 300 °C. The ten-
at room temperature using the vacuum bag resin infusion (VBRI)
sile tests were performed according to ASTM D3039 using compos-
process. Following infusion, the vinyl ester matrix was gelled and
ite coupons with a gauge length of 150 mm, width of 25 mm, and
partially cured under ambient conditions (23 °C, 50% RH) and then
thickness of 4 mm. To achieve the same thickness, the basalt and
post-cured at 80 °C for two hours. The fibre volume content of the
glass fibre composites contained 18 and 7 plies of woven fabric,
basalt composite was determined to be 53% using the ASTM
respectively. A larger number of basalt plies was needed because
D-3171 burn-off technique.
they were thinner than the glass plies. Despite this difference,
The fire resistant properties of the basalt composite were com-
the fibre volume contents of the two composites were virtually
pared against an equivalent glass fibre composite. The composite
the same. The tensile tests were performed at a loading rate of
was reinforced with plain woven E-glass fabric (800 g/m2) with
2 mm/min using a 100 kN MTS machine. The basalt and glass fibre
an average fibre diameter of 12.2 lm (standard deviation of
composites were loaded in the 0° (warp) tow direction at different
1.5 lm). The diameter of the basalt and E-glass fibres was similar
temperatures to failure. Three samples were tested at different
(within 0.5 lm). The glass fibre composite was made with the
temperatures to assess the variability in the measured tensile
same vinyl ester resin and using the same VBRI process and cured
properties. The ends of the tensile specimens were tabbed, and this
under the same conditions as the basalt fibre composite. The fibre
region was clamped via pressure grips to the MTS machine. Failure
stacking sequence of the glass fibre laminate was also cross-ply
always occurred within the gauge region of the samples, and never
and the fibre volume content was 55%. The only significant differ-
within the tabbed region.
ence between the basalt and glass fibre composites was the type of
reinforcement.
2.3. Fire structural testing of composites

2.2. High temperature property testing of basalt fibre tows and Small-scale fire structural tests were performed on the basalt
composites and glass fibre composites to assess their fire resistance. This test
is designed to replicate the condition of a tensile-loaded plate
2.2.1. Mechanical testing of fibre tows
The tensile properties of basalt fibre tows were measured
following exposure to high temperature to determine the fibre Table 1
softening rate and strength loss. This information is used to Comparison of the tensile failure load of the basalt tows measured at 20 °C following
elevated temperature exposure and measured in-situ at elevated temperature. The
understand the fire structural resistance of the basalt composite
percent values give the residual failure load relative to the original (room temper-
under tensile loading. The tows (300 tex) used for testing were ature) failure load.
the same as those in the woven basalt fabric used to reinforce
Temperature Following heat exposure During heat exposure
the polymer composite. The basalt tows were heated to tempera-
tures between 150 and 650 °C for different times up to two hours. 150 °C 85 N (100%) 82.5 N (97%)
350 °C 78.2 N (92%) 79.1 N (93%)
The tows were then cooled to room temperature and their residual
450 °C 57.8 N (68%) 62.1 N (73%)
tensile strength was measured at 20 °C. The tensile failure load was
 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115 109

exposed to one-side constant radiant heat flux representative of a 600

basalt fibre composite
possible fire scenario. The test basically involves subjecting a rect- hot surface
angular composite sample to combined tensile loading and one- middle
sided unsteady-state radiant heating, as shown schematically in

