EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT 1
AIM
To determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a
graph of potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A wire of unknown resistance (~10Ω), battery eliminator or an
accumulator (0 to 3V) or two dry cells (1.5 V each), voltmeter (0-5 V),
milliammeter (0–500 mA), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor
is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends, provided the physical state of the conductor
remains unchanged.
If I be the current flowing through the conductor and V the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's law

V ∝I
and hence
V = RI (E 1.1)

where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the

electrical resistance of the conductor. If V is expressed in volts and I
in amperes, then R is expressed in ohms. The resistance R, depends
upon the material and dimensions of the conductor. For a wire of
uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and
the area of cross-section A. It also depends on the temperature of
the conductor. At a given temperature the resistance

l (E 1.2)
R= ρ
A
where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic
of the material of wire.

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

Combining Eqs. (E 1.1) and (E 1.2) we have

(E 1.3) ⎛ l⎞
V = ⎜ρ ⎟ I
⎝ A⎠
A linear relationship is obtained between V and
I, i.e. the graph between V and I will be a
straight line passing through the origin as
shown in Fig. E 1.1. The slope of the graph is
1/R from Eq. (E 1.1) (Equation of straight line
passing through origin is y = mx where m is
the slope of graph).

1
Slope =
R
1
⇒R =
slope

Fig. E 1.1 Graph between current I and If l is the length of wire then the resistance per
potential difference, V
unit length of the wire = R .
l

P ROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper
in order to remove any insulating coating on them.
2. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key,
voltmeter and ammeter as shown in Fig. E 1.2.
3. Note whether pointers in milliammeter
and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark
on the measuring scale. If it is not so,
adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero
mark by adjusting the screw provided
near the base of the needle using a screw
driver.
4. Note the range and least count of the
given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat
Fig. E 1.2 Circuit to find the relation between contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current I and potential difference, current passing through the resistance
V for a given wire wire is minimum.
6. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter
readings.

24

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 1

7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again
insert the key. Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the
applied voltage. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record
your observations in a tabular form.

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Range of ammeter = 0 ... mA to ...mA
2. Least count of ammeter = ... mA
3. Range of voltmeter = 0 ... V to ...V
4. Least count of voltmeter = ...V
5. Least count of metre scale = ... m
6. Length of the given wire, l = ...m

Table E 1.1: Voltmeter and milliammeter readings

Sl. No. Applied potential difference Current flowing through the wire
[voltmeter reading V (V)] [milliammeter reading I (mA)]

V I

1
2
--
6

C
ALCULATIONS
1. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V)
and the current (I) flowing through it as shown in Fig. E 1.1.
2. Determine the slope of the graph. The resistance of the given
wire is then equal to the reciprocal of the slope.

BC
From the graph R = = ... Ω
AB
R
3. Resistance per unit length of given wire = = ... Ω m-1
l

Error
∆R ∆V ∆I (E 1.4)
= + = ...
R V I
25

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

Here, R is resistance per unit length and ∆R is estimated error. ∆V and

∆I are the least count of the voltmeter and milliammeter respectively.

R ESULT
1. The potential difference across the given wire varies linearly with
the current.
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is (R ± ∆R)
= (... ± ... Ωm-1).

P RECAUTIONS
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter
in series with the circuit. It should be ensured that current enters
at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal.
2. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as
excessive flow of current causes unnecessary heating of the wire.
3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre
scale) must be taken cognizance of and should be eliminated in
case of ammeter and voltmeter by adjusting the pointer with
the help of the screw provided at the base of the needle, using a
screw driver.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between
one terminal of voltmeter and the other. The lengths of ends wound
around the terminals of voltmeter, if included, would give error
in measured length.

D ISCUSSION
A resistor obeys Ohm’s law. However, not all conducting devices
obey Ohm's law e.g. diode, thyristor etc. These are called non-
ohmic resistances.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel and an ammeter in
series with the circuit. Why? Will they record the respective
parameters if connected in opposite manner?

26

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 1

2. Why are copper wires normally used for connecting different

components in an electric circuit?
3. What happens if the current is allowed to flow through the circuit
continuously for a long time? Why?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Study the effect of length of wire on its resistance when its diameter is kept
constant.

2. Study the effect of diameter of wire on its resistance when its length is kept
constant by using different SWG (standard wire gauge) wires available in the
market.

3. Study the resistivity of wires made up of different materials. Is the resistivity

of all wires same?

4. Two uniform wires of the same material have the same length. One has
circular cross section of area A while the other is not circular but has the
same area of cross section A. Will their resistances be equal?

5. Study the voltage current relationship for the filament of a torch bulb.

6. Set up a circuit as shown in Fig. E 1.3.

Fig. E 1.3

Note the ammeter reading I by connecting the crocodile clip at 10, 20, 30
..... cm length of wire. Plot a graph between 1/I and l. Find its slope and
interpret its result. Can you use the graph to check the homogeneity of
the resistance wire?

7. Four resistances R1, R 2, R3 and R4 are connected together as shown in

Fig. E 1.4. Complete the electric circuit by connecting the combination of
resistances to a 6 V source, an ammeter and a voltmeter. Explain, how
would you measure current/voltage flowing through each one of the
resistors.

Fig. E 1.4

27

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM
To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and
hence determine the resistivity of the material of the wire.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long (of material whose specific
resistance is to be determined), a resistance box, a rheostat,
galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Metre bridge
It consists of one metre long constantan wire AC of uniform
cross-sectional area mounted on a wooden board with a scale
(Fig. E 2.1). The two ends of the wire are attached to terminals A
and C. Thick metal strips bent at right angles are used to provide
two gaps E and F to connect resistors forming a Wheatstone’s

Fig. E 2.1 A metre bridge

28

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 2

bridge (Fig. E 2.2). The terminal B between the gaps is used for
connecting galvanometer and other end of the galvanometer is
connected to a jockey J.

P
RINCIPLE
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge. As shown
in Fig. E 2.2, it consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the
form of a network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to two
terminals of a cell through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected
to a sensitive galvanometer G through a key K2.
If there is no deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance condition
for Wheatstone’s bridge is

P R (E 2.1)
=
Q S

We use this relation (E 2.1) to determine S

if P, Q and R are known.

The unknown resistance S is connected in

the gap E and a resistance box (RBox) in gap
F of the metre bridge. The terminal B is
connected to one ter minal of the
galvanometer G. The other terminal of the
galvanometer is connected to a jockey J
which slides along the wire AC. A source of
dc current is connected between A and C
through a key K1 so as to provide a constant
potential drop along AC (Fig. E 2.1).
A resistor (or wire) of known resistance is
inserted in the gap F by taking out
corresponding key from the resistance
box RBox. The jockey is moved on the wire Fig.E 2.2 The Wheatstone’s bridge
AC to obtain a condition of no-deflection
in the galvanometer. It happens when the
jockey is kept at a point D called the null
point. In this condition;

P R Resistance of wire of length DC (E 2.2)

= =
Q S Resistance of wire of length AD

Unknown resistance S of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional

area, is then given by
l (E 2.3)
S=R ×
100 − l
29

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

Because, for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is

proportional to length.

Thus, knowing l and R, and using Eq. (E 2.3), the unknown resistance
S can be determined.

Resistivity
The specific resistance or resistivity ρ of the material of the given
wire is

where S is the resistance of the wire of length L and a = πr 2, (r being

the radius) is the area of cross-section.

P ROCEDURE
1. Find the average diameter of the wire with a screw gauge. From
this, obtain the value of its radius r.
2. Clean the insulation at the ends of connecting wires with a piece of
sand paper. Tighten all plugs of the resistance box (RBOX) by pressing
each plug.
3. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. E 2.1 with unknown resistance
wire of known length in gap E.
4. Next, introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the
resistance box. Bring the jockey J in contact with terminal
A first and then with terminal C. Note the direction in
which pointer of the galvanometer gets deflected in each
case. Make sure that jockey remains in contact with the
wire for a fraction of a second. If the galvanometer shows deflection
on both sides of its zero mark for these two points of contact
of the jockey, null point will be somewhere on the wire AC. If
it is not so, adjust resistance R so that the null point
is somewhere in the middle of the wire AC, say, between
30 cm and 70 cm.
5. If there is one-sided deflection, check the circuit again, especially
junctions, for their continuity.
6. Repeat step 4 for four different values of resistance R.
7. Interchange the position of the resistances S and R and repeat
steps 4 to 6 for the same five values of R. While interchanging S
and R, ensure that the same length of wire of resistance S is now
in the gap F. The interchange takes care of unaccounted resistance
offered by terminals.
30

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 2

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Length of the wire of unknown resistance, L = ...cm
2. Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance
Least count of the screw gauge (L.C.) = ... mm
Zero error of the screw gauge = ...mm
Zero correction of the screw gauge = ...mm

Table E 2.1: Diameter of Wire

Sl. Reading along one Reading along mutually Mean

No. direction perpendicular direction Diameter
Main Coinciding Diameter Main Coinciding Diameter d=
scale circular d1 = scale circular d2 = d1 + d 2
reading scale p+n×L.C. reading scale p ′ +n ′ ×L.C.
p division n p′ division n′ 2
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

Mean diameter (corrected for zero error) = ... mm

Radius of wire r = ... mm

Table E 2.2: Unknown resistance

Sl. S in the left gap S in the right gap

No.
S1 + S2
100 − l

100 − l ′

Ωm

Ωm
balance point D ′

Mean resistance
balance point D

2
D′C′ = 100 – l ′
length AD′ =l ′
length AD (l)

DC = 100 – l

Ω
Ω
Ω
l′
Resistance

Position of

Balancing

Position of

Balancing
Length

Length

S=

∆S1
∆S2
S1 = R ×

∆S
∆ρ
R

S2 = R ×

Ω Ω Ω Ω
(ohm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (ohm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (ohm) (ohm)

1
2
--
5

Mean
31

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

C
ALCULATIONS
L = ... cm r = ... mm S = ... Ω

πr 2
Substituting these values in ρ = S , calculate the value of ρ
L
in ohm-m.
Error

(E 2.4) ∆ρ ∆S 2 ∆r ∆L
= + +
ρ S r L

Errors ∆r, ∆L are the least counts of the measuring instruments and
error ∆S is the maximum of the values obtained by following
equations :

⎡∆l ∆l ⎤
(E 2.5) ∆S1 = ⎢ + S1
⎣ l (100 − l )⎥⎦

⎡∆l ′ ∆l ′ ⎤
∆S 2 =
(E 2.6)
⎢⎣ l ′ + (100 − l ′ )⎥⎦ S2

If it is presumed that resistance offered by the resistance box is the

same as that indicated on it, then ∆R = 0
Therefore, maximum error is ∆S = ∆S1 + ∆S2.

R ESULT
1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be
S + ∆S = ... ± ... Ω
2. The resistivity of the material of the wire is ρ ± ∆ ρ = ... ... Ω m
Here S and ρ are mean values. ∆S and ∆ ρ are maximum of the
five values of error.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of
taking observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
32

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 2

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of
cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws,
may affect the measurement.
3. The length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the
terminals when placed in gap E or F.
4. The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be
negligible. The error introduced by it can be reduced by
interchanging the known and unknown resistances in gaps
E and F.
5. The length measurements l and l′ may have error if the
metre bridge wire is not taut and along the scale in the
metre bridge.
6. Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current
flows through it. However, many times it is observed that it is not
so. In such cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently
moving the screw below the scale with the help of a screw driver.
Otherwise null point must be obtained by tapping the jockey on
the wire.

D ISCUSSION
1. It is generally preferred that R and S combination should be
so chosen that the balance point comes near the middle of
the metre bridge wire. Why? Is the sensitivity of detecting
balance point best when R and S have same order of
resistance?
2. The accuracy with which the null point can be detected also
depends upon the sensitivity of the galvanometer used. To
investigate this, find the distance through which the jockey
has to be moved to cause a just perceptible deflection of the
galvanometer. How can the error due to this be minimised?
Does it have something to do with the potential difference
between A and C?
3. The length l, that is, the position of the jockey, may be read upto,
± 0.1 cm (say). How much uncertainty will be introduced in the
result due to this error?
4. It is advised that key should be unplugged when readings are not
being taken to avoid unnecessary heating of the wire. Why? In
what way, will the heating affect the null point? Will it be
significant?
33

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. The bridge wire may not be exactly 100 cm long, so record its
exact length and use this in the calculation.
2. If the metre bridge wire is not of uniform area of cross section,
how will it affect the observations?

Fig. E 2.3 Defective scale of a metre bridge

3. If the metre bridge wire is not made of a material of uniform density,

how will it affect the observations?
4. If the same experiment is performed with AC = 50 cm wire instead
of 1 m, what changes would be there in the result?
5. The scale attached along the wire may not indicate the exact
length as shown in Fig. E 2.3. How would you minimise the error?
6. Why is the metre bridge not suitable for measuring very
high/very low resistances?
7. Why is the metre bridge preferred for determining the resistance
of a wire over the Ohm’s law circuit?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Determine the resistance of an electric bulb of given voltage and power.

Attach crocodile clips at the end of two copper wires. Use these to connect
the bulb in the gap E as shown in Fig. E 2.4. Why does the resistance
obtained by you differ from the theoretical value?

2. Making use of your observations plot a graph between (100 – l )/l and R.
Find the slope of the graph. What does it represent?
3. The resistance of a wire changes with temperature. You may study this by
using a metre bridge. You may use a beaker with mustard oil, a suitable
thermometer (0- 300°C) and resistance wire of known length. The experimental
set-up shown in Fig. E 2.5 may be used.

