HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Module-3 AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATIONS

Classification of Aircrafts
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the
force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few
cases the downward thrust from jet engines.

Lighter than air aircraft (Aerostats):

 The first flying object.

 Density is very less compare to the density of air.

 It easily float on the air.

 They are airships, free balloons and captive balloons.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Airship:

 An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can

navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags
filled with a lifting gas that is less dense than the surrounding air.
 Non-rigid airships, often called "blimps", rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape
of the airship.

 Semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form
of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it.
 Rigid airships have an outer structural framework which maintains the shape and carries
all structural loads, while the lifting gas is contained in one or more internal gas bags or
cells.
 It is used for transportation in earlier days(19 century)

 Now a days it is used for advertisement, surveillance, sight-seeing, research.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Balloon:

 A balloon is a kind of aircraft that stays in the sky by floating.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

 A balloon has no engine and has no way to change its direction of movement (except up
and down). A balloon travels by moving with the wind.

 The bottom of the balloon is called the "basket" where people can sit or stand. The top of
a balloon is a big cloth bag called the "envelope".
 A captive balloon is an aircraft which does not fly free, but is held like a kite by a rope
from the "pilot" or mooring. The rope or line is not only used for holding the aircraft, but
it also allows steering the balloon.
 There are three kinds of balloon aircraft:
 Hot air balloons stay in the sky by making the air inside the envelope hot. Making the air
hot makes the air spread out (have lower density). Hot air balloons are the most common
kind of balloon aircraft.
 Gas balloons are not hot. Gas balloons have gas of low density in their envelopes.
Examples of the gas used in gas balloons are helium and hydrogen.
 Rozière balloons are like both hot air balloons and gas balloons.

How the Balloon Works:

 The basis of how the balloon works is that warmer air rises in cooler air. This is because
hot air is lighter than cool air as it has less mass per unit of volume.
 The actual balloon (called an envelope) has to be so large as it takes such a large amount
of heated air to lift it off the ground.

 Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it lighter than the surrounding
(ambient) air.
 The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. The amount of lift (or
buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between
the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the
envelope.
 For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximum internal temperature is limited to
approximately 120 °C

 The burner uses propane gas to heat up the air in the envelope to move the balloon off the
ground and into the air.
 The pilot must keep firing the burner at regular intervals throughout the flight to ensure
that the balloon continues to be stable.

 Naturally, the hot air will not escape from the hole at the very bottom of the envelope as
firstly, hot air rises and secondly, the buoyancy keeps it moving up.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Heavier than air aircrafts (Aerodynes):

Ornithopter:
 An ornithopter (from Greek ornithos "bird" and pteron "wing") is an aircraft that flies by
flapping its wings.

 Designers seek to imitate the flapping-wing flight of birds, bats, and insects. Though
machines may differ in form, they are usually built on the same scale as these flying
creatures.
 Manned ornithopters have also been built, and some have been successful.

 The machines are of two general types: those with engines, and those powered by the
muscles of the pilot.

Rotorcraft:
 A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This
allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward,
backward, and laterally.
 An autogyro also known as a gyroplane or gyrocopter, is a type of rotorcraft that uses an
unpowered rotor in free autorotation to develop lift. Forward thrust is provided
independently, typically by an engine-driven propeller.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Airplane:
An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is
propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller.

Glider, Kite:
A glider is a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction
of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine.

Basic components of aircraft:

 The fuselage is the center body, where most of the usable volume of the airplane is found.
The fuselage carries people, baggage, other payload, instruments, fuel, and anything else
that the airplane designer puts there.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

 The wings are the main lift-producing components of the airplanes; the left and right
wings are identified as you would see them from inside the airplane, facing forward. The
internal volume of the wings can be used for such items as fuel tanks and storage of the
main landing gear (the wheels and supporting struts) after the gear is retracted.
 The horizontal and vertical stabilizers are located and sized so as to provide the
necessary stability for the airplane in flight. Sometimes these surfaces are called the
horizontal and vertical tails, or fins.