Temperature (°C)
Fig. 1. The distance between the radiant heating source and the 400 cold surface

composite sample was set at 25 mm. The rectangular-shaped com-

posite test samples were 600 mm long, 50 mm wide and 9 mm
thick. The basalt and glass fibre composites contained 42 and 15
plies, respectively to have the same thickness of 9 mm. The fibre 200
volume fraction of both materials was very similar (0.53).
The fire structural test involved loading the composite sample
along the 0° fibre (or warp) direction at a constant tensile stress (a)
between 20% and 80% of the failure stress at room temperature. 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
The average failure stress was 460 MPa for the basalt fibre compos-
Heating Time (s)
ite and 470 MPa for the glass fibre composite at 20 °C. While under
constant tensile stress, a 100 mm long section of the composite
sample was exposed to an initial incident radiant heat flux of 25 600
glass fibre composite
or 50 kW/m2. The heat flux was calibrated before testing using a
Medtherm heat flux transducer (Model No. 32-10SB-10-197-
21633). The sample was held under constant stress and one-sided hot surface

Temperature (°C)
400
radiant heating until failure, and the stress rupture time was used middle
to define the fire structural resistance. Two samples were tested for cold surface
each heat flux and tensile stress condition. A full description of the
fire structural test procedure and apparatus is given in Ref. [18].
200

3. Fire structural analysis of basalt and glass fibre composites

(b)
In addition to fire structural testing, thermal–mechanical mod- 0
elling was used to compute the fire structural resistance of the 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
basalt fibre composite and compares its performance against the Heating Time (s)
E-glass composite. The model basically consists of two analytical
components: thermal analysis to compute the through-thickness Fig. 2. Temperature–time profiles measured at the hot surface, middle region and
cold surface of the (a) basalt fibre composite and (b) glass fibre composite when
temperatures of the composite and mechanical analysis to
exposed to the heat flux of 25 kW/m2. The dashed and solid curves are the
measured and calculated profiles, respectively.

calculate the reduction in strength caused by heating from the fire.

A full description of the model for E-glass composites is provided
by Feih et al. [18], and it is applied here for the first time to a basalt
fibre composite.
A model developed by Henderson et al. [22] was used to calcu-
late the through-thickness temperatures of the composites when
exposed to one-sided heating by fire. The governing equation for
calculating the temperature at any location and time through the
composite is expressed as:

 
@T @ @T @q  @T
qðTÞC p ðTÞ ¼ kðTÞ  ðQ þ hC  hG Þ  mG C G ð1Þ
@t @x @x @t @t
The three terms on the right hand side of Eq. (1) relate to the
three key processes controlling the temperature of a composite
material exposed to fire: heat conduction, resin decomposition
and volatile convection, respectively. The first term considers heat
conduction from the fire exposed surface through-the-thickness of
the composite. The resin decomposition term accounts for the heat
which is generated (exothermic) or absorbed (endothermic) by
pyrolysis of organic materials within the composite. The volatile
convection term accounts for the cooling effect caused by hot
decomposition gases when they diffuse from the decomposition
zone in the composite to the fire exposed surface.
In Eq. (1), T, t and x are the temperature, time and distance
below the fire-exposed surface, respectively. q is the instantaneous
density of the composite material, which decreases when the
Fig. 1. Schematic of the fire structural test which involves subjecting the composite
to combined tensile loading and one-sided radiant heating at a constant heat flux
matrix decomposes. Mg is the mass flux of volatiles. hc and hG are
representative of a possible fire scenario. (For interpretation of the references to the enthalpies of the composite and evolved gas, respectively. Q
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) is the endothermic decomposition energy of the polymer matrix.
110 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115

basalt fibre composite of a hot, decomposing composite is determined by the through-

800 thickness variations in the strengths of the matrix and fibres. The
ignition point
strength dependency of the matrix and fibres on the temperature
hot surface
must be determined experimentally under isothermal conditions.
Temperature (°C)

600 middle The matrix strength is related to the temperature using [14]:
cold surface r þ r ro  rR  0
o R
rðTÞ ¼  tanhðUðT  T g ÞÞ Rrc ðTÞn ð6Þ
400 2 2
ro is the original strength of the composite, which can be calculated
200 using laminate theory or measured. rR is the strength of the com-
posite when the polymer matrix has fully softened. Tg is the glass
(a) transition temperature of the composite. U defines the breadth of
0 the strength-temperature curve, and this must be measured. Rrc(T)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
accounts for softening caused by endothermic decomposition of
Heating Time (s)
the polymer matrix [18].
The reduction in the tensile strength of the basalt and glass
glass fibre composite fibres within a composite exposed to fire is assumed to be related
800
to both the temperature (T) and heating time (t) according to the
relationship [18]:
Temperature (°C)