34

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 2

Fig. E 2.4

Fig. E 2.5

35

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENT 3
AIM
To verify the laws of combination of resistances (series and parallel)
using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two different resistances
(carbon or wire-wound resistors), a resistance box, a jockey, a rheostat,
a plug key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, the resistance
of the combination R S is given by

(E 3.1) RS = R 1 + R 2

When connected in parallel, the resistance R P of the combination is

given by

1 1 1
(E 3.2) = +
R P R1 R2

P ROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. E 3.1.
2. Tighten all plugs in the resistance box (RBOX) by rotating and
pressing each plug to ensure that all plugs make good electrical
contacts. Clean the ends of connecting wires using a sand paper
before making the connections.
3. Remove some plug(s) from the resistance box to get suitable
value of resistance R. Obtain the null point D on the metre bridge
wire by sliding the jockey between ends A and C as was done in
Experiment 2.
36

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 3

Fig. E 3.1 Resistances R1 and R2 connected in series to one arm of a metre bridge

4. Note resistance R and lengths AD and DC in the observation

table.
5. Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent series
resistance (X) of combination of resistances as shown in
Table E 3.1.
6. Repeat the experiment for four more values of resistances R.
Obtain the mean value of unknown resistance.

Fig. E 3.2 Resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel to one arm of a metre bridge

7. Repeat steps 2 - 6 by connecting resistances R1 and R2 in parallel

as shown in Fig. E 3.2 and calculate the experimental value of
the equivalent parallel resistance (X) of combination of resistance.
37

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

O
BSERVATIONS
Table E 3.1: Series and parallel combination of resistances

Sl Resistance Length Length Unknown ∆RS or ∆RP

No. R AD = l DC, l′ = 100 - l resistance
R ×l
X (R or R ) =
S P l′
(ohm) (cm) (cm) (ohm) (ohm)
R1 and 1
R2 in 2
series, --
RS
5
Mean RS =
R 1 and 1
R 2 in 2
parallel, --
RP 5

Mean R P =

C ALCULATIONS
1. The theoretically expected value of the series combination of
resistances is RS = R 1 + R 2

Note that R1 and R2 are to be obtained from colour code on carbon

resistors or are the given values in case of resistances made of
wires of materials like nichrome, constantan etc.
2. Theoretically expected value of the parallel combination of
R1 R 2
resistances is R P =
R1 + R2

Error
In estimating errors, we have presumed that error in R is zero i.e., R is
expected to be the same as indicated on resistance box.

∆R S ∆l ∆l′
(E 3.3) In such a case, = +
RS l l′

where Rs, l and l′ values are to be taken from the Observation Table
E 3.1, ∆l, ∆l′ indicate the least count of the measuring scale on the
metre bridge.
38

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 3

∆l ∆l′ 
i.e. ∆RS = RS  + (E 3.4)
l l′ 

 ∆l ∆l′  (E 3.5)
Similarly, ∆RP = RP  +
l l′ 

Maximum of the five values of ∆RS and ∆RP should be reported as the
estimation in errors. It can be seen from equation (E 3.4) and
(E 3.5) that the error will be minimum if balancing lengths l ≈ l′.
Therefore the null points should be obtained in the central region of
the wire AC. For this reason, it is essential to plug out resistances
from resistance box such that resistances in the left and right gaps
are comparable.

R ESULT

Table E 3.2: Theoretical and experimental values of resistance

Theoretically Experimentally
expected resistance(Ω) obtained resistance (Ω)

Series Combination R1 + R 2 R S ± ∆RS

R1 R2
Parallel Combination RP ± ∆R P
R1 + R2

R S and R P are the mean values of equivalent resistance for the

combination of R1 and R2 in series and in parallel respectively.

P RECAUTIONS
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating
it in clockwise direction.
4. Null points should be in the central region of the wire
(30 cm to 70 cm).

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the metre bridge
wire. Otherwise, the wire may become non-uniform during the
course of time.

39

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. The length measurement l and l′ may have error if the metre bridge
wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge.
3. If large current is passed for a sufficiently long time, the wire AC
may get heated and its resistance may change considerably during
the time of experiment.
4. Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current flows
through it. However, many a time it is observed that it is not so. In
such cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently moving the
screw below the scale with the help of a screw driver. Otherwise, null
point must be obtained by sliding the jockey on wire AC and
observing the point, where tapping the galvanometer does not
produce any deflection in it.
5. Many a time, it is found that the resistance offered by resistance
box is not the same as is indicated on it. Therefore, the error in R
will cause an additional error in the result.

D ISCUSSION
1. It may be noted that if carbon resistors are used, ∆R1 and ∆R2 are
to be obtained from tolerance limits shown by band of the colour
codes* marked on them and error ∆RS and ∆RP can also be
calculated using these values as shown in Example 2.10 (p.27) in
PHYSICS Textbook for Class XI Part-I (NCERT, 2006). Maximum of
values of ∆RS and ∆RP so obtained together with that from equations
(E 3.4) and (E 3.5) should be reported as estimation in errors.
2. The accuracy with which the null point can be detected also
depends upon the sensitivity of the galvanometer. To investigate
sensitivity, find the distance through which the jockey has to be
moved to cause a just perceptible deflection of the galvanometer.
Make a note of the range of distance over which null point is
obtained at all points. Ideally, this range should not be more than
the least count of the measuring scale.
3. In some cases, it is possible that the bridge wire is not exactly
100 cm long. In such cases its exact length should be used for
the calculation.
4. If resistances R 1 and R2 are made of wires of materials like
constantan, nichrome etc., their values along with the corrected
errors in their measurement should be considered for calculating
equivalent resistance.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Comment on the difference between theoretically expected and
experimentally obtained values of the effective resistances.
40
* For details of colour codes, see appendix 3.

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 3

2. Given n resistors of resistance R each, how will you combine

them to get the maximum and the minimum effective
resistance? Extend this experiment using filament of bulbs
as resistors.
3. Identify some method(s) to reduce the effect of ‘end-resistance’ at
connections between the wire and copper strip or because of the
improper soldering of wire.
4. How will the sensitivity of metre bridge change under
following condition?
Rheostat head is moved from minimum resistance to maximum
resistance positions.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Replace the galvanometer with a torch bulb and repeat the experiment.
Explain the variation in the glow of the bulb with position of jockey on
wire AC (Fig. E.3.1).

 l′ 
2. Making use of your observations, plot a graph between   and R taking
l

 l′ 
  on y-axis and R on x-axis. Find the unknown resistance from the
l
slope of the graph.

3. Use a wire of arbitrary length L. Measure its resistance across ends A

and B, say R 1, using the metre bridge. Next, fold the wire so as to reduce
its length to (L/2) and measure the new resistance, say R 2 , across the
ends A′ and B′. Finally, fold it again and repeat the observation for
resistance across ends A″ and B″. Plot a graph of n (number of folds)
and the effective resistance, by folding the wire a number of times and
obtaining resistances as described above. Take care that folded wires
do not make electrical contact with each other at any point except at
their ends (A, B, A′, B′ and A″, B″).

Fig. E 3.3

41

24/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 5
AIM
To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using
a potentiometer.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, Leclanche cell or dry cell, an ammeter, one resistance
box (RBOX 1) (about 0-50 Ω), 3 one way plug keys, galvanometer, a
high resistance box (RBOX 2) (about 0-10 kΩ), a low resistance rheostat
of about 20 Ω, jockey, lead accumulator and connecting wires.

PRINCIPLE
When a resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and internal
resistance r, then the current I in the circuit is

E (E 5.1)
I=
R +r
The potential difference V (= RI ) across the two terminals of the
cell is

E
V = R (E 5.2)
R + r

E r
Thus =1+
V R

E  (E 5.3)
or r =  – 1 R
V 
If l0 and l are the distances of the balance null point from end A of
the potentiometer for an open and a closed circuit respectively
(Fig. E 5.1), then E is proportional to l 0 and V is proportional to l.

E l0 (E 5.4)
=
V l

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

From Eqs. (E 5.3) and (E 5.4)

(E 5.5) l −l 
r = 0 R
 l 

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect different electrical components
as shown in the circuit (Fig. E 5.1).
After checking the circuit connections,
close key K1.
2. With keys K 2 and K 3 open and a
protective high resistance P from the
RBOX 2, find the position of the balance
point. For final reading, short circuit
the resistance P by closing the key K3
and find the balance length l0.
3. Take R = 10 Ω (from RBOX 1), close the
key K2 and quickly measure the new
balance length l. Open K2 as soon as
Fig. E 5.1 Circuit to measure internal resistance this has been done.
of a primary cell using a potentiometer
4. Keep the readings in the ammeter
constant throughout the above
observation.
5. Reduce the value of R in equal steps of 1 Ω and for each value of R
obtain the balance length l.
6. At the end of the experiment, open key K2 and repeat step 2 to
find l0 again.

O BSERVATIONS
l0 = ... cm (in the beginning of the experiment)
l0 = ... cm (at the end of the experiment)
Mean lo= ... cm.
Table E 5.1: Balance length

1 -1 1  l0 − l 
r = R Ω
Sl. No. R Ω l cm
R
Ω
l
cm-1
 l 
1
2
--
6
50
 EXPERIMENT 5

C
ALCULATIONS
1. Substitute the value of l0, l and corresponding value of R in
l0 – l
Eq. (E 5.5) and calculate the value of r, where r = R.
l

2. Use graphical method also to obtain r. Note that Eq (E 5.5) can be

written as

1 l 0  1 1 (E 5.6)
=  −
R r l r

It is an equation of a straight line

(Fig. E 5.2).
3. Plot a graph between 1/R and 1/l, taking
1 1
on the x-axis and on y-axis.
l R

4. Draw a straight line as close to the

points plotted as you can. The
negative intercept on the y-axis gives
the value of 1/r. Hence, obtain the
value of r (Fig. E 5.2).

R ESULT
Fig. E 5.2 Graph between 1/R and 1/l
The internal resistance of the given cell r
(i) by calculation ... Ω
(ii) by graph ... Ω

P
RECAUTIONS
1. The primary cell whose internal resistance is to be determined
should not be disturbed during the experiment or else its internal
resistance may change.
2. The emf of battery E should be more than the emf of the primary
cell, E1.
3. Positive terminals of E and E1 both should be connected at the
same point on the potentiometer.
4. Always measure length from point A i.e. the point at which positive
terminals of battery are connected and measure this length upto
the balance point.
51
LABORATORY MANUAL

5. Insert K1 and K2 only when readings are taken otherwise the wires
may get heated up due to continuous flow of current and may
also affect the internal resistance of the cell.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross - section.
2. Brass strips at the ends may have a finite resistance.
3. Emf of the auxiliary battery producing the drop of potential
along the wire may not be constant throughout the course of
the experiment.
4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by current may introduce
some error.

D ISCUSSION
1. The theory of potentiometer assumes that there is a steady
current in wire AB during the period of experiment. Therefore,
emf of the accumulator should be constant during the course
of the experiment.
2. The position of the jockey can be read within the least count of
the measuring scale ± 0.1cm. Moreover, the edge of the jockey
may further limit this least count. It is therefore advised to use a
sharp edged jockey.
3. There may also be a zero error in the measurement of l, due to the
end of the scale not being exactly at the end of the wire.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. All the positive terminals of sources of emf are joined at point
A of potentiometer, but if all the negative terminals of sources
of emf are joined at point A then how will the balance length
be affected?
2. Find the internal resistance of a freshly prepared Leclanche cell.
Does its internal resistance change with R ?
3. State the factors on which the internal resistance of a
cell depends.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find the internal resistance of dry cells of different makes.
2. Can the internal resistance of a secondary cell be determined by this method?
Give reason for your answer.

52

24/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 6
AIM
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection
method and to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V),
one resistance box (RBOX 1) of range 0 - 10 kΩ, one resistance box
(RBOX 2) of range 0 - 200 Ω, two one way keys, voltmeter, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
Galvanometer High Resistance Box
E K1
Galvanometer is a sensitive + –
RBOX 1
device used to detect very low R
current. Its working is based on
the principle that a coil placed
in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque when an I I
G
electric current is set up in it. The
deflection of the coil is Ig
determined by a pointer attached
to it, moving on the scale. Low Resistance Box
RBOX 2
When a coil carrying current I is I – Ig
S K2
placed in a radial magnetic field,
the coil experiences a deflection Fig. E 6.1 Circuit for finding resistance of galvanometer
θ which is related to I as
(E 6.1)
I=kθ

where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of

merit of the galvanometer.

The circuit arrangement required for finding the resistance G of the

galvanometer by half deflection method is shown in Fig. E 6.1.
LABORATORY MANUAL

When a resistance R is introduced in the circuit, the current Ig flowing

through it is given by

E
(E 6.2) Ig =
R+G

In this case, the key K 2 is kept open. Here E is the emf of battery,
G is the resistance of the galvanometer whose resistance is to
be determined.