 When the engines are mounted from the wings, they are usually housed in a type of shroud
called a nacelle.
 Flaps and control surfaces and these are hinged surfaces, usually at the trailing edge (the
back edge) of the wings and tail that can be rotated up or down. The function of a flap is
to increase the lift force on the airplane

 Some aircraft are designed with flaps at the leading edge (Slats) of the wings as well as
at the trailing edge. Slats are used at take-off and landing to produce additional force.
 The ailerons are control surfaces that control the rolling motion of the airplane around
the fuselage. For example, when the left aileron is deflected downward and the right
aileron is deflected upward, lift is increased on the left wing and decreased on the right
wing, causing the airplane to roll to the right.
 The elevators are control surfaces that control the nose up-and-down pitching motion;
when the elevator is deflected downward, the lift on the tail is increased, pulling the tail
up and the nose of the airplane down.
Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

 The rudder is a control surface that can turn the nose of the airplane to the right or left
(called yawing).

Aircraft Control Surfaces

The directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft takes place around the lateral, longitudinal,
and vertical axes by means of flight control surfaces designed to create movement about these
axes. These control devices are hinged or movable surfaces through which the attitude of an
aircraft is controlled during take-off, flight, and landing. They are usually divided into three major
groups: 1) primary or main flight control surfaces and 2) secondary and 3) auxiliary control
surfaces.

Primary Flight Control Surfaces:

 The primary flight control surfaces on a fixed-wing aircraft include: ailerons, elevators,
and the rudder.
 The ailerons are attached to the trailing edge of both wings and when moved, rotate the
aircraft around the longitudinal axis.
 The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. When it is moved,
it alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude about the horizontal or lateral axis.

 The rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. When the rudder
changes position, the aircraft rotates about the vertical axis (yaw).

Secondary Control Surfaces:

 Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a larger control surface on
an aircraft, used to control the trim of the controls, i.e. to counteract hydro- or
aerodynamic forces and stabilize the aircraft in a particular desired attitude without the
Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

need for the operator to constantly apply a control force. This is done by adjusting the
angle of the tab relative to the larger surface.

 A servo tab is a small hinged device installed on an aircraft control surface to assist the
movement of the control surfaces.

Auxiliary Control Surfaces:

 Flaps and control surfaces and these are hinged surfaces, usually at the trailing edge (the
back edge) of the wings and tail that can be rotated up or down. The function of a flap is
to increase the lift force on the airplane;
 Some aircraft are designed with flaps at the leading edge(Slats) of the wings as well as at
the trailing edge. Slats are used at take-off and landing to produce additional force.
 The spoilers are also used during landing to slow the plane down and to counteract the
flaps when the aircraft is on the ground. The next time you fly on an airplane, notice how
the wing shape changes during take-off and landing.

High Lift Devices

In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a component or
mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount of lift produced by the wing.
The device may be a fixed component, or a movable mechanism which is deployed when
required. Common movable high-lift devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed devices
include leading edge root extensions and boundary layer control systems, which are less
commonly used.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Conventional Controls:

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Powered Controls:
Power assisted and fully powered flight controls: Hydraulically operated flight control
system or powered flight controls are used on high speed and large aircraft. Aircraft
travelling at high speeds impose high loads on the primary control surfaces. As such, it is
impossible for a pilot to control the aircraft without power assisted or power operated
flight control systems. Both the systems in basic form are similar in that a hydraulically
operated servo control unit, consisting of control valve and an actuating jack, is connected
to the control column and the control surfaces (Fig. 1.3). The only difference is the method
of connecting actuating jacks to the control surfaces.
Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

In the power assisted system, the control column is connected to the control surface
through a control lever. In the power operated system, the control column is connected to
the control lever only and the servo unit is directly connected to the control surface. The
force necessary to operate the control surface is supplied by the hydraulic pressure. Since
the force necessary to operate the control surface is supplied by the hydraulic pressure in
the power operate system, no forces are transmitted back to the cockpit. As such the flight
crew has no feel of the aerodynamic loads acting on the control surfaces. For such
systems, it is, therefore, necessary to incorporate an artificial feel device at a point
between the cockpit controls and the servo unit control lever.