600 hot surface

middle
rf ðt; TÞ ¼ rf ð0Þ  rloss ðTÞ tanhbkf ðTÞtc ð7Þ

400
cold surface where rf(0) is the original fibre strength, rloss(T) is the strength loss
at elevated temperature which is calculated using:

200
rf ð0Þ rf ð0Þ : tanhbpf ðT  T 50% Þc
rloss ðTÞ ¼ þ ð8Þ
2 2
(b)
0
T50% is the temperature at which the fibre loses 50% of the original
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 strength. pf is an empirically derived curve fitting constant.
Heating Time (s) kf(T) in Eq. (7) defines the strength loss rate, which is deter-
mined using:
Fig. 3. Temperature–time profiles measured at the hot surface, middle region and
cold surface of the (a) basalt fibre composite and (b) glass fibre composite when kfb ðTÞ ¼ k1 ek2 T ð9Þ
exposed to the heat flux of 50 kW/m2. The dashed and solid curves are the
measured and calculated profiles, respectively. where k1 and k2 are constants dependent on the fibre type.
Eqs. (6) and (7) are used to calculate the effect of temperature
on the residual strengths of the matrix and fibres at any location
Cp and k are the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the com-
through-the-thickness of a composite exposed to fire. A modified
posite which are determined using rule-of-mixtures:
rule-of-mixtures equation is used to determine the strength at
kðTÞ ¼ f v irgin kv irgin þ f char kchar ð2Þ any location through the composite based on the residual
strengths of the matrix and fibre:
C p ðTÞ ¼ f v irgin C P;v irgin þ f char C P;char ð3Þ
rðjÞ ðT; tÞ ¼ ULT ðTÞV f rfbðjÞ ðT; tÞ þ ð1  V f ÞrmðjÞ ðTÞ with ULT 6 1
f is the volume fraction of the virgin or fully decomposed (charred) ð10Þ
composite.
The polymer matrix is assumed to thermally decompose via a ULT is a parameter to account for the stress transfer efficiency
single-stage reaction process which can be defined by the Arrhe- between the fibres and matrix as the polymer softens with increas-
nius rate equation: ing temperature, and this must be measured.
Once, the strength values at various through-thickness loca-
   
@q q  qchar n tions are computed using Eq. (10), the bulk tensile strength (r)
¼ ðqv  qchar Þ  AeQ =RT ð4Þ
@t qv  qchar can be determined for increasing increments of heating time using
Simpson integration technique:
The order of reaction, n, is assigned a value of unity in this
Z tc
study. The mass-loss kinetic (Arrhenius) parameters (A, Q, n) for 1
the vinyl ester resin used as the matrix phase to the basalt and
r¼ rðxÞdx ð11Þ
tc 0
glass fibre composites was determined by thermogravimetric
analysis. where
The unheated surface of the composite is assumed to have the Z tc
tc
thermal boundary condition defined by: rðxÞdx ¼ ½rðx0 Þ þ 4rðx1 Þ þ 2rðx2 Þ þ ::: þ 2rðxy2 Þ
 0 3m
@T  þ 4rðxy1 Þ þ rðxy Þ ð12Þ
kx  ¼0 ð5Þ
@x x¼tC
In Eq. (12), m, defines an even number of points where the local
where tc is the thickness of the composite. strength values were calculated and was set at 50 in this study.
Once the through-thickness temperatures have been calculated When the residual tensile strength of the composite is reduced
for increasing increments of heating time using the thermal model to the applied tensile stress, then the laminate is assumed to fail. In
(Eq. (1)), it is then possible to compute the residual tensile strength this paper, the time taken for the residual strength to drop below
of the composite based on these temperatures. The tensile strength the applied stress is taken to be the rupture time.
 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115 111