If the current Ig produces a deflection θ in the galvanometer, then

from equation (E 6.1) we get

Ig = k θ
(E 6.3)

Combining equations (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) we get

E
(E 6.4) =kθ
R+G

On keeping both the keys K 1 and K 2 closed and by adjusting

t h e v a l u e o f s h u n t r e s i s t a n c e S, t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
1
galvanometer needle becomes (half). As G and S are in
2
parallel combination and R in series with it, the total resistance
of the circuit

(E 6.5)

The total current, I due to the emf E in the circuit is given by

E
I=
(E 6.6) GS
R+
G+S

If I ′ g is the current through the galvanometer of resistance

G, then

G I′g = S (I – I′g)

IS
(E 6.7) or, I g′ =
G+S

Substituting the value of I from Equation (E 6.6), in equation (E 6.7)

the current I′g is given by
54
 E XPERIMENT 6

 
 IS E S 
 I ′g = = . 
 G+S R+ GS G +S 
 G +S 

ES
I g′ = (E 6.8)
R (G + S ) + GS

For galvanometer current I′g, if the deflection through the galvanometer

⎛ θ⎞
is reduced to half of its initial value ⎜ = ⎟ then
⎝ 2⎠

θ  ES
I' g = k   =
 
2 R (G + S )+ GS

On dividing Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8),

Ig E R (G + S ) + GS
= × =2
I' g R +G ES

or, R (G + S) + GS = 2S (R + G)

⇒ RG = RS + GS

⇒ G (R – S) = RS

RS (E 6.9)
or, G =
R −S

By knowing the values of R and S, the galvanometer resistance G can

be determined. Normally R is chosen very high (~ 10 kΩ) in comparison
to S (~ 100 Ω) for which
G
S
The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is defined as the current
required for deflecting the pointer by one division. That is

I (E 6.10)
k=
θ
For determining the figure of merit of the galvanometer the key K2 is
opened in the circuit arrangement.
Using Eqs. (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) the figure of merit of the galvanometer
is given by

1 ⎛ E ⎞ (E 6.11)
k=
θ ⎜⎝R + G⎟⎠ ,

55

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

By knowing the values of E, R, G and θ the figure of merit of the

galvanometer can be calculated.

P ROCEDURE
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and
tight connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. E 6.1).
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩ key
and then close the key K1. Adjust the resistance R from this
resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial.
Record the values of resistance, R and deflection θ.
3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt
resistance S to get the deflection in the galvanometer which is
exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down
the value of shunt resistance, S.
4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that
θ is even number of divisions and record the observations for R,

S, θ and θ in tabular form.

2
5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of
galvanometer using Eqs. (E 6.9) and (E 6.11) respectively.

O BSERVATIONS
Emf of the battery E = ... V
Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = ...
Table E 6.1: Resistance of galvanometer

Sl. High Deflection in Shunt Half deflection G= k=

No. Resistance the resistance in the R.S E 1
galvanometer galvanometer .
R −S R +G θ
θ
R (Ω) θ (divisions) S (Ω) (divisions) (Ω) A/divisions
2
1
2
--
5

C ALCULATIONS
Mean value of G (resistance of galvanometer) = ... Ω
Mean value of k (figure of merit of galvanometer) = ... ampere/division.
56

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 6

R ESULT
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ... Ω
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ...ampere/division

P RECAUTIONS
1. Key K1 should be inserted only after high value of R has been
taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil
may burn.
2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of even division
so that θ/2 is more conveniently obtained.
3. Emf of the battery should be constant.
4. Use as high values of R as practically possible. This ensures correct
value of G.
5. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should
be tight.

S
OURCES OF ERRORS
1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be loose or they may not
be clean.
2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

D ISCUSSION
1. By closing the key K2 and adjusting the value of resistance in
resistance box R BOX 2 , you get the deflection θ /2 in the
galvanometer. Then the resistance S equals G, the resistance
of galvanometer, because half of the current passing through
R is shared by S and half by galvanometer. It is noteworthy
that R is so large compared to S or G that opening or closing
the key K2 makes insignificant difference in the current passing
through R.
2. We define current sensitivity C of the galvanometer as the deflection
produced per unit current. With K2 open, the current passing
through it is

E
Cθ =
R
E
C=
Rθ

57

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. From eq. E 6.9, RS = G (R – S). Galvanometer resistance G can

also be determined from the slope of a graph plotted RS against
(R – S) with RS on y-axis and (R – S) on x-axis.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How will you use a galvanometer for measuring current?
2. (a) Out of galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter which has the
highest resistance and which has the lowest? Explain.
(b) Which of the two meters has lower resistance – a milliammeter
or a microammeter?
3. What are the factors on which sensitivity of a galvanometer depends?
4. Internal resistance of the cell is taken to be zero. This implies that
we have to use a freshly charged accumulator in the experiment
or use a good battery eliminator. If the internal resistance is finite,
how will it affect the result?
5. Is it possible to find the galvanometer resistance by taking 1/3
deflection ? If so what changes would be required in the formula
for calculation of value of G.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1
1. Plot a graph between R and (R along x- axis). Use the graph to determine
θ
G and k.

⎛ E ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
2. Plot a graph of θ against ⎜⎝ R + G⎟⎠ with θ on y-axis and ⎜⎝ R + G⎟⎠ on x-axis.

How will you determine k from the graph?

3. Use the values of G and k to calculate the value of shunt resistance

required to convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of
0 - 3 A range.

4. Calculate the value of series resistance required to convert the given

galvanometer into a voltmeter of 0 – 30 V range.

58

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 7
AIM
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of
merit) into (i) an ammeter of a desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and (ii) a
voltmeter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit, a constantan
or manganin wire of 26 or 30 SWG, a battery or a battery eliminator,
one way key, a rheostat of range 200 Ω, an ammeter of 0-30 mA
range, a voltmeter of 3 V range, connecting wires and sand paper.

(i) P RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER)

A galvanometer is a sensitive device which can detect the presence of

very small current in a circuit of the order of 100 mA. For measuring
current of the order of an ampere, a low resistance called shunt
resistance S is connected in parallel across the galvanometer having
resistance G.
If I0 is the total current in the circuit for full scale deflection, then the
current (I 0– Ig) passes through S, where Ig is current that flows through
the galvanometer for full scale deflection. The instrument is calibrated
so as to read the current directly in ampere and then it can be used as
an ammeter. Since G and S are parallel to each other therefore, the
potential difference across both are same, hence,

( )
I gG = I 0 − I g S (E 7.1)

I gG
or S= (E 7.2)
I0 − I g

The figure of merit of the galvanometer is represented by the symbol k

which represents the current corresponding to one scale division; thus
if N is the total number of divisions (on either side) of the galvanometer
scale, the value of current Ig is given by

59

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

Ig = kN

if n represents the actual deflection in the converted galvanometer,

then the total current will be

IO
I=n .
N

P ROCEDURE
1. Determine the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k as
per the procedure given in experiment 6.
2. Count the total number of divisions N on either side of zero of the
galvanometer scale.
3. Calculate the current I g for full scale deflection in the
galvanometer by using the relation Ig = Nk, where k is the figure
of merit of the galvanometer.

4. Calculate the shunt resistance S using the

I G
formula S = g .
I0 − I g

5. Measure the radius r of the wire and from

the given value of the specific resistance ρ,
calculate the length of the wire l, for resistance
S πr 2
S [use the formula l = ].
ρ

Fig. E 7.1 Circuit to verify conversion of

6. Let the calculated length of the wire be 10
galvanometer into an ammeter cm. Then cut 3-4 cm extra and put it in
parallel to the galvanometer and complete
the circuit as shown in Fig. E 7.1.
7. Adjust the length of the wire so that when we see full scale
deflection in the galvanometer, the current in the ammeter is
30 mA.
8. Thus the galvanometer is now converted to an ammeter whose
range is 30 mA.
9. Now measure the exact length of the shunt wire and calculate its
resistance by using the previously measured value of radius and
the known value of specific resistance.
10. Compare the above value of resistance to the one calculated using
l×ρ
the formula S = .
πr 2
60

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 7

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Galvanometer resistance, G (given) = ... Ω
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ... ampere/division
3. Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer
scale, N = ... division
4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
Ig = k N = ... ampere
5. Radius of wire:
Least count of the given screw gauge = ... cm
Zero error = ... cm
Zero correction = ... cm

Observed diameter of the wire:

(i) ... cm (ii) ... cm
(iii) ... cm (iv) ... cm
Mean observed diameter, D = ... cm
Radius of the wire r =D/2 = ... cm

C
ALCULATIONS
I gG
1. Shunt resistance = S = = ... Ω
I0 − I g

2. Given value of specific resistance of the material of the wire

ρ = ... Ω m

S πr 2
3. Required length of wire, l = = ... cm
ρ

4. Observed length of the shunt wire for the desired range, l′ = ... cm

l '× ρ
5. Shunt resistance from the observed length of the wire, S ' = = ... Ω
πr 2

R
ESULT
To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of the range,
0 to ... ampere
61

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

1. the calculated resistance of the shunt wire, S = ... Ω

2. the observed resistance of the shunt wire, S′ = ... Ω

P RECAUTIONS
1. Use the ammeter for verification which has the same range as the
range of conversion.

2. Cut about 3 to 4 cm extra to the calculated length of the wire.

3. After adjusting the length of the wire, measure the length of the
wire between the two plugs carefully.

(ii) P RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER)

By connecting a high resistance of suitable value in series with a

galvanometer, it is converted into a voltmeter. Voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the electrical component across which
potential difference is to be measured.

If a galvanometer (having resistance G) shows a full scale deflection

for a maximum current I g, the potential difference across the
galvanometer is IgG. If the converted galvanometer is desired to have a
range V o volt, then the resistance to be joined in series with
V0
galvanometer, is given by R = – G.
Ig

P ROCEDURE
1. Calculate the value of the series resistance
R for given values of V0, Ig and G.

2. Make the connections as shown in Fig. E 7.2

by connecting a cell and converted
galvanometer and the voltmeter of nearly the
same range in parallel, with a high resistance
rheostat Rh.

3. Close the key K and adjust the rheostat so

that the voltage shown in the voltmeter is
equal to the desired range (say 3 V).
Simultaneously, adjust the position of the
slider of the rheostat and also the resistance
from the resistance box so that when full
scale deflection is observed on the
galvanometer, the voltmeter shows 3 V. Note
Fig. E 7.2 Circuit to verify conversion of
the total resistance from the resistance box.
galvanometer into a voltmeter
62

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 7

O BSERVATIONS
1. Resistance of the galvanometer, G (given) = ... Ω
2. The figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ...
ampere/division

3. Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale,

N = ... division

4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,

Ig = k N = ... ampere

5. Total resistance taken out from the resistance box = ... Ω

C ALCULATIONS
Resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer,

V0
R= − G = ... Ω
Ig

R ESULT
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the range,

0 to ... V

1. The value of the calculated series resistance, R = ...Ω

2. The value of the observed series resistance, R ′ = ...Ω

3. Current for full scale deflection, Ig = ...ampere

P RECAUTIONS
1. The resistance box used should be of high resistance.
2. The rheostat should be used as potential divider.
3. High resistance of the order of 10 kΩ from the resistance
box should be used first and then the battery key should
be closed to avoid any damage to the galvanometer.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
The wire may be of non-uniform area of cross section.

63

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

D ISCUSSION
1. If the area of cross section of the wire is non-uniform, how will it
affect the observation?
2. Use a rheostat as current divider and potential divider.
3. To check if friction in your instrument is small enough, measure θ
in the same setting 5 to 10 times. If each time, the needle comes to
exactly the same point on the scale, friction in your instrument is
quite small.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How can you increase the range of the converted galvanometer to
0-60 mA?
2. How can you decrease the range of the converted galvanometer to
0-20 mA?
3. If S << G, what is the order of resistance of converted galvanometer?
4. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit?
5. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel with the circuit?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Calculate the length of the wire of same material if the radius is doubled.

2. Calculate the length of the wire if the radius is same but material used is
copper.

3. Change the range of ammeter and voltmeter and repeat the same procedure
as followed in the above experiment.

4. Use the converted ammeter/voltmeter for verification which has the same
range as the range of conversion.

64

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 9
AIM
To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of concave
mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench, two sharp-edged needles (pins), concave
mirror of less than 20 cm focal length, three uprights (with
clamps), index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale
and spirit level.

T ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Principal axis of a mirror is the line
passing through the centre of
curvature and pole of the mirror.

2. Principal focus is the point where

rays parallel to principal axis, focus
after reflection from the surface of
the mirror (Fig. E 9.1).

3. Geometrical centre of the mirror is

called pole, P.
Fig. E 9.1 Focal length of a concave mirror.
4. Focal length is the distance between
the pole, P and the focus, F.

INDEX CORRECTION

Usually the distance between concerned points of two elements is

not the same as the distance between their uprights as read on
the scale. For example, in Fig. E 9.2 the reading of two uprights
do not give the actual distance between the tip of the pin and the
pole of the mirror. A correction must, therefore, be applied. It is
called the index correction.
69

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

Fig. E 9.2 Determination of Index correction

P ARALLAX
This is employed in the location
of image of an object.
For example, as shown in the
Fig. E 9.3 (a) O and I are the
object and image points for a
mirror/lens.
An object point O and its real
image ‘I’ are conjugate points i.e.
any of the two may be considered
as object and the other as its
(a) image. Thus it helps in accurate
adjustment to check for no
parallax at both the points.
If we say there is no parallax
between an object O (pin) and its
image I, then by moving the eye
through which we are observing,
to the left and then to the right,
(b)
object and its image both appear
to move together relative to the
lens/mirror. It implies that the
position of both are same on the
optical bench [Figs. E 9.3 (d) and
(e)]. If their positions are not same
then in one position they may
appear to coincide and in another
they will appear separate [Figs. E
(c) 9.3 (b) and (c)].
This method of locating the
position of an image on the optical
Fig. E 9.3 (a),(b),(c) Locating the position of an image
bench by a pin is called the
on the optical bench by a pin
method of parallax.
70

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 9

(d)

(e)

Fig. E 9.3 (d), (e) Ray diagram for finding focal length of a concave mirror

S IGN CONVENTION
1. All the distances are measured from the pole P of the mirror (or
the optical centre of a lens).
2. The distance measured in the direction of propagation of incident
rays are taken as positive and those measured in the opposite
direction are taken as
negative.
3. The heights measured
upwards (above the
principal axis of
the mirror/lens) are
taken as positive and
the heights measured
downwards are taken
as negative (Fig. E 9.4).
Note: In the cartesian sign
convention, the object is
always placed to the left of Fig. E 9.4 The cartesian sign convention
the mirror (or the lens).