The basic principle of the hydraulic control is simple. However, the system must control
the surface in a proportional way, i.e. the surface response (deflection) should be a
function of the pilot's demand (stick deflection, for instance). This is achieved by using
hydraulic servomechanisms, where the components are linked in such a way to introduce
an actuator stroke proportional to the pilot's demand

Power control unit – Mechanical, Electro-hydraulic:

Simple Mechanical/Hydraulic Actuation

Conventional Linear Actuator

The conventional linear actuator used in powered flight controls would be of the type
show in Figure 1.4. This type of actuator would usually be powered by one of the aircraft
hydraulic systems – in this case the blue channel is shown. In functionally critical applications
a dual hydraulic supply from another aircraft hydraulic system may be used. A mechanically
operated Servo Valve (SV) directs the hydraulic supply to the appropriate side of the piston
ram.
As the pilot feeds a mechanical input to the flight control actuator, the summing link
will rotate about the bottom pivot, thus applying an input to the servo valve. Hydraulic fluid
will then flow into one side of the ram while exiting the opposite side resulting in movement
of the ram in a direction dependent upon the direction of the pilot’s command. As the ram
moves, the feedback link will rotate the summing link about the upper pivot returning the servo
valve input to the null position as the commanded position is achieved. The attributes of

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

mechanical actuation are straightforward; the system demands a control movement and the
actuator satisfies that demand with a power assisted mechanical response.

Fig. 1.4 Conventional Linear Actuator

Mechanical Actuation with Electrical Signalling
The use of mechanical actuation has already been described and is appropriate for a
wide range of applications. However the majority of modern aircraft use electrical signaling
and hydraulically powered (electro-hydraulic) actuators for a wide range of applications with
varying degrees of redundancy. The demands for electro-hydraulic actuators fall into two
categories: simple demand signals or autostabilisation inputs.
As aircraft acquired autopilots to reduce pilot work load then it became necessary to
couple electrical as well as mechanical inputs to the actuator as shown in Figure 1.5. The
manual (pilot) input to the actuator acts as before when the pilot is exercising manual control.
When the autopilot is engaged electrical demands from the autopilot computer drive an
electrical input which takes precedence over the pilot’s demand. The actuator itself operates in
an identical fashion as before with the mechanical inputs to the summing link causing the
Servo-Valve (SV) to move. When the pilot retrieves control by disengaging the autopilot the
normal mechanical link to the pilot through the aircraft control run is restored. Simple electrical
demand signals are inputs from the pilots that are signaled by electrical means. For certain
noncritical flight control surfaces it may be easier, cheaper and lighter to utilize an electrical
link.

Fig. 1.5 Conventional linear actuator with autopilot interface

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
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Mechanical Screw jack Actuator

The linear actuators described so far are commonly used to power aileron, elevator and rudder
control surfaces where a rapid response is required but the aerodynamic loads are reasonably
light. There are other applications where a relatively low speed of response may be tolerated
but the ability to apply or withstand large loads is paramount. In these situations a mechanical
screw jack is used to provide a slow response with a large mechanical advantage. This is
employed to drive the Tail plane Horizontal Stabilator or Stabilizer (THS), otherwise known
years ago as a ‘moving tail plane’. The THS is used to trim an aircraft in pitch as airspeed
varies; being a large surface it moves slowly over small angular movements but has to
withstand huge loads. The mechanical screw jack shown in Figure 1.6 often has one or two
aircraft hydraulic system supplies and a summing link that causes SVs to move in response to
the mechanical inputs. In this case the SVs moderate the pressure to hydraulic motor(s) which
in turn drive the screw jack through a mechanical gearbox. As before the left- hand portion of
the jack is fixed to aircraft structure and movement of the screw jack ram satisfies the pilot’s
demands, causing the tail plane to move, altering tail plane lift and trimming the aircraft in
pitch.