Table 2 glass fibre laminate, and this was due to its higher temperature
Property data used to determine the fire structural properties of the basalt and fibre when exposed to 50 kW/m2.
glass composites.
Figs. 2 and 3 show the middle and back-face temperatures of
Property Basalt fibre Glass fibre the basalt fibre composite also increased at a faster rate than the
composite composite glass fibre laminate. The thermal conductivity (k) and specific heat
Fibre volume fraction (Vf) 0.53 0.55 capacity (Cp) values for basalt fibres (k = 0.031–0.038 W/m K;
Decomposition reaction constant, A (1/s) 5.59  1013 5.59  1013 Cp = 860 J/kg K) and E-glass fibres (k = 0.034–0.040 W/m K;
Activation energy, Q (J/kg mol) 212,705 212,705
Order of decomposition reaction, n 1 1
Cp = 840 J/kg K) are very similar. This reveals that the higher inter-
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) (60–300 °C) 0.41 0.43 nal and back surface temperature of the basalt fibre composite is
Remaining resin mass fraction (%) 3.0 3.0 not due to faster heat transfer through this material. Instead, the
Resin strength at room temperature (MPa) 69.0 69.0 faster heat-up rate within the basalt composite is attributed mostly
Resin strength at 300 °C (MPa) 1.4 1.4
to its higher temperature at the hot surface resulting from its
Load transfer factor at 20 °C, /LT 1.0 1.0
Load transfer factor at 300 °C, /LT 0.72 0.8 higher emissivity.
Emissivity at 20 °C 0.92 0.65 The solid curves in Figs. 2 and 3 show the calculated tempera-
Fibre bundle strength, rf(0) (MPa) 1454 1530 ture rise at the surfaces and middle of the composites. The temper-
Fitted fibre bundle 50% strength loss 390 347 atures were calculated using the thermal model described in
temperature, T50% (°C)
Section 3, which was solved using the property data given in
Fitted empirical constant from fibre bundle data, 1.62  102 5.83  103
pfb (°C1) Table 2. To date, this model has only been used to calculate the
Fitted fibre bundle strength loss rate, k1 (s1) 8.36  106 1.81  106 temperature in glass fibre laminates exposed to fire [10,11,14–
Fitted fibre bundle strength reduction 9.57  103 1.45  102 20,22]. It has not been used to predict the temperature of other
parameter, k2 (°C1)
types of fibre-polymer composites, including basalt fibre lami-
nates. The curves in Figs. 2 and 3 show that the calculated temper-
atures were in good agreement with the measured temperatures
for the basalt fibre composite except for when the material ignited
which caused the computed temperature values to be too low.
4. Results and discussion Agreement between the calculated and measured temperatures
for the glass fibre laminate is also good.
4.1. Thermal response of basalt composite to fire
4.2. Mechanical response of basalt composite to fire
The temperature rise to the basalt and glass fibre composites
when exposed to the heat fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m2 are compared One-sided radiant heating caused both the basalt and glass fibre
in Figs. 2 and 3. The data points show temperatures measured composites to progressively deform and soften to the point when
using thermocouples attached to the hot (heat-exposed) and cold they failed under tensile loading. Fig. 4 shows examples of the axial
(back) surfaces of the composites. Thermocouples were also extension – heat exposure time response of the basalt and glass
located at the mid-thickness point of the composites to record fibre composites over the course of tensile fire structural tests.
the internal temperature. Multiple tests were performed on both Deformation extension curves are shown for the composites tested
composites, and the variability in the measured temperatures at high (80%) and low (20%) tensile stress levels while exposed to