71

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

R AY TRACING IN SPHERICAL MIRRORS

To locate the image, we need to trace only a

few specific paths or rays (a minimum of two)
as shown in Fig. E 9.5.
Conveniently, any two rays can be taken to
locate the image.
1. An incident ray parallel to the principal
axis of the mirror either passes through
the principal focus F (concave mirror)
or appears to be diverging from it
(convex mirror).
2.
An incident ray passing through the
centre of curvature C (concave mirror)
Fig. E 9.5 Ray tracing for image formation or appearing to pass through it (convex
by a concave mirror mirror), retraces its path i.e. reflected
back along its original path. You must note that this ray is
incident normal to the mirror.
3. An incident ray passing through the principal focus F (concave
mirror) or appearing to pass through it (convex mirror) will be
reflected from the mirror parallel to the principal axis.
4. An incident ray striking the pole P of the mirror is reflected at
an angle equal to the angle of incidence with the principal axis.

P RINCIPLE
For an object placed at a distance u from the
pole of a concave mirror of focal length f, the
image is formed at a distance v from the pole.
The relation between these distances (for a
concave mirror) is
1 1 1
= +
f u v

uv
or f=
u +v
Fig. E 9.6 Formation of image by a concave mirror.
Object is between the centre of curva- If an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of the
ture and principal focus F; real, invertedreflecting surface of the concave mirror such
and magnified image is between the that the object’s position lies in between the
centre of curvature and infinity principal focus of the mirror, F and the centre
of curvature C, then a real, inverted and
magnified image is formed in between the centre of curvature C of the
mirror and infinity (Fig. E 9.6).
72

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 9

Thus, the image formed in such a case would be clearer and easier to
be seen. The focal length of the mirror, using the above relation, can be
determined by placing the object in between the point 2F and focus F.

P
ROCEDURE
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of concave mirror
by focusing the image of a distant object. Obtain bright and
clear image of a distant building or tree on a plane wall or a
sheet of paper and measure the distance between the mirror
and the image which gives the approximate focal length of the
concave mirror.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table. Make it horizontal using
a spirit level and levelling screws.
3. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and mount it vertically
near one end of the optical bench. Move an object pin P1 on the
optical bench back and forth so that its image is formed at the
same height. Make slight adjustments of the height of the pin or
the mirror inclination. This procedure ensures that the principal
axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.
4. Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P2 in front
of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror. Adjust the pins P1
and P2 so that the height of the tips of these pins become equal to
the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of the optical
bench [Fig. E 9.3(e)].
5. To determine index correction, a thin straight index needle is
placed so that its one end A1 touches the tip of the pin and the
other end B1 touches the pole P of the mirror. The positions of the
uprights are read on the scale. Their difference gives the observed
distance between tip of the pin and the pole of the mirror. Length
of the needle A1B1 is measured by placing it on the scale which is
the actual distance between the points in question. The difference
between the two gives the correction to be applied to the observed
distance. Find the index correction for both the pins P1 and P2 for
all measurements.
6. Move the pin P1 away from the mirror and place it almost at 2F.
An inverted image of same size as the pin should be visible.
7. Now place another pin P2 on the bench, adjust its height to be
almost the same as the earlier pin. Place a piece of paper on the
tip of one pin, take this as the object pin.
8. Place the pin with paper at a distance lying between F and 2F.
9. Locate the image of the pin using the other pin. Remember that
parallax has to be removed between the image and the pin.
73

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

10. Note the values of u and v i.e., the distances of the object and
image pins from the mirror respectively.
11. Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the
object and determine the corresponding values of v. Record your
observations in tabular form.
12. After doing index correction record the corrected values of u and
v. Find the value of focal length, f.

O BSERVATIONS
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ...cm
2. Actual distance of the object from the mirror using index needle,
l0 = ... cm
3. Observed distance of the object from the mirror
= position of mirror upright – position of object pin upright on the
scale, l 0′ ...cm

4. Index correction for object distance, e = actual distance – observed

distance.

=l0 – l0′ = ...cm

Similarly for image pin

e i = l i – l i′ = ...cm

Table E 9.1: Determination of u, v and f

Sl. Position of Observed Observed Corrected Corrected uv

f= ∆f
No. u′ v′ u = u′ + e v = v′ + e u +v
i
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Mirror Object Image
M pin P1 pin P2
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
--
6
Mean

C ALCULATIONS
Calculate the corrected values of u and v and compute the value of f.
Tabulate them and find the mean value of the focal length of the given
concave mirror.
74

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 9

Error

1 1 1
∵ = +
f u v

∆f ∆u ∆v
2
= 2
+
f u v2

 ∆u ∆v 
or ∆ f = f 2  2 + 2 
u v 

R ESULT
The focal length of the given concave (converging) mirror is
(f ± ∆ f) = ... ± ...cm

Here f denotes mean value of the focal length and ∆ f is maximum of

the six values of the error.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
2. The object pin should be kept in between the centre of curvature
and the focus of the mirror.
3. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image formed
will not be distinct.
4. Eye should be placed at a distance of distinct vision (25 cm) from
the image needle.
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin must touch the tip of
the image pin and must not overlap. It should be ensured while
removing the parallax.
6. The image and the object pins should not be interchanged during
the course of the experiment.
7. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the
formula for calculating f and then a mean value of f should be
taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the mean values
of u and v.
8. A white screen or plane background may be used for seeing the
clear image of the pin.
9. Image of the Sun should not be seen directly as it may hurt
your eyes.
75

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench
is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and pole of the
mirror are not at the same horizontal level.
2. The concave mirror should be front-coated, otherwise multiple
reflections will come from the reflecting surface of the mirror.

D ISCUSSION
The image B′ of the point B (Fig. E 9.6) will be at the point where two
such rays either intersect or appear to be intersecting. The image of
the bottom of the object A (lying on the principal axis) will lie on the
principal axis itself such that the final image is perpendicular to the
axis as the object.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A dentist uses concave mirror to see the tooth. In what way does it
help the dentist?
2. Can you determine the focal length of the concave mirror if u < f ?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Plot a graph of uv against u + v with uv on y-axis and u+v on x-axis.

Determine f from the slope of the graph.

2. Using spherometer, determine the radius of curvature of the concave mirror

and calculate its focal length (f = R/2).

76

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENT 11
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and two
needles, two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, index
needle (may be a knitting needle or a pencil sharply pointed at both
ends), a metre scale and a spirit level.

P RINCIPLE
Fig. E 11.1 illustrates the formation of image of an object AB by a
convex mirror MM′ (having a small aperture) in two different
situations. The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and erect.
Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it
can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object
and the convex mirror (Fig. E 11.2).

Fig. E 11.1(a) Object is at infinity. A highly Fig. E 11.1(b) Object is in front of the mirror. A
diminished and point image is diminished virtual image is
located at the focus behind produced between the pole and
the convex mirror focus behind the mirror

An object AB is placed at point P′ in front of a thin convex lens such

that its real, inverted and magnified image A′B′ is formed at position

86

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 11

C on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Now a convex mirror is
introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that
the real and inverted image A′B′ coincides with the object AB at point
P′ [Fig. E 11.2 (a)]. This is possible if the light rays starting from the
tip of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the
reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. Any
normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the
radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature
of the convex mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of
curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex
mirror. That is,

PC R
f = =
2 2

Fig. E 11.2 Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A′ B′
coincides with the object A B at P ′(b) convex lens- image is inverted
and magnified

P
ROCEDURE
1. In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not
known then approximate value of its focal length should be
estimated first.
87

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the

spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws
provided at the base of the bench.
3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex
lens LL′, and convex mirror MM′ on the horizontal optical bench
[Fig. E11.2(a)].
4. Check that the lens, mirror, and pin P1 are vertically placed on
the optical bench. Also verify that the tip of the pin, optical centre
O of the convex lens LL′, and pole P′ of the convex miror MM′ lie
on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench.
5. Determine the index correction between upright holding of
the convex mirror and image pin respectively, using an
index needle.
6. Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL′ at a distance slightly
greater than the focal length of the lens.
7. Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM′ till the light rays
reflected back from the mirror pass through the lens and form
a real and inverted image coinciding with the object pin P1, as
shown in Fig.E 11.2 (a). This occurs when the rays starting from
the tip of pin P1, after passing through the lens strike the mirror
normally and are reflected back along their original paths.
Remove the parallax between the image and object pins.
8. Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P1, convex
lens LL′, and convex mirror MM′ and record the observations in
the observation table.
9. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin
P2 on it. Adjust the height of pin such that the tip of it also lies
on the principal axis of the lens. That is, the tips of the pins P1
and P2 and the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a
straight horizontal line parallel to the length of the optical
bench.
10. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate
it from the object pin P1.
11. Using the method of parallax and without changing the position
of lens LL′ and object pin P1, adjust the position of image pin P2
on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with the real
and inverted image of the object pin P1 formed by the convex
lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Note the position of the image pin.
12. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the
pin P1 and lens L L′ and the mirror MM′. In this manner, take five
sets of observations.

88

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 11

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Focal length of the convex lens, f (estimated/given) = ... cm
2. Actual length of the index needle, l = ... cm
3. Observed length of the index needle l′
= Position of mirror upright – position of pin upright on the scale
= ... cm
4. Index correction, e = Actual length – observed length (l – l′) = ... cm

Table E 11.1: Determination of radius of curvature of convex

mirror, R

Sl. Upright position of Observed Corrected Focal ∆f

No. R′ = c – d R length
Observed f
R′ + e
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Object Convex Convex Image
pin P1 lens LL′ mirror pin P2
MM′
a (cm) b (cm) c (cm) d (cm)
1
2
--
5
Mean

C
ALCULATIONS
Calculate the mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror,
R, and determine its focal length using the following relation

R
f = = ... cm
2

Error

R ′ + l ( c − d ) + (l − l ′)
f = =
2 2

∆f ∆c ∆d ∆l ∆l ′
= + + +
f c d l l′

89

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

when ∆c, ∆d, ∆l and ∆l′ are the least counts of the measuring
instruments. Maximum of the five values of ∆f is to be reported with
the result as the experimental error.

R ESULT
The focal length of the given convex mirror is (f ± ∆f) ... ± ... cm.
Here f is mean value of the focal length.

P RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid
and mounted vertically.
2. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should
be small, otherwise the image formed will be distorted.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from
the image pin.
4. Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of
convex lens and pole of the mirror should be at the same
horizontal level.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin should just touch
the tip of the image pin and must not overlap. This should be
ensured while removing the parallax.
2. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious.
3. The convex mirror should preferably be front-coated. Otherwise
multiple reflections may take place.

D ISCUSSION
It may not be possible to perform this experiment with just any convex
lens. The focal length of the lens used in this experiment should
neither be too small nor too large. Why?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. If focal length of the concave mirror is determined, by using convex
lenses of different focal lengths, do you expect any change in the
result? If yes, what type of change? If not, why not?

90

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 11

2. How will the result change if a convex lens of different refractive

indices were used?
3. If the convex lens selected for the experiment has focal length less
than that of the convex mirror, how would this selection limit the
experiment?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Repeat the experiment by using convex lenses of different focal lengths.

Compare and analyse the results.
2. Repeat the experiment by using convex mirrors of different focal lengths
with the help of the same convex lens. Discuss the results.

91

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENT 12
AIM
To find the focal length of a concave lens with the help of a
convex lens.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with uprights for holding the lenses and two needles,
a thin concave lens, a convex lens of focal length (~15 cm) smaller
than that of the concave lens, index needle (may be a knitting needle),
a metre scale and a spirit level.

P RINCIPLE
Figs. E 12.1 (a),(b),(c) and (d) illustrate the formation of image A′ B′ of
an object AB by a concave lens. It is clear that the image formed by a

Fig. E 12.1 (a),(b),(c), (d) The images formed by a concave lens for different object positions

92

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 12

Fig. E 12.2 Formation of image (a) by a convex lens; and (b) by a combination of
convex lens and concave lens

concave lens is always virtual and erect in these cases. Therefore, its
focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it can be
determined indirectly by introducing a convex lens in between the
object and the concave lens and producing a real image as illustrated
in Fig. E12.2.
A convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from the object AB
to form a real and inverted image A′B′ at position I1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. If
a concave diverging lens L2 is inserted between the lens L1 and point
I1 as shown in Fig. E 12.2 (b), for concave lens L2 image A′ B′ behaves
as virtual object. A real and inverted image A′′ B′′ is formed at point
I2 by the diverging lens L2. Thus, for the concave lens L2 the distances
O′ I1 and O′ I2 would be the distances u and v, respectively. It is
important to note that the focal length of convex lens L1 must be
smaller than the focal length of the concave lens L2. The second
image A′′ B′′ is formed only when the distance between lens L2 and
first image A′B′ is less than the focal length of L2.
The focal length of the concave lens L2 can be calculated from
the relation
1 1 1 uv (E 12.1)
= − or f =
f v u u −v
Here for the concave lens both distances u and v are positive and
since u will be found to be less than v, f will always be negative.