Fig. 1.6 Mechanical screw jack actuator

Integrated Actuator Package (IAP)

Figure 1.7 shows the concept of operation of this form of actuator known as an
Integrated Actuator Package (IAP). The operation of demand, summing and feedback linkage
is similar to the conventional linear actuator already described. The actuator power or ‘muscle’
is provided by a three-phase constant speed electrical motor driving a variable displacement
hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pump and associated system provides hydraulic pressure to
power the actuator ram.
The variable displacement hydraulic pump is the hydraulic pressure source for the
actuator. A bi-directional displacement mechanism which is controlled via a servo valve
determines the pumps flow and hence actuator velocity. As with the linear actuator, a feedback
mechanism nulls off the input to the servo valve as the desired output position is achieved.
Therefore when the actuator is in steady state, the pump displacement is set to the null position
but the pump continues to rotate at a constant speed imposing a significant ‘windage’ power
loss which is a significant disadvantage with this design. The more modern integrated actuator
designs, specifically the Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (described later) eliminates this problem

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Fig. 1.7 IAP

Advanced actuation concepts:
These newer types of actuation are listed below and have found application in aircraft
over the past 10–15 years:
• Direct drive actuation
• Fly-by-Wire (FBW) actuation
• Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)
• Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)
Direct Drive Actuation
In the electro-hydraulic actuator a servo valve requires a relatively small electrical drive signal,
typically in the order of 10–15 mA. The reason such low drive currents are possible is that the
control signal is effectively amplified within the hydraulic section of the actuator. In the direct
drive actuator the aim is to use an electrical drive with sufficient power to obviate the need for
the servo valve/1st stage valve. The main power spool is directly driven by
Torque motors requiring a higher signal current, hence the term ‘direct drive’.
Fly-By-Wire Actuator
The advent of Fly-By-Wire (FBW) flight control systems in civil aircraft commencing with the
Airbus A320 introduced the need for a more sophisticated interface between the FCS and
actuation. Most first generation FBW aircraft may operate in three distinct modes that may be
summarized in general terms as follows:
• Full FBW Mode. This mode encompasses the full FBW algorithms and protection and
is the normal mode of operation
• Direct Electrical Link Mode. This mode will usually provide rudimentary algorithms
or possibly only a direct electrical signaling capability in the event that the primary
FBW mode is not available

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

• Mechanical Reversion Mode. This provides a crude means of flying the aircraft –
probably using a limited number of flight control surface following the failure of FBW
and direct electrical link modes
The interface with the actuator is frequently achieved by means of an Actuator Control
Electronics (ACE) unit that closes the control loop electrically around the actuator rather than
mechanical loop closure as hitherto described (see Figure 1.8). The digital FBW or direct link
demands from the flight control system are processed by the ACE which supplies an analogue
command to the actuator SV. This allows aircraft systems hydraulic power to be supplied to
the appropriate side of the ram piston moving the ram to the desired position. In this
implementation the ram position is detected by means of a Linear Variable Differential
Transducer (LVDT) which feeds the signal back to the ACE where the loop around the actuator
is closed. Therefore ACE performs two functions: conversion of digital flight control demands
into analogue signals and analogue loop closure around the actuator.