between tests was less than 20 °C. Exposing the composites to one-sided radiant heating at the heat fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m2.
the lower heat flux of 25 kW/m2 caused an unsteady-state rise in Fig. 4 also presents a schematic curve showing the key processes
temperature until eventually near-thermal equilibrium was causing the two composites to deform under combined tensile
reached. Neither the basalt or glass fibre composites ignited when loading and one-sided heating. The curves are characterised by
exposed to the heat flux of 25 kW/m2. At the higher heat flux of an initial quasi-linear increase in extension with heating time,
50 kW/m2, the heated surface temperature of the basalt fibre com- and this was due to the combined effects of thermal expansion
posite spiked due to ignition of the front face at around 675 °C. At of the composite and thermal softening of the polymer matrix.
the same heat flux, however, the glass fibre laminate did not ignite, The thermal expansion coefficient of basalt fibre (8  106 K1) is
even after long-term heat exposure. greater than E-glass fibre (5.4  106 K1), and this together with
The basalt fibre composite heated more rapidly and reached a the higher matrix softening rate (because of its faster heating rate)
higher temperature than the glass fibre composite. The maximum would account for the basalt fibre composite initially elongating
temperature reached by the basalt fibre composite when exposed more rapidly than the glass fibre laminate. The curves for both
to the heat fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m2 was about 540 and 700 °C, composites have an inflection point, beyond which the extension
respectively, which are significantly higher than the respective rises at an increasing rate with heating time. The inflection point
temperatures of 430 and 640 °C reached by the glass fibre com- corresponds to the onset of fibre/tow failures near the heated sur-
posite. The basalt fibre composite became hotter because its emis- face which causes the composites to become more compliant. The
sivity (e  0.92 at 20 °C) is higher than the glass fibre composite extension rate then rises rapidly due presumably to progressive
(e  0.65 at 20 °C). The emissivity values were experimentally failure of an increasing number of fibres/tows from the heated to
measured at room temperature using a thermal infrared camera. cooler surfaces of the composites. Progressive failure occurs earlier
It is expected that the emissivity values will change with increas- and more rapidly with the basalt fibre composite, indicating its
ing temperature, although this was not measured due to difficul- tensile structural survivability in fire is inferior to the glass fibre
ties in getting a direct line-of-sight between the IR camera and composite.
composite samples during fire structural testing. The higher emis- Fig. 5 shows the effect of applied tensile stress on the rupture
sivity caused the basalt fibre composite to reach a sufficiently high times of the basalt and glass fibre composites when exposed to
temperature and decomposition rate that it ignited and burnt at the heat fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m2. The rupture time is the dura-
the heat flux of 50 kW/m2. Ignition occurs when the mass flux of tion that the composite can withstand the applied tensile stress
flammable volatiles released by a decomposing material reaches before failure when exposed to the heat flux. The data points show
a critical level. Ignition of the basalt fibre composite indicates this the experimentally measured failure times and, as expected, for
material decomposed faster and released more volatiles than the both composites these increased when the applied stress and/or
112 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115