P ROCEDURE
1. In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not
known then rough value of its focal length (fL) should be
estimated first to ensure that its focal length is less than that of
the concave lens.
93

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

2. Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit
level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided
at the base of the bench.
3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens
L1, and another pin P2 (image pin) on the optical bench. You may
put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate it from
the image of object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)].
4. Check the collinearity of the tip of pin P1, optical centre O of convex
lens L1, and the tip of image pin P2 along a horizontal straight line
which is parallel to the length of the optical bench. In this condition
the planes of lens and both the pins would be perpendicular to
the axis of the lens.
5. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted
pin close to the concave lens L2. Adjust the index needle (a sharp-
edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally
such that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens
and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of
the two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The
difference of the two would give the observed length of the index
needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical
centre O′ of the lens L2 would be length of the index needle (as
measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens at its
optical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the index
correction.
(If the concave lens is thin at the centre, its thickness at the centre
can be ignored).
6. Separate the object pin P1 from the convex lens by a distance
slightly greater than the focal length fL of the lens.
7. Locate its real and inverted image at point I1 on the other side of
the lens by removing the parallax between the image pin P2 and
image of the object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.3(a)].
8. Read the positions of the uprights holding the object pin P1, convex
lens L1, and image pin P2 (i.e. point I1). Record these observations
in Table E 12.1.
9. From now on, do not change the position of the convex lens L1
and the position of the object pin P1. Insert the concave lens L2 in
between the convex lens L1 and image pin P2. Now the image of
object pin will shift further from the convex lens L1 to a point I2(say).
Adjust the position of the concave lens so that the point I2 is
sufficiently away from the point I1.
10. In case the image formed by the combination of convex and concave
lenses is not distinctly visible, try to see it on moving the concave
lens nearer to the point I1 and to locate the image by using a pencil
94

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 12

Image of
straight pin P1
I1
Object O
pin Image pin P2
P1
L1
(a)

Fig. E 12.3 Focal length of concave lens with the help of convex lens

held in hand, and keeping the image pin P2 at point I1 as a guide to

decide which way to shift the concave lens L2. After having seen the
clear image at point I2 and ensured that it lies within the range of the
optical bench, move image pin P2 to locate the image (or point I2)
more accurately using the method of parallax [Fig. E 12.3(b)]. Since
the image forming at I2 is quite enlarged, it can be blurred.
11. Note the position of uprights holding the concave lens and image
pin P2, i.e., point I2. Note the readings in the Observation Table.
12. Change the position of upright holding the object pin P1 and repeat
the steps 6 to 11. Take five sets of observations.

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Focal length of the convex lens, fL = ... cm
2. Length of the index needle as measured by the scale, s = ... cm
3. Thickness of the thin concave lens (given) at its optical centre,
t = ... cm
4. Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of
the pin, l = s + t/2 = ... cm
5. Observed length of the index needle, l′
= Distance between the pole of the lens and tip of the pin
= Position of lens upright - position of pin upright on the scale
= ... cm
95
LABORATORY MANUAL

Table E 12.1: Determination of u, v, and f of concave lens

Sl. Position of
No.

and L2, point I2, g (cm)

= Observed u + e (cm)

= Observed v + e (cm)
Image formed by L1,

Image formed by L1
Object pin upright

f = uv/(u – v) (cm)
Concave lens L2
upright, b (cm)

upright, d (cm)
Convex lens L1

point I1, c (cm)

Corrected v
Corrected u
= g – d (cm)
= c – d (cm)
Observed v
Observed u
P1, a (cm)

(cm)
∆f
1
2
--
5
Mean

6. Index correction, e = l – l′ = ... cm

C ALCULATIONS

uv
Find the focal length of the concave lens using the formula f =
u–v
Error

1 1 1
= −
f v u

∆f ∆v ∆u
2
= 2 + 2
f v u

∆v ∆u 
∆ f = f 2  2
+ 2
v u 

where ∆u, ∆v represent least counts of the measuring scale. Values of

u, v, f are to be taken from the Observation Table. Maximum of the
five values of the error ∆f is to be reported with the result as error.

96

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 12

R ESULT
The focal length of the given concave lens is (f ± ∆f) = ... ± ...cm.
Here f is mean value of the focal length.
P RECAUTIONS
1. The concave lens must be placed near the convex lens. In fact,
the second image I2 is formed only when the distance between
concave lens L2 and first image I1 (which acts as virtual object for
the concave lens) is less than the focal length of the concave lens.
2. Since the image formed at I2 is quite enlarged, it can be blurred.
Therefore, it would be preferable to use a thin and sharp object
pin and shine it with light using a lighted electric bulb.
3. The convex lens and the pin P1 must not be disturbed during the
second part of the experiment.
4. A diminished, real and inverted image of the image pin P2 might
also be formed by the light rays reflecting from the concave
surface of the lens L2. It should not be confused with the bold
and bright image formed by the combination of convex and
concave lenses.
5. Index correction/ bench correction for u and v should be made.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. If tip of object pin and optical centre of the lens are not aligned
properly (if not brought at the same horizontal level), image tip
and image of object pin tip will not touch each other. There may
be some gap between the two or there could be overlap between
the two. In such situations, there can be error in removing parallax
and it will lead to errors in the result.
2. For greater accuracy we should use sharply pointed object pin.

D ISCUSSION
1. As concave lens diverges the rays, the image formed by a concave
lens alone will not be real and cannot be taken on a screen. To
converge these diverging rays to form a real image, convex lens
is used.
2. Diverging rays from concave lens can be made to fall normally on
a concave mirror to get the real image formed at the point where
object is placed. Hence, the focal length of the concave lens can be
found by using a concave mirror also.
97

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Since the image I2 is quite enlarged, it can get blurred by chromatic

aberration of the two lenses. Thus it is better to put a screen
behind object pin P1 and thus do the entire experiment with one
colour of light instead of with white light. For the same reason, pin
P1 should be quite thin and sharp compared to pin P2.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. In this experimental setup the combination of concave lens and
convex lens separated by a distance d behaves as a single lens of
1 1 1 d
focal length F. Check the relation = + − for any one of
F f1 f 2 f 1 f 2
the observations.
2. Calculate f by interchanging the value of u and v and compare it
with the experimentally determined value of f.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Plot a graph of u v against u – v with u v on y-axis and u – v on

x-axis. Determine f from the slope of the graph.

2. Repeat the experiment by using concave and convex lenses of different focal
lengths, compare and analyse the results.

98

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT 13
AIM
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism
by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of
deviation.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins,
cellotape/drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white paper sheets.

P RINCIPLE
A triangular prism has three
rectangular lateral surfaces and
two triangular bases. The line
along which any two faces
(refracting surfaces) of the prism
meet is the refracting edge of the
prism and the angle between
them is the angle of the prism. For
this experiment, it is convenient
to place the prism with its
rectangular surfaces vertical. The
principal section ABC of the prism
is obtained by a horizontal plane
perpendicular to the refracting
Fig. E 13.1 Refraction of light through a glass prism
edge (Fig. E 13.1).

A ray of light PQ (from air to glass) incident on the first face AB at

an angle i is refracted at an angle r along QR and finally, emerges
along RS. The dotted lines in the figure represent the normal to the
surfaces. The angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second
face AC is r′ and the angle of refraction (or emergence) is e. The
angle between the direction of incident ray PQ (produced forward)
and the direction of emergent ray RS (produced backward) is the
angle of deviation δ.

99

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

From geometrical considerations we have

(E 13.1)
r + r′ = A
(E 13.2) = (i – r) + (e – r′) = i + e – A
At the position of the prism for minimum deviation δm, the light ray
passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so
that when

= m
, i = e which implies r = r′.
The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is
that the image is brightest in this position.

P ROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of
cellotape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle
and parallel to the length of the paper.
3. Mark points O1, O2, O3. ., . . . . on the straight line XY at suitable
distances of about 8 to 10 cm and draw normals N1 O1, N2 O2, N3
O3. . . . on these points (Fig. E 13.2).

Fig. E 13.2 Refraction of light through a glass prism for various angles of incidence

4. Draw straight lines, P1 O1, P2 O2, P3 O3, . . . corresponding to the

incident rays making angles of incidence at 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, ... 60°
respectively with the normals, using a protractor. Write the values
of the angles ∠P1 O1 N1, ∠P2 O2 N2, ∠ P3 O3 N3,... on the white
paper sheet ( Fig. E 13.2).
5. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with
point O1 in the middle of AB as shown in the figure. Draw the
boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
100
 EXPERIMENT 13

6. Fix two alpins Pl and Q 1 with sharp tips vertically about

10 cm apart, on the incident ray line Pl Ql such that pin
Q1 is close to point O1. Close one eye (say left) and looking through
the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the pins
Pl and Ql. Fix alpins Rl and Sl about 10 cm apart vertically on the
white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images
of pins Pl and Ql. In this way pins R1 and S1 will become collinear,
with the images of pins P1 and Q1.
7. Remove the pins Rl and Sl and encircle their pin pricks on the
white paper sheet with the help of a sharp pencil. Remove the
pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
8. Join the points ( or pin pricks) Rl and Sl with the help of a sharp
pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray Rl Sl. Produce it
backwards to meet the incident ray Pl Ql (produced forward) at
T1. Draw arrowheads on Pl Ql and R1 S1 to show the direction of
the rays.
9. Measure the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of
the prism (Fig. E 13.1) with a protractor and write the values of
these angles indicated in the diagram.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40°,
45°, 50°...) and measure the corresponding angles of deviation
2
, 3... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective
diagrams.
11. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and
significant figures.

O
BSERVATIONS
Least count of the protractor = ...(degree)
Angle of the prism, A = ...(degree)

Table E 13.1: Measuring the angle of incidence, i and angle of

deviation for a prism

Sl. No. Angle of incidence, i (degrees) Angle of deviation, (degrees)

1
2
3
--
10

101
LABORATORY MANUAL

Plotting the graph between i and δ for the prism

Take angle of incidence i along x-axis and angle of deviation δ along
y-axis, using the observed values from Table E 13.1. Choose suitable
scales on these axes and plot a graph between i and δ. Take care that
you draw a free hand smooth curve passing practically through all
the plotted points on the graph (Fig. E 13.3).

Fig. E 13.3 Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation

C ALCULATIONS
Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, read
the angle of minimum deviation m on the y-axis of the graph. Express
the result with proper significant figures.

R ESULT
Angle of minimum deviation, m
= ... ± ... degree

P RECAUTIONS
1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
2. Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate
incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy.
3. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of
observations.
102
 EXPERIMENT 13

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are
not equal, then A + ≠ i + e.
2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.

D ISCUSSION
1. It is suggested that the value of angle of incidence be taken more
than 35°. This is required for angles less than 35° as there is a
possibility of total internal reflection inside the prism.
2. You must check your readings by applying the formula
i+e=A+ .
3. The i – δ curve that is obtained in this experiment is a non-linear
curve. In such situations, more readings should be taken in the
minimum deviation region to be able to obtain the value of angle
of minimum deviation accurately. For example, if δ readings are
taken initially at 35°, 40°, 45° and 50° and if the i – δ data points
are situated as shown in Fig. E 13.3 then a few more readings
need to be taken for values of i in the range 45° to 55° say, at a
difference of 1° or 2°.
Taking more readings in this region will help in drawing a smooth
curve. This will enable you to locate the position of the lowest
point on the graph more accurately.
4. In the condition of minimum deviation, the refracted ray
inside the prism becomes parallel to its base so as to satisfy the
condition r = r′.
5. The graph does not show a sharp minimum. We have same
deviation for a range of angle of incidence near minimum deviation.
Therefore extra care should be taken in drawing tangential line
to the i – δ graph at minimum deviation.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the graph between i and .
2. If the experiment is performed with angle of emergence taken as
angle of incidence, will there be any change in the values? If yes,
why? If not, why not?
3. What will happen if you go on decreasing the angle of incidence?
If you think there is a minimum, try to find its expression
theoretically. What happens when i is less than the minimum
angle of incidence?

103
LABORATORY MANUAL

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Use the following equation to calculate refractive index of the material of the
prism from the measured value of the angle A and δm determined from the
graph.
Sin i Sin [( A+δm )/2]
n= =
Sin r Sin (A/2 )

2. Measure the angle of emergence e corresponding to the value of each angle

of incidence i and angle of deviation δ you have observed. Compute the
values of (i + e) and (A + δ) and see how they compare.

3. Draw parallel horizontal lines cutting the i – δ curve, you have drawn, at
various values of i and e. Find out the mid points of these horizontal lines
and join these mid points. What is the shape of the curve so obtained? If
you find that this shape resembles that of a straight line, find its (i) slope (ii)
y-intercept and (iii) x-intercept.

4. Determine the refractive index of different liquids using a hollow prism by

plotting i – δ graph.

5. Measure r and r′ and e from the figures you have drawn. Find the refractive
index of the material of the prism from the values of i and r and e and r′.

104

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENT 16
AIM
To draw the I - V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward
bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or 1N4007), a resistor of value
(3Ω, 1/2W), one variable voltage power supply (0-12V), voltmeter
(0-12V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), a plug key, connecting wires, sand
paper and a microammeter (0-200 µA).

T ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Forward bias: When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction
diode in such a way that the p-side is at a higher potential with
respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward biased.

2. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in” voltage: When the p-side is

connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the voltage is
increased, initially a negligible current flows till the applied voltage
crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode
current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode.

3. Reverse bias: When the n-region of a p-n junction diode is at a

higher potential with respect to the p-region, it is said to be reverse
biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n junction diode is
connected to the negative of the battery.

4. Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased

in the reverse biased condition, starting from zero value, the current
increases, but soon becomes constant. This current is very small
(a few microamperes). It is called the reverse saturation current.
120

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 16
13

P
ROCEDURE
1. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter (V),
milliammeter (mA) and the microammeter (µA).
2. Remove the insulating layers
from the connecting wires
and leads of diode using a
sand paper.
3. Connect the variable voltage
power supply, p-n junction
diode, voltmeter, milliammeter,
resistor and a plug key in a
circuit as shown in Fig. E 16.1.
4. Initially when the key is open,
you would note at this stage, that
no current is flowing through the
circuit. Now close the key. Fig. E 16.1 Forward biasing for a p-n junction diode
5. Give a small voltage to the circuit
by slight and gentle turning of
the power supply knob. Note the voltmeter reading across the
diode and the corresponding milliammeter reading to find the
current I flowing through the diode.
6. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps) in
the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and milliammeter
readings in Table E 16.1.
The value of current flowing through the diode would be negligibly
small till the voltage across the diode exceeds the value of its cut in
or threshold voltage. After the cut-
in voltage, the variation in current
will be rapid.
7. Once the threshold voltage is
reached, vary the diode voltage
very slowly (preferably in steps of
0.1V) noting the corresponding
current I flowing through the
diode. Continue increasing voltage
till the current reaches the limit of
the milliammeter.
8. Now disconnect the circuit
and make the connections as
shown in Fig. E 16.2 for the reverse
bias characteristics. Connect p-side Fig. E 16.2 Reverse biasing for a p-n junction
of p-n junction diode to the diode

121

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

negative terminal of the power supply and replace milliameter with

a microammeter. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps)
in the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and
microammeter readings in Table E 16.2. In this part of experiment,
with the given supply voltage you will get only flat portion of the
reverse bias characteristic curve.
CAUTION
Never increase the value of the voltage too much across the diode.
Excessive current flow may damage the diode if it exceeds its limit.
Maximum permissible current that can pass through the diode can
be known from the technical data as specified by the manufacturer.

O BSERVATIONS
1. p-n junction diode used (diode no.) = ...

2. For forward biasing

(i) Range of the voltmeter = ... V to ... V

(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = ... V

(iii) Range of the milliammeter = ... mA to ... mA

(iv) Least count of the milliammeter scale = ... mA

3. For reverse biasing

(i) Range of the voltmeter = ... V to ... V

(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = ... V

(iii) Range of the microammeter = ... µA to ... µA

(iv) Least count the microammeter = ... µA

Table E 16.1: Variation of forward current with voltage across the
diode (forward bias)

Sl.No. Forward Forward

voltage Vf (V) current If (mA)

1
2
3
-
20
122

24/04/2018
 EXPERIMENT 16
13

Table E 16.2: Variation of reverse current with voltage across the

diode (reverse bias)

Sl.No. Reverse Reverse current

voltage Vr (V) Ir (µA)

1
2
--
20

P
LOTTING GRAPH
1. P l o t a g r a p h b e t w e e n
forward voltage across the
d i o d e ( Vf) a l o n g t h e
positive x-axis and current
flowing through the diode
( I) a l o n g t h e p o s i t i v e
y-axis. The graph as
shown in Fig. E 16.3
represents a typical I-V
characteristic of a silicon
diode used. Locate the
knee and determine the
cut-in voltage.

2. Now plot the reverse

voltage (V r ) along the
negative x-axis and the
corresponding current (in
µA) along the negative
y-axis as shown in Fig. E 16.3 Typical I-V characteristics of a silicon
diode in forward biasing and reverse
Fig. E 16.3. Determine the
biasing
reverse saturation current.

R ESULT
A. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V.

B. The reverse saturation current for the given diode is...µA.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum permissible

123
LABORATORY MANUAL

current through the given diode in forward bias. Take care not to
exceed this limit.
2. Find out manufacturers specification for maximum reverse voltage
to be applied to the diode. Take care not to exceed this limit.
3. It is important to take care that the potential difference across the
diode is increased gradually, in small steps. Keep your eyes on
the ammeter and let the current not exceed the specified limit.

D ISCUSSION
If we use different diodes (Ge or Si), what change do you observe in
the I - V characteristics? Does the threshold voltage / cut- in voltage of
the diode depend on the material of the diode?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How can you operate diode as a switch or as a rectifier?
2. What is the difference between a diode and a resistor?
3. If a resistor of higher value (greater than the resistor connected in
the circuit) is connected in series with diode, then comment on the
slope of linear region of I - V characteristics.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Perform the same experiment with a different value of R connected in series

with the diode. What changes will be observed in
(a) cut - in voltage?
(b) actual value of current for same voltage for different values of R?
(c) shape of I - V characteristics?
2. Perform the same experiment with a light emitting diode (LED) in place of a
diode and plot the I - V characteristics. What change do you observe in the
threshold voltage when you use different coloured LEDs?

124

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 13

EXPERIMENT 17
AIM
To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its
reverse breakdown voltage.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A p-n junction Zener diode (IN 758), a variable dc power supply
(0-15 V) with least count 0.1 V, a microammeter (0-100 µA), a voltmeter
(0-15 V), a resistance of 125 Ω, a high resistance rheostat and
connecting wires.

PRINCIPLE
Zener diodes are essentially p-n junction diodes (both p and n regions
are more heavily doped as compared to rectifying p-n junction diode)
operated in the breakdown region of the reverse voltage characteristic.
These diodes are designated with sufficient power dissipation
capacities to work in the breakdown region. The following two
mechanisms can cause breakdown in a junction diode:
(i) Avalanche breakdown
With increasing reverse bias voltage, the electric field across the junction
of p-n diode increases. At a certain reverse bias, the electric field imparts
a sufficiently high energy to a thermally generated carrier crossing
the junction. This carrier, on colliding with a crystal ion on its way,
disrupts a covalent bond and produces an electron-hole pair. These
carriers on gaining sufficient energy from the applied field collide with
other crystal ions and generate further electron-hole pairs. This process
is cumulative and produces an avalanche of carriers in a very short
time. This mechanism is known as avalanche multiplication, causes
large reverse current and the diode is said to work in the region of
avalanche breakdown.
(ii) Zener breakdown
In a Zener diode, both the p and n-sides are heavily doped. Due to the
high dopant densities, the depletion layer junction width is small.
Since the junction width is small i.e. less than 10–7 m, even a small
125

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

voltage across it may create a very high field. This high junction field
may strip an electron from the valence band which can tunnel to the
n-side through the thin depletion layer. Such a mechanism of emission
of electrons after applying certain electric field (~ 106 V/m ) or voltage
VZ is termed as internal field emission which
gives rise to a high reverse current or
breakdown voltage. This breakdown is
termed as Zener breakdown and the voltage
at which it occurs is called Zener voltage.
The reverse current at Zener voltage is called
Zener current.
The very nature of breakdown suggests that
the ideal V versus I characteristics
(schematically as shown in Fig. E 17.1) of a
Zener diode after breakdown will be
running parallel to the current axis implying
thereby, that a small change in voltage leads
to almost infinite or very large change in
current. You will appreciate that this is what
Fig. E 17.1 Zener diode characteristics curve we have called “breakdown” earlier.
However, there is a danger of such a large
current flow through the diode that it can
result in its excessive heating. To protect the
diode from such a damage, normally in
practical circuits, we connect a resistance
termed as protective resistance (RP ) with the
Zener diode which limits the maximum
current which can ever pass through the
diode.
A simple method of determining the
approximate value of protective resistance in
practical circuits is discussed below:
Suppose we are given a Zener diode IN 758
with VZ =10 V. This diode can withstand a
maximum power dissipation of 0.4 W (as per
the ratings given by the manufacturer). We
can find a simple relation between protective
Fig. E 17.2 Circuit for Zener diode resistance RP and Zener breakdown voltage.
characteristic curve
A Zener diode having zener voltage VZ and
power dissipation rating PZ is connected
across a potential divider arrangement with maximum potential VZ
across it (Fig. E 17.2). If the potential drop across the Zener diode is
VZ and the rest drops across the protective resistance then we get
V = VZ + IZ RP

126

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 17
13

PZ
Since IZ = (E 17.1)
VZ

⎛P ⎞
V = VZ + ⎜ Z ⎟ R P
⎝ VZ ⎠

(V–V Z )V Z (E 17.2)
and RP =
PZ

Therefore a resistance of value R P =

(15 − 10 )10 = 125 Ω should be
0.4
connected in series with the Zener diode IN 758 to protect it from
damage.

P
ROCEDURE
1. Note the least count of the given voltmeter and microammeter.
2. The voltmeter and microammeter should read zero with zero
applied voltage. If not, then correct the initial reading of the
meter suitably.
3. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand
paper and connect various components by the connecting wires
as per the circuit arrangement (Fig. E 17.2). Take care that Zener
diode is in reverse bias mode and the ter minal of the
microammeter and voltmeter marked positive are connected to
the higher potential side of the power supply.
4. Ensure that the microammeter is connected in series with
the Zener diode having a series protective resistance R P
and voltmeter in parallel to the Zener diode.
5. Switch on the power supply.
6. Move the contact point of the potential divider to apply some
reverse bias voltage (V r ). For low reverse bias, the current is
negligibly small i.e., of the order of 10 –8 A to 10 –10 A and
hence with milliammeter or microammeter, you will observe
zero reading.
7. Slowly increase the voltage across the Zener diode in steps and
record the value of reverse bias voltage Vr and also record the
corresponding reverse current I r from the reading of the
microammeter. Take care that the reverse voltage Vr is increased
in steps of 0.1 V.

127

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

O BSERVATIONS
1. Range of the voltmeter = ... V to ...V
2. Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
3. Range of the microammeter = ...µA to ...µA
4. Least count of the microammeter =...µA
5. Specification of Zener diode used (code no.) =...
6. To calculate the value of protective resistance R P, following data
is required.
Maximum permissible power (power rating) of the Zener diode
specified by the manufacturer, Pz=...W
Maximum permissible voltage (voltage rating) of the Zener diode
as specified by the manufacturer, Vz=...V
Value of the protective resistor to be used in series with the Zener
diode, R P =...V (from E 17.2)
7. Note down the reading of the voltmeter and microammeter in
Table E 17.1.

Table E 17.1: Variation of reverse current Ir with reverse voltage,

V r across the Zener diode

Sl.No. For Zener diode

Voltmeter reading Microammeter

Vr (V) Ir (µA)
1
2
--
10

P LOTTING GRAPH
(i) Plot a graph between reverse voltage, Vr and reverse current, Ir
taking Vr along x-axis and Ir along y-axis by using the readings
from Table E 17.1.
(ii) Discuss the nature of Vr – Ir graph and interpret it.
(iii) Note the value of the breakdown voltage from the Vr – Ir graph.

128

24/04/2018
 E XPERIMENT 17
13

R ESULT
The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode obtained from the graph is
VZ = ... V.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned properly with sand
paper.
2. Zero reading of voltmeter and microammeter should be
checked properly.

D ISCUSSION
1. Ideally after breakdown, the current Ir should become infinitely
large. Is it so in your case? In case it is not and you find that the
current does increase rapidly but not infinitely, then think of the
reason. Does the protective resistance or any other contact
resistance in the circuit has any role to play in this case?
2. From the manual of electric components, note down the
breakdown voltages of the Zener diodes which can be used in any
circuit for different voltages.
3. Discuss the role of Zener diode in voltage regulation.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the principle of Zener diode?
2. How is reverse current obtained?
3. What happens at Zener breakdown?
4. What is meant by internal field emission?
5. How can you use a Zener diode as a voltage regulator?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Repeat the experiment using Zener diodes of different code numbers. Do you
observe any variation in their reverse breakdown voltages?

129

24/04/2018
ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY 1
AIM
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key,
rheostat, sand paper, connecting wires.

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the components
as shown in Fig. A 1.1.
2. After closing the key K,
check that the voltmeter
and ammeter show
deflections on the right
hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the
assembled circuit using a
multimeter (see Activity 4).
Fig. A 1.1 Assembling of given components

R ESULT
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

P RECAUTIONS
1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of ammeter and positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor.
3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires
and leads of the component terminals. Grease/oil or oxide layer

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

on their surfaces is insulating in nature and needs to be removed.

However, do not clean the plugs and keys with sand paper.
Excessive use of sand paper in such a case will make the plug
unfit to be used with the key.

D ISCUSSION
1. Draw the circuit diagram of the experiment before you start
connecting apparatus and keep infront of you.
2. The values of the resistances and the current carraying capacity
of the rheostat are given on a plate fixed on the body of rheostat.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by emf of a cell?
2. Does the current drawn from the cell remain constant? If
not, why?
3. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit?
4. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel to the component
across which voltage is to be measured?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Design different kinds of circuits that you will study in your class and
assemble them using the relevant components, for example (i) circuit to
measure the value of an unknown resistance using a meter bridge (ii) circuit
to compare e.m.f. of two cells using a potentiometer, etc.
2. Measure the voltmeter and ammeter readings for different rheostat settings
and verify if the ratio of potential difference across the resistor to the current
through it is constant.
3. Modify the circuit using two resistors which may either be connected in
series or in parallel.