Fig. 1.8 Fly-by-wire Actuator

Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

The Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA) which uses state-of-the-art power electronics
and control techniques to provide more efficient flight control actuation. The conventional
actuation techniques described so far continually pressurize the actuator whether or not there
is any demand. In reality for much of the flight, actuator demands are minimal and this
represents a wasteful approach as lost energy ultimately results in higher energy off take from
the engine and hence higher fuel consumption.
The EHA seeks to provide a more efficient form of actuation where the actuator only
draws significant power when a control demand is sought; for the remainder of the flight the
actuator is quiescent (see Figure 1.9). The EHA accomplishes this by using the three-phase AC
power to feed power drive electronics which in turn drive a variable speed pump together with
a constant displacement hydraulic pump. This constitutes a local hydraulic system for the
actuator in a similar fashion to the IAP; the difference being that when there is no demand the
only power drawn is that to maintain the control electronics. When a demand is received from
the ACE the power drive electronics is able to react sufficiently rapidly to drive the variable
speed motor and hence pressurize the actuator such that the associated control surface may be
Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

moved to satisfy the demand. Once the demand has been satisfied then the power electronics
resumes its normal dormant state. Consequently power is only drawn from the aircraft buses
bars while the actuator is moving, representing a great saving in energy. The ACE closes the
control loop around the actuator electrically as previously described

Fig. 1.9 EHA

Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)
The electromechanical actuator or EMA replaces the electrical signaling and power
actuation of the electro-hydraulic actuator with an electric motor and gearbox assembly
applying the motive force to move the ram. EMAs have been used on aircraft for many years
for such uses as trim and door actuation; however the power, motive force and response times
have been less than that required for flight control actuation. The three main technology
advancements that have improved the EMA to the point where it may be viable for flight
control applications are: the use of rare earth magnetic materials in 270 VDC motors; high
power solid-state switching devices; and microprocessors for lightweight control of the
actuator motor.
As the EHA is the more-electric replacement for linear actuators so the Electro-
Mechanical Actuator (EMA) is the more-electric version of the screwjack actuator as shown
in Figure 1.10. The concept of the EMA is identical with the exception that the power drive
electronics drives a brushless DC motor operating a reduction gear that applies rotary motion
allowing the jack ram to extend or retract to satisfy input demands. EMAs are therefore used
to power the THS on civil aircraft and flap and slat drives and also find a use in helicopter flight
control systems. A major concern regarding the EMA is the consideration of the actuator
jamming case and this has negated their use in primary flight controls on conventional aircraft.

Fig. 1.10 EMA

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Fly –By –Wire System (FBW)

• The term "fly-by-wire" implies a purely electrically-signaled control system
• It is a computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the
operator and the final control actuators or surfaces
• It modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters
• These are carefully developed and validated in order to produce maximum operational
Effect without compromising safety.
Operation
• The pilot’s demand is first of all transduced into electrical signal in the cabin and sent to a
group of independent computers (Airbus architecture substitute the cabin control
Column with a side stick)
• The computers sample also data concerning the flight conditions and servo-valves and
actuators positions
• The pilot’s demand is then processed and sent to the actuator, properly tailored to the actual
Flight status.
• The flight data used by the system mainly depend on the aircraft category; in general the
Following data are sampled and processed:
– pitch, roll, yaw rate and linear accelerations
– Angle of attack and sideslip
– Airspeed/Mach number, Pressure, Altitude and radio altimeter indications
– Stick and pedal demands
– Other cabin commands such as landing gear condition, thrust lever position, etc.
• The full system has high redundancy to restore the level of reliability of a mechanical or
hydraulic system, in the form of multiple (triplex or quadruplex) parallel and independent lanes
to generate and transmit the signals, and independent computers that process them