8 500
(a) basalt composite
20% stress glass composite
matrix softening effect (a)

Applied Tensile Stress (MPa)

400
Axial Extension (mm)

glass fibre composite

300
4

200
80% stress 20% stress

2
100
Run-outs
basalt fibre composite

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Heating Time (s) Rupture Time (s)

8 20% stress 500

basalt composite
(b) glass composite

Applied Tensile Stress (MPa)

400 matrix softening effect
(b)
Axial Extension (mm)

300
4

200
80% stress
2 glass fibre composite
100

basalt fibre
0 composite
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Heating Time (s) Rupture Time (s)

final rupture Fig. 5. Effect of constant tensile stress on the rupture times of the basalt and glass
(c)
10

fibre composites when exposed to heat fluxes of (a) 25 and (b) 50 kW/m2.

progressive fibre fracture 4.3. Softening mechanisms of basalt composite in fire

Axial Extension

Tensile rupture of the basalt and glass fibre composites in fire is

6

due to several temperature dependent softening processes, which

are given in Fig. 6. In order of increasing temperature these are
thermal expansion
4

& matrix softening thermal softening of the polymer matrix due to the ‘glassy-to-
rubbery’ transformation close to the glass transition temperature
2

(Tg), heat-induced delamination and matrix cracking, decomposi-

onset of fibre fracture
tion of the polymer matrix, and weakening and failure of the fibre
0
reinforcement.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
The modelling revealed that softening of both the basalt and
Heating Time glass fibre composites under high tensile stress (P300–350 MPa)
Fig. 4. Effect of heating time on the axial extension of the basalt and glass fibre
and short rupture time (6100 s) conditions was dominated by
composites at the heat fluxes of (a) 25 and (b) 50 kW/m2. The applied tensile stress thermal softening of the polymer matrix above Tg, as indicated in
values are expressed as a percentage of their room temperature tensile failure Fig. 5. The thermal softening behaviour of the basalt and glass com-
stress. (c) Schematic showing the softening processes occurring during tensile posites due to the glass transition of the vinyl ester matrix is
extension of composites.
shown in Fig. 7. The tensile strengths of the composites were deter-
mined under iso-thermal conditions between 20 °C and 300 °C,
which is just below the decomposition temperature for the vinyl
heat flux were reduced. The rupture times were much shorter for ester matrix [11]. Fig. 7 shows the tensile strength of both
the basalt composite, which is indicative of inferior fire resistance composites fell by 30–40% over a similar temperature range
under tensile loading. (between 80 and 150 °C) due to the glass transition of the vinyl
The curves in Fig. 5 were calculated using the thermal– ester matrix. DMTA measurements revealed that the glass transi-
mechanical model. The material property data used to solve the tion temperature of the vinyl ester is 120 °C, as defined by a 50%
model is provided in Table 2. The model was developed specifically reduction to the storage modulus from the room temperature
to predict the tensile softening of glass fibre laminates in fire, value [15]. The tensile strengths were reduced by the loss in stress
although the good agreement between the calculated and transfer efficiency between the load-bearing basalt or glass fibres
measured failure times for the basalt composites shows it also and soft polymer matrix. The softening behaviour occurred over
works well with this material. the same temperature range for both composites, although the
 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115 113

1.0

0.8 basalt composite

vinyl ester resin

Mass Loss (-)

glass composite
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 8. TGA mass loss–temperature curves for the basalt fibre composite, glass fibre
composite and unreinforced vinyl ester resin.

Residual Basalt Tow Strength (%)

100 150°C
250°C

80 350°C

60

40
(a)

450°C
Fig. 6. Flowchart indicating the softening processes of basalt and glass fibre 20
composites with increasing temperature. 550°C
650°C
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
600 Heating Time (s)

550
Tensile Strength (MPa)

Residual Glass Tow Strength (%)

basalt fibre composite 100 150°C

500
250°C

450 glass fibre 80

composite
350°C
400 60

350 40 (b)
glass transition temperature
450°C
300 20
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 550°C
Temperature (°C) 650°C
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Fig. 7. Effect of temperature on the tensile strengths of the basalt and glass fibre
composites.
Heating Time (s)

Fig. 9. Effects of temperature and heating time on the percentage tensile failure
basalt laminate experienced a greater loss in strength. This could loads of the (a) basalt tows and (b) glass tows. The values shown are the residual
account for the greater strength loss when the basalt fibre compos- loads measured at 20 °C following heating.