140

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

ACTIVITY 2
AIM
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components
that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and
also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug
key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and
sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the
circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit
components/devices are in working condition and key is closed.
An open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which could
be deliberate such as a key in open position or a fault such as broken
wire or burnt out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such
circuits are given in Figs. A 2.1 (a), (b), (c) and (d).

141
LABORATORY MANUAL

Fig. A 2.1 (a),(b),(c),(d) Open circuits

Note to teachers: In this activity, students are expected to draw

the diagram of a given open circuit comprising a few circuit
components e.g. a key, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat etc.
After drawing the given circuit, students would be marking the
components which are not connected in proper order. Then a
correct circuit diagram is to be drawn and accordingly the circuit
components are to be connected in proper order.
Teachers are therefore advised to set up a few open circuits in
which some of the components are not arranged in proper order.

P ROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagrams in your notebook as given by your
teacher [Fig. A 2.1(a), (b), (c) and (d)].
2. Consider one circuit and mark in Table A 2.1, the various
components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit
diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is
functional.

Note: Rheostat can be used both as a variable resistance and potential

divider.
Rheostat as a variable resistance
1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (a) showing use of a rheostat
as a variable resistor.
142

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 2 13

2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn below using one end

terminal and the other variable terminal.

Variable resistance

Rh

End terminal End terminal

(1) (2)

(a)

Fig. A 2.2 (a) Rheostat as a variable resistor

(b) Rheostat as a potential divider giving variable voltage

Rheostat as a potential divider

1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (b) showing use of a rheostat
as a potential divider.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn above using (i) the
end terminals (1) and (2) connected to input potential (battery)
and (ii) one end terminal and the other variable terminal for
variable voltage.

O
BSERVATIONS

Table A 2.1: Mark a (P ) in appropriate column

Sl. No. Circuit Correct Incorrect

Component Connection Connection
1 Battery/cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Key
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter

R
ESULT
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram
is functional.

143

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

P RECAUTIONS
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper
before making connections.
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the
ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with it.

D ISCUSSION
1. (a) Rheostat can be used in series as a variable resistance. In
this case, the end terminal (1) and the other variable terminal
is to be used [Fig. A 2.2(a)].
(b) When rheostat has to be used as a potential divider across
the cell, the variable voltage is derived using any one end-
terminal and the variable terminal of the rheostat [Fig. A
2.2(b)].
Justify how the discussion points 1(a) and 1(b) are possible?
2. Key is to be kept “OPEN” so that no damage to the components
occur.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the function of each component in the circuit.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of a rheostat as a variable resistance
showing the position of sliding contact for (i) maximum resistance
(ii) minimum resistance.
3. What is the function of sand paper in setting up the electric circuit?
4. A rheostat and a resistance box can change the resistance in a
circuit, yet their functions are different. Discuss it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a circuit diagram using rheostat as a potential divider. Make actual

connection and determine the voltage range it provides.
2. Study the different kinds of keys available in the laboratory and identify
their functions in the electric circuit.
3. Make a detailed study of different types of resistances available in the
laboratory (carbon resistor, wire wound resistance box).
4. Compare the connecting wires used in household circuits and those used in
the laboratory.
5. Make a study of different battery eliminators, dc sources (cells, batteries) in
the laboratories. How are they different as compared to car batteries?
144

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

ACTIVITY 5
AIM
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three
(on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse
of 1.0 A, plug, flexible connecting wire, main switch.

P RINCIPLE
If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by different domestic
electrical appliances in a circuit then the total power consumption, P
at any instant is given by

P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+ ... (A 5.1)

If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains is given by

P (A 5.2)
I =
V

where P is in watt, V in volt

and I in ampere.
In order to protect the
appliances from damage,
when accidentally a high
current is drawn (e.g. when
the terminals of the appliance
get accidentally connected), a
fuse of rating little higher (10
to 20 per cent higher than the
current normally drawn) is
connected in series with the
set of appliances (Fig. A 5.1).
Fig. A 5.1

157

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

P ROCEDURE
1. Take the bulbs B1, B2, B3 and connect them in series with switches
S1, S2 and S3 respectively. Connect B1, B2, B3 alongwith S1, S2, S3
in parallel with each other as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
2. Connect fuse F in series with the set up as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
Connect a plug and the socket at the end of two leads. Connect a
wire from the earth pin of the plug.
3. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.
4. Press the switches S1, S2, S3 one by one and observe the bulb
that is switched on and off independently of the other bulb.
5. Press all the switches simultaneously and observe what happens.
Record your observations.

R ESULT
Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Care should be taken while working with mains.
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the
maximum current drawn by the circuit.

D ISCUSSION
1. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much higher rating
than the recommended value.
2. The rating of the main electricity in our houses is determined by the
total power requirements. In general it is 220 V, 30 A and
50 Hz. The supply is connected to a distribution board which divides
the power into different circuits; some having a rating of 220 V,
15 A meant for heavy duty appliances like room heater,
airconditioner, geysers, hot plates etc., others have a rating of 220
V, 5 A meant for light appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans etc.
Let us consider one electrical circuit with 220 V, 5 A supply. In
such a circuit all appliances are connected in parallel with a switch.
This switch is in series with each appliance in supply live line.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Calculate the maximum current drawn for three bulbs used in
the circuit.
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES
1. Draw a circuit diagram consisting of two light points, one fan point
and one plug point.
158

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 8
AIM
To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor
from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and
capacitor.

P RINCIPLE
A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased
and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light
while conducting.
A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It
emits light while conducting.
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter
(E), base (B) and collector (C).
An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in the form of a
chip. But some may have only three terminals, e.g. 7805, 7806,
7809, 7912.
A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both
directions.
A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores
some charge when dc voltage is applied.

P ROCEDURE
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
(a) If it has four or more terminals and has the appearance of a
chip (black rectangular block), then it is an IC.

167

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

(a) (a) (b)

+Non
inverting
Inverting

(c)

(d)

(e) (f)

Fig. A 8.1 (a) Diode (b) LED (c) Transistor (d) IC (e) Resistor (f) Capacitor

(b) If it has three terminals, the component may be a transistor.

To confirm, set-up the multimeter in resistance mode
(highest range). Connect its black or common terminal to
one of the extreme legs of the component and the second
terminal (red or positive) to the central leg. Check the
multimeter deflection. If a deflection is observed, interchange
the multimeter terminals. If no deflection is observed, the
component is a transistor. Repeat this test by connecting
the multimeter terminals to the central leg and the other
extreme leg. If a similar behaviour is observed, the
component is a transistor.
(2) If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a
capacitor, a diode or a LED.

168

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 8

(a) Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour
bands followed by a silver or gold band, the component is a
resistor.
(b) Connect the multimeter terminals (in resistance mode-
highest range) to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection. Also repeat by reversing the
component terminals.
(c) If the multimeter shows an equal deflection in both the
directions, the component is a resistor.
(d) If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, in one
direction and a much less or zero deflection in the other
direction the component is a LED.
(e) If the multimeter does not show any deflection in one direction
and shows deflection with no light emission in the other
direction then, the component is a diode.
(f) If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting
its terminals either way to the component, it is a capacitor.
But if capacitance of capacitor is large, multimeter may show
a momentary deflection.
(g) Record your observations in Table A 8.1 and A 8.2.

Note to teachers

(i) Avoid giving an IC with three terminals.

(ii) Preferably use analog multimeter and not the digital
multimeter.
(iii) In case of digital multimeter, the term “deflection” in the
instructions may be read as “reading”.
(iv) Label each component by a different alphabet e.g., A, B,
C, D, E...

O
BSERVATIONS
Table A 8.1 : Checking for the number of terminals

Alphabet marked Name of the Device

Sl.No. No. of terminals
on the device

1 Two
2 Three
3 More than three

169
LABORATORY MANUAL

Table A 8.2 : Checking for the state of conduction

Sl.No. State of Device Code Name of the device

conduction

1 Conducts in one direction

only without any emission
of light
2 Conducts in one direction
only with emission of light
3 Three terminal device;
conducts in one direction
only between central
terminal and either of the
remaining two terminals
4 Conducts in both
directions
5 Does not conduct, gives an
initial deflection which
decays to zero

R ESULT
A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are
identified respectively from a mixed collection.

P RECAUTION
While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its
leads properly.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. When the metal ends of a multimeter leads are touched, the
multimeter should show zero resistance. If it does not show
it, bring the pointer to zero using ‘Zero Adj knob’ on the
multimeter. If it is not done, the resistance measurements are
not reliable.
2. While checking resistance of a component, avoid touching either
of the metal ends of the multimeter leads. Body resistance in
parallel with component resistance can affect the resistance
measurement.

170

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

ACTIVITY 10
AIM
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper,
adhesive tape (cello-tape), drawing pins, a metre scale, alpins,
protractor, sharp pencil and eraser.

PRINCIPLE
When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it is
refracted through it. It emerges out of the slab parallel to the
direction of the incident ray. The emergent ray suffers only a lateral
displacement. For a given angle of incidence and a pair of media,
the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the glass
slab.

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of
cello-tape or drawing pins.

2. Place the glass slab lengthwise symmetrically at the centre of the

paper sheet and mark its boundary ABCD (Fig. A10.1) on the
paper sheet with a sharp pencil.

3. Draw a normal at a point F on the face AB. Draw a line EF,

representing the incident ray, making an angle i the angle of
incidence with the normal.

4. Fix two alpins P and Q with sharp tips, about 8 to 10 cm apart,

vertically on the line EF.

5. Observe the images of the two pins through the face

opposite of the glass slab. Fix two more alpins R and S
182

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 10

about 8 to 10 cm apart,
vertically on the white paper
sheet carefully with their
tips in line with the tips of
the images of P and Q. Take
care that the tips of all the
alpins appear to be on a
straight line.

6. Remove the glass slab and

mark the pin prick positions
of the alpins on the white
paper sheet with a pencil.
Draw a straight line GH,
representing the emergent
ray, passing through the
points marked R and S,
meeting the face CD at G.

7. Draw the line FG to represent

the refracted ray. Draw a
normal at the point G on the
face CD; making an angle of Fig. A10.1 Refraction through a rectangular glass
emergence e with the normal. slab
Measure the angle of
incidence i a n d a n g l e o f
emergence e with a protractor. Write the values of these angles
on the white paper sheet. Do you find some relation between ∠i
and ∠e ?

8. Extrapolate EF forward to meet the face CD of the glass slab at

O. Draw the perpendicular OL to the line GH.

9. Check if the emergent ray GH is parallel to the incident

ray EF along the original direction. It is laterally
deviated by a perpendicular distance OL. Measure
the lateral deviation OL = d and also the thickness of the
glass slab.

10. Repeat steps 2 to 9 by changing the angle of incidence.

11. Repeat the steps 2 to 10 by using glass slabs of different thickness.

Measure the lateral deviation and the thickness of the glass slab
each time. Also write the values of ∠i and ∠e on the white paper
sheet each time.

12. Record observations in tabular form with proper units. What

inference do you draw from your observations?

183

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

O BSERVATIONS
Least count of the protractor = ... (degree)
Least count of the metre scale = ... mm = ... cm

Table A 10.1 : Measuring the angle of incidence i, angle of emergence

e and lateral deviation d.

Thickness of Lateral devia-

Sl.
the Glass Angle of incidence i Angle of emergence e tion d 10–2 m
No. slab, t 10–2 m

(degree) (radians) (degree) (radians)

1 t1
2 t1
-- --
5 t1
6 t2
-- --
10 t2
11 t3
-- --

R ESULT
1. The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident
ray direction, but is laterally deviated.
2. The lateral deviation of the emergent ray with respect to the
incident ray is directly proportional to the thickness of the
glass slab.

D ISCUSSION
1. The accuracy in the measurement of angles of incidence i and
emergence e and the lateral deviation d depends on how sharp
the pin tips are, and how careful you are in observing the tips of
the pins to lie along the same straight line. Take special care in
observing the tips of the pins, marking the pin pricks, drawing
the incident, refracted and emergent rays with a sharp pencil,
and measuring the angles i and e, accurately with a protractor.

184

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 10

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Examine Table 10.1 and interpret the relationship between ∠i
and ∠e, and between t and d.
2. Plot a graph between lateral deviation d along the y-axis and
thickness t of the glass slab along the x-axis using the observed
values from Table 10.1 keeping the angle of incidence same.
Identify the shape of the graph you have obtained and interpret
it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. From the observations with the glass slab placed lengthwise, breadthwise
and thicknesswise, find out the refractive index of the material (glass) of the
slab. Discuss your result.

[Hint: Use sin i/sin r = n (refractive index of the material)]

2. Measure the angle i ′ in each case of the above observations. Calculate the

⎛ sin i ′ ⎞
ratio ⎜⎝ sin e ⎟⎠ = n′ . What is the relation between ∠r and ∠i′ and also between

⎛ sin i ⎞
∠i and ∠e ? Compare the ratio n' with ⎜
⎝ sin r ⎟⎠ = n. Remember that the ray

FG is the incident ray on face CD and GH is the refracted ray. Discuss the
relation between n and n′.

185

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

ACTIVITY 12
AIM
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Two razor blades, one adhesive tape/cello-tape, source of light (electric
bulb/ laser pencil), a piece of black paper, two glass plats.