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

FBW – Advantages
• Flight envelope protection (the computers will reject and tune pilot’s demands that
might exceed the airframe load factors)
• Increase of stability and handling qualities across the full flight envelope, including the
possibility of flying unstable vehicles
• Turbulence suppression and consequent decrease of fatigue loads and increase of
passenger comfort
• Use of thrust vectoring to augment or replace lift aerodynamic control, then extending
the aircraft flight envelope
• Drag reduction by an optimised trim setting
• Higher stability during release of tanks and weapons
• Easier interfacing to auto-pilot and other automatic flight control systems
• Weight reduction (mechanical linkages are substituted by wirings)
• Maintenance reduction
• Reduction of airlines’ pilot training costs (flight handling becomes very similar in an
whole aircraft family)
Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW)
• A digital fly-by-wire flight control system is similar to analog system. However, the signal
processing is done by digital computers and the pilot literally can "fly-via-computer".
• Increases in flexibility of the flight control system, since the digital computers can receive
input from any aircraft sensor (such as the altimeters and the pitot tubes).
• Increase in electronic stability - system is less dependent on the values of critical electrical

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

components in an analog controller

• The computers "read" position and force inputs from the pilot's controls and aircraft sensors.
• They solve differential equations to determine the appropriate command signals that move
the flight controls in order to carry out the intentions of the pilot
• The programming of the digital computers enable flight envelope protection.
• Aircraft designers precisely tailor an aircraft's handling characteristics, to stay within the
overall limits of what is possible given the aerodynamics and structure of the aircraft.
• Flight-control computers continuously "fly" the aircraft, pilot's workloads can be reduced
• In military and naval applications, it is now possible to fly military aircraft that have
relaxed stability.
• Better maneuverability during combat and training flights and " carefree handling"
because stalling, spinning. and other undesirable performances are prevented
automatically by the computers
• Enable inherently unstable combat aircraft, such as the F-117 Nighthawk and the B-2
Spirit flying wing to fly in usable and safe manners

DFBW - Redundancy
• If one of the flight-control computers crashes - or is damaged in combat; or suffers from
"insanity" caused by electromagnetic pulses - the others overrule the faulty one (or even two
of them), they continue flying the aircraft safely, and they can either turn off or re-boot the
faulty computers.
• Any flight-control computer whose results disagree with the others is ruled to be faulty,
and it is either ignored or re-booted.
• Most of the early digital fly-by-wire aircraft also had an analog electrical, a mechanical, or a
hydraulic back-up flight control system
• The Space Shuttle has, in addition to its redundant set of four digital computers running
its primary flight-control software, a fifth back-up computer running a separately
developed, reduced-function, software flightcontrol system - one that can be commanded
to take over in the event that a fault ever affects all of the computers in the other four.
• This back-up system serves to reduce the risk of total flight-control-system failure ever
happening because of a general-purpose flight software fault has escaped notice in the other
four computers.
• For airliners, flight-control redundancy improves their safety
• Fly-by-wire control systems also improve economy in flight because they are lighter, and
they eliminate the need for many mechanical, and heavy, flight-control mechanisms
• Most modern airliners have computerized systems that control their jet engine throttles,
air inlets, fuel storage and distribution system, in such a way to minimize their consumption
of jet fuel. Thus, digital control systems do their best to reduce the cost of flights

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Aircraft Instruments:
Instruments panels & layouts:
All instruments essential to the operation of an aircraft are accommodated on
special panels the number and distribution of which vary in accordance with the number
of instruments, the size of aircraft and cockpit layout. A main instrument panel positioned
in front of pilots is a feature common to all types of aircraft, since it is mandatory for the
primary flight instruments to be installed within the pilots' normal line of vision. Typical
positions of other panels are: overhead, at the side, and on a control pedestal located
centrally between the pilots.
Panels are invariably of light alloy of sufficient strength and rigidity to
accommodate the required number of instruments, and are attached to the appropriate
parts of the cockpit structure. The attachment methods adopted vary, but all should
conform to the requirement that a panel or an individual instrument should be easily
installed and removed.
Main instrument panels which may be of the single-unit type or made up of two
or three sub-panel assemblies are supported on shockproof mountings since they
accommodate the flight instruments and their sensitive mechanisms. The number, size
and disposition of shockproof mountings required are governed by the size of panel and
distribution of the total weight.
All panels are normally mounted in the vertical position, although in some current
aircraft types the practice of sloping main instrument panels forward at about 15° from
the vertical is adopted to minimize parallax errors.
Instrument Grouping:

Flight Instruments:
Basically there are six flight instruments whose indications are so co-ordinated as
to create a 'picture' of an aircraft's flight condition and required control movements; they
are airspeed indicator, altimeter, gyro horizon, direction indicator, vertical speed
indicator and turn-and-bank indicator. It is therefore most important for these instruments
to be properly grouped to maintain co-ordination and to assist a pilot to observe them
with the minimum of effort.
The first real attempt at establishing a standard method of grouping was the 'blind flying
panel' or 'basic six' layout shown in Fig 5.6(a). The gyro horizon occupies the top centre
position, and since it provides positive and direct indications of attitude, and attitude
changes in the pitching and rolling planes, it is utilized as the master instrument. As
control of airspeed and altitude are directly related to attitude, the airspeed indicator,
altimeter and vertical speed indicator flank the gyro horizon and support the
interpretation of pitch attitude. Changes in direction are initiated by banking an aircraft,
and the degree of heading change is obtained from the direction indicator; this instrument
therefore supports the interpretation of roll attitude and is positioned directly below the
gyro horizon. The turn-and• bank indicator serves as a secondary reference instrument
for heading changes, so it too supports the interpretation of roll attitude.
With the development and introduction of new types of aircraft, flight instruments
and integrated instrument systems, it became necessary to review the functions of certain
Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

instruments and their relative positions within the group. As a result a grouping known
as the 'basic T' was introduced (Fig 5.6(b)). The theory behind this method is that it
constitutes a system by which various items of related flight information can be placed
in certain standard locations in all instrument panels regardless of type or make of
instrument sed. In this manner, advantage can be taken of integrated instruments which
display more than one item of flight information.

Fig. 5.6 Flight instrument grouping. (a) Basic six; (b) Basic T
It will be noted that there are now four 'key' instruments, airspeed indicator, pitch
and roll attitude indicator, an altimeter forming the horizontal bar of the 'T', and the
direction indicator forming the vertical bar. As far as the positions flanking the direction
indicator are concerned, they are taken by other but less specifically essential flight
instruments and there is a certain degree of freedom in the choice of function. From
Fig 5.6 it can be seen, for example, that a Mach meter and a radio magnetic indicator
can take precedence over a tum- and-bank indicator and a vertical-speed indicator.
Border lines are usually painted on the panel around till flight instrument groups.
These are referred to as 'mental focus lines', their purpose being to assist pilots in focusing
their attention on and mentally recording the position of instruments within the groups.
Power-Plant Instruments:
The specific grouping or instruments required for the operation of power plants
is governed primarily by the type of power plant, the size of the aircraft and therefore the
space available. In a single engine aircraft, this does not present much of a problem since
the small number of instruments may flank the pilot's flight instruments thus keeping
them within a small scanning range.

Mr.Vishwaretha K R, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri

 Fig. 5.7 power plant instrument grouping

The problem is more acute in multi-engine aircraft: duplication of power plants means
duplication of their essential instruments. For twin-engine aircraft, and for certain
medium-size four-engine aircraft, the practice is to group tile instruments at the center of
the main instrument panel and between the two groups of flight instruments.
The positions of the instruments in the power plant group are arranged so that
those relating to each power plant correspond to the power plant positions as seen in plan
view. It will be apparent from the layout of Fig 5.7 that by scanning a row of instruments
a pilot or engineer can easily compare the readings of a given parameter, and by scanning
a column of instruments can assess the overall performance pattern of a particular power
plant. Another advantage of this grouping method is that all the instruments for one
power plant are more easily associated with the controls for that power plant.
 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Mr. Vishwaretha K R Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering MITE , Moodabidri

 HISTORY OFFLIGHT AND TECHNOLOGY FORECAST

Mr. Vishwaretha K R Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering MITE , Moodabidri

History of Flight and Technology Forecast