ite was subjected to high tensile stress while exposed to radiant

heating.
Delamination and matrix cracks were observed in both the Perkin–Elmer TGA7 instrument. Fig. 8 shows the TGA curves for
basalt and glass fibre composites when heated above 150– the materials were similar, with decomposition of the vinyl ester
200 °C, with no significant difference in the amount of cracking matrix occurring between 350 and 450 °C, and oxidation of the
between the two materials. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) residual carbonaceous char between 450 and 550 °C. The decom-
was performed on the two composites and the neat vinyl ester position rates of the basalt and glass fibre composites were very
used as the matrix phase to determine whether the fibre reinforce- similar, although the basalt material experienced a small mass loss
ment affected the decomposition behaviour. TGA was performed (under a few percent) between 150 and 450 °C which was less
on these materials in air at a heating rate of 10 °C/min using a significant for the glass fibre composite. The similarly in the TGA
114 T. Bhat et al. / Composites: Part A 71 (2015) 107–115

100 above 250 °C, and fell rapidly with increasing temperature up to
basalt tow
650 °C beyond which both fibre types has little residual strength.
glass tow
Figs. 10 and 11 compare respectively the tensile strength softening
Tow Softening Rate (%/s)

80 rate and percentage strength retention of the basalt and glass tows
with increasing temperature. The values shown are following heat-
ing. The tensile softening rate was approximated by assuming the
60
failure load decreased at a linear rate with heating time before
reaching the minimum failure load, and is defined as the percent-
40 age loss in strength per unit heating time. The results show there
was no significant differences in the softening rate and strength
loss between the basalt and glass tows.
20 Based on this information, it is concluded that the inferior fire
resistance of the basalt fibre composite was not because it softened
0
and weakened at a faster rate than the glass fibre composite.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Instead, the basalt fibre composite was inferior simply because it
Temperature (oC) heated up more rapidly and reached higher temperatures due to
the higher emissivity of the basalt. The higher temperatures accel-
Fig. 10. Effect of increasing temperature of the softening rates of the basalt and erated the rates of matrix softening, matrix decomposition and
glass tows. The softening rates were determined using the residual loads measured
fibre weakening which caused the basalt fibre composite to fail
at 20 °C following heating.
sooner than the glass fibre composite.

100 5. Conclusion
basalt tow
glass tow
There is growing interest in the use of basalt fibre as a heat and
Tow Failure Stress (%)

80
fire resistant material because of its low thermal conductivity, high
oxidation resistance, and high softening and melting temperatures.
60 Also, basalt fibre has higher Young’s modulus and tensile strength
properties compared to E-glass fibre. This study has shown, how-
ever, that a basalt fibre composite has lower tensile fire resistance
40 than an equivalent glass fibre laminate when exposed to the same
heat flux representative of a possible fire scenario. Basalt and glass
20
fibre composites softened and decomposed at similar rates at ele-
vated temperature. However, the higher emissivity of basalt fibre
composite caused it to heat faster and reach higher temperatures.
0 This caused the basalt composite to undergo softening and decom-
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
position of the polymer matrix and weakening of the fibres at a fas-
Temperature (oC)
ter rate, resulting in inferior fire resistance compared to the glass
Fig. 11. Effect of increasing temperature on the percentage residual strengths of the fibre composite under combined tensile loading and one-sided
basalt and glass tows. The tow stress values were measured at 20 °C following radiant heating.
heating at the different temperatures.

Acknowledgments
results between the two composites and with the vinyl ester resin
suggests that the basalt fibres did not accelerate significantly the This work was undertaken as part of the Composites Fire Perfor-
matrix decomposition rate. mance project of Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Com-
The modelling revealed that at relatively low tensile stresses posite Structures Ltd (CRC-ACS), established and supported under
(under 300–350 MPa) and consequently long failure times (above the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Pro-
100 s) the failure of the basalt and glass fibre composites was gram. One of the authors (T.B.) thanks the CRC-ACS for the provi-
due to both matrix softening and fibre weakening, with the loss sion of a Ph.D. scholarship. The authors thank Robert Ryan and
in fibre strength being the dominant process controlling the rup- Peter Tkatchyk from RMIT University for technical assistance in
ture time. The effects of temperature and heating time on the the manufacture and testing of the composites, respectively.
residual tensile failure load of the basalt and glass fibres used in
the composites are compared in Fig. 9. The failure load values were
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