P RINCIPLE
When a beam of light passes through a
fine opening (aperture) or around a sharp
obstacle, it bends around corners of the
obstacle/aperture. The light beam
Glass plate
spreads and penetrates into the
geometrical shadow of the obstacle. This
Black paper phenomenon of bending of light around
fine openings/obstacles is called
diffraction and is one of the evidences in
favour of wave nature of light. It arises
because of the interference of light waves
Fig. A 12.1 A fine slit made by using two razor from different points of the same wave
blades, one glass plats and a piece of front. Two razor blades with their sharp
black paper. edges held parallel, quite close to each
other (separation being of the order of wavelength of light λ) form a
fine single slit (Fig. A 12.1). The diffraction pattern due to a single
slit consists of a central bright band, surrounded on both sides by
coloured bands (with electric bulb) and alternate dark and bright
bands (with laser pencil) of decreasing intensity and fringe width.

P ROCEDURE
1. Make a fine, single slit using razor blades. For this purpose, take a
glass plate and fix a black paper on top of it. Cut out a narrow slit in
the central part of the black paper. Place two razor blades, side by
side, quite close to each other over this slit as shown in Fig. A 12.1.

190
 ACTIVITY 12

2. Place a glowing clear electric lamp preferably with a straight

filament (or a laser pencil) at sufficient distance (about 4 to 8m)
behind the fine slit between the two sharp edges of the razor blades.
Observe the lamp through the slit. What do you find?
3. Alternatively, place the slit about 0.5m from the wall and the source
of light at a distance of about 15-20 cm behind the slit. Observe
the light falling on the wall.
4. Repeat the observations of steps 2 and 3 with a laser pencil. Note
the changes you observe.

R ESULT
Light waves incident on very fine apertures (openings) bend arround
corners and exhibit phenomenon of diffraction.

D ISCUSSION
1. The sharpness of diffraction fringes depends mainly on the
extreme fineness of the slit, made using razor blades, keeping
them quite close to each other.
2. Monochromatic light from a laser pencil is preferred over ordinary
electric bulb for obtaining better effect on the screen.
With ordinary light (an electric bulb) not many fringes are
observed clearly, while with a monochromatic source (laser
pencil) a large number of distinct bright and dark fringes are
observed for a reasonable width of the slit.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Hold two razor blades side by side so that nearer sharp edges
are parallel and quite close to each other. The two edges are
often not parallel to each other when held like this. Do you expect
the bands to become wider and/or closely spaced at a point/part
of the slit where the separation of the edges is less? Do you find
bands having some colours? Interpret your observations.
[Hint: The position of all the bands, except the central band,
depends on wavelength and they will show some colours. Use of
a filter for red or blue will make the bands/fringes clearer. You
can easily observe wider bands/fringes by using a red filter
compared to that by using a blue filter.
2. The diffraction pattern is observed for slit widths of the order of
wavelength λ of light used. Observe what happens when the slit
width is few times λ. Interpret the reason.
191

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

ACTIVITY 13
AIM
To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) a convex
lens (ii) a concave mirror on a screen by using a candle and a
screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).

(i) To study nature and the size of the image formed by a convex
lens. (for different distances of the candle from the lens)

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A candle, match box, a small candle-stand, a convex lens of small
focal length and known thickness, a screen with a stand, metre scale.

P RINCIPLE
The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a
thin convex lens varies with the change in the position of the object
as illustrated in Fig. A 13 (i).1(a) to A 13 (i).1(f) for some specific
positions. It is assumed that both the spherical surfaces of the lens
have same radi of curvature.

(a) Object is at infinity, i.e., u = ∞. A real, inverted and highly diminished

image is formed at the second principal focus, F2 on the other side
of the lens, i.e. v = f, (i) when incident rays of light is parallel to the
principal axis; and (ii) when incident rays of light are not parallel to
192

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

A A

B F2 2F2 F2 2F2 B'

2F1 F1 O B' 2F1 B F1 O

A'
(c)
(d)
A'
A'

A
A

B F2 2F2 F2
2F1 F1 O
O B' 2F1 F1 B O

(e) (f)

Fig. A 13 (i). 1 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) The position, size and nature of the image A′ B′
formed by a thin convex lens LL′ for different positions
of the object AB.

the principal axis, the image is formed on the principal axis and
focal plane respectively.
(b) Object is in between infinity and 2F1, i.e., ∞ > u > 2f. A real, inverted
and diminished image lies in between second principal focus F2
and 2F2 on the other side of the lens, i.e., 2f > v > f.
(c) Object is at 2F1, i.e., u = 2f. A real and inverted image is also
formed at 2F2 on the other side of the lens, i.e., v = 2f. The size of
the image is equal to the size of object.
(d) Object is in between 2F1 and first principal focus F1, i.e.,
2f > u > f. A real, inverted and enlarged image is formed in between
2F2 and infinity on the other side of the lens, i.e., 2f < v < ∞ .
(e) Object is at the first principal focus, i.e., u = f. A highly enlarged,
real and inverted image is formed at infinity on the other side of
the lens, i.e, v = ∞.
(f) Object is in between the principal focus and the optical centre O
of the lens, i.e., f > u > 0. An enlarged, virtual and erect image is
formed on the same side of the object.

193

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

P ROCEDURE
1. Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens
by focussing the image of a distant object. It can be found by
obtaining a sharp image of Sun or tree on a plain wall, on the
other side of the lens and measuring the distance between the
lens and the wall with a scale. This distance is approximate value
of the focal length, f of the convex lens.
Note: Do not look at the Sun through the lens to see its image as it
will hurt your eyes.
2. Fix a metre scale along the edge (lengthwise) of the table with a
clamp or a cellotape.
3. Fix lens LL′ in a lens stand and place it approximately in the middle
of the metre scale such that its principal axis is horizontal and
parallel to the metre scale. In this position the lens would
lie in a plane perpendicular to the table.

4. Mount a lighted candle vertically on a small

candlestand. Place this candlestand on the
left hand side of the lens. Adjust the upright
such that the tip of the lighted candle lies
on the principal axis of the lens. In this
situation, the height of the tip of the flame
of lighted candle becomes equal to the
height of the optical centre of the lens.
Fig. A 13 (i). 2 Real images of a lighted candle
formed by a thin convex lens.

5. Shift the candlestand (from left side of the lens) to a point slightly
away from 2F1 ( i.e., to a distance slightly more than 2f from the
point O, where f is the focal length of the lens as determined in
step 1). According to Fig. A13 (i).1(b), the image of candle will be
formed at a position closer to the second principal focus F2 on the
right hand side of the lens.
6. Place a vertically mounted screen on the right hand side of the
lens. Adjust its height such that most of its portion lies above the
principal axis of the lens (Fig. A 13 (i)2).
7. Shift the position of the screen near to the second principal focus
F2 on the metre scale functioning as an optical bench.
8. Make final adjustments to get a sharp image of the lighted candle
on the screen. Note the nature of the image.
9. Measure the height of the flame of the lighted candle using a small
plane mirror strip with a graph paper strip pasted on it. Also
194
 ACTIVITY 13

measure the height of the image of the flame being formed on the
screen. For this, fix a small graph paper on the screen. Alternatively,
fix a white paper on the screen and mark the positions of the top
and bottom of the image and determine the height of the image
using a metre scale.
10. Shift the lighted candle towards the lens by a small distance (say
by 5 cm or 3 cm). Repeat steps (8) and (9) and record observations.
In this manner take at least six sets of observations.

O
BSERVATIONS

1. Rough focal length of the convex lens = ...cm

Table A 13 (i) 1 : Position, size and nature of image with different

positions of object

Position Position Size Position Size of Nature of Relative size

Sl.
of of of flame of image on the image image of image
No.
lens (cm) candle (cm) (cm) screen (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
--
6

R
ESULT
1. As the object moves towards the focus of the lens the size of the
image increases and it moves away from the focus. In all these
positions image is real and inverted and is formed on the other
side of the lens.
2. When the object is brought too close to the lens, the image on the
other side is not seen.
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the
image formed is virtual, enlarged and erect. It is formed on the
same side of the lens as that of the object.

195
LABORATORY MANUAL

P RECAUTIONS
1. This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where no
direct light reaches (preferably in a dark room) otherwise the
images may not be distinctly visible.
2. While estimating the rough value of focal length f of the lens by
focusing the Sun, do not look at the image directly as it may hurt
your eyes.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image
formed will not be distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
image formed on the screen.

D ISCUSSION
1. If the object is placed between the optical centre and focus, the
image so formed will be virtual in nature, you will not get this
image on the screen. Draw the ray diagram.
2. When the candle is placed near the focus, the image is formed at
infinity. It may go beyond the end of the table.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How does the size of your image formed by a convex lens vary as
you move from the other end of the table towards the lens?
2. Where should the object be placed to get a virtual and erect image
of the object?
3. What should be the position of the object to get an image on the
same side of the lens as the object?
4. How does the position of the image formed by a convex lens vary
as you move along the principal axis of the lens from infinity to its
focus?
5. What will be the position of the object to get a real image having
the same size as the object?

196

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

AIM
(ii) To study the nature and size of the image formed by a
concave mirror on a screen by using a candle and a screen
(for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench, candle, match box, a small candlestand, concave
mirror of nearly 25 cm focal length, a screen, three uprights (with
clamps), metre scale, adhesive tape and spirit level.

P RINCIPLE
The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a
concave mirror changes with the position of the object. Figs. A13(ii).
1 (a) to (f), show the image formation by placing the object at different
positions in front of the mirror in different situations.
(a) Object is at infinity, i.e., u = ∞ . A real, inverted and highly
diminished image is formed at the principal focus, i.e., v = f.
(b) Object is in between infinity and the centre of curvature, i.e.,
∞ > u > 2f. A real, inverted and diminished image lies in
between C, the centre of curvature and principal focus, F,
i.e., f < v < 2f.
(c) Object is at centre of curvature, i.e., u = 2f. A real and inverted
image is formed at the centre of curvature, i.e., v = 2f. The size of
the image is equal to the size of object.

197

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

(virtual image cannot

be obtained on a screen)

Fig. A 13 (ii).1 (a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f) Formation of images by a concave mirror

(d) Object is in between the centre of curvature and principal

focus, i.e., 2f > u > f. Real, inverted and enlarged image is
formed in between C, the centre of curvature and infinity,
i.e., 2f < v < ∞ .
(e) Object is at the principal focus F, i.e., u = f. A highly enlarged,
real and inverted image is formed at infinity, v = ∞ .
(f) Object is in between the principal focus F and pole of the mirror
P, i.e., f > u > 0. An enlarged, virtual and erect image is formed
behind the mirror.
A real image (always inverted) is the one through which the rays
of light actually pass after reflection from concave mirror and
which can be formed on a screen. A virtual image (always erect)
is the one through which the rays do not actually pass, although
they appear to come from it. Thus, the images of an object (e.g.,
a burning candle) formed for situations illustrated in Figs. A13
(ii).1 (a) to (d) can be focussed on a screen. The size of image
may be determined by using a graph paper fixed on the screen.

198

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

P
ROCEDURE
1. Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the concave
mirror by focusing the image of a distant object. It can be found
by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a tree on a plane wall,
or on a sheet of paper and measuring the distance between the
mirror and the image with a scale. This distance is an approximate
value of the focal length, f of the concave mirror. Twice of this
focal length is an approximate value of the radius of curvature
of the mirror.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit
level make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided
at the base of the bench.
3. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and fix it near one
end of the optical bench such that its principal axis is
horizontal and parallel to the optical bench. In this position
the mirror would lie in a plane perpendicular to the principal
axis of the mirror.
4. Mount a lighted candle vertically on a small candlestand and
fix it on an upright. Place this upright near the reflecting
surface of the mirror. Adjust the upright so that the height of
the bottom of the candle (or top of the candlestand) becomes
equal to the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of
the optical bench. In this situation the bottom of the candle
(or the top of the candlestand) would lie on the principal axis
of the mirror.
5. Mount the screen on another upright and adjust the height of
its top equal to the height of pole P from the base of the optical
bench. Thus, the position of the screen lies below the principal
axis of the mirror.

Note: In situations where ∞ > u > R; R > v > f, the object is kept above
the principal axis and screen is kept below the principal axis as shown
in Fig. A 13 (ii).2(a).

6. Shift the candle upright to another end of the optical bench so

that the distance of the candle from the mirror is much larger
than the focal length of the concave mirror. Thus, the position of
the candle in front of the mirror can be considered to be distant,
i.e., u >> R, and the image of the candle will be formed at a
position much closer to the principal focus F of the mirror [Fig.
A13 (ii).1 (a)] or v
f.
7. Read the positions of the mirror, screen and candle uprights on
the optical bench metre scale and record the readings in the
observation table.
199

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

8. Measure height of the lighted candle using the metre scale. Also
measure the height of the image formed on screen as done in
step 9 of activity 13 (i).
9. Bring the lighted candle close to the centre of curvature C
(distance PC = 2 f ). Now the image will be formed in between the
points C and F, close to 2f. Adjust the position of the screen to
get a sharp image [Fig. A 13 (ii). 1(b)].

u M v M

P P
C F C F
f f

v u
M′ M′
2f 2f
(a) (b)

Fig. A 13 (ii). 2 Real images of a lighted candle formed by a concave mirror (a) u > v; and (b) u < v.

10. Place the candle at C. Shift the position of the screen near to the
principal focus F on the optical bench. Use the rough estimated
value of the focal length f of the mirror as determined in Step 1.
Make final adjustments to get a sharp image of the lighted candle
on the screen. Note the nature of the image.
11. Repeat steps 7 and 8 and record the observations and also note
the nature of image formed.
12. Shift the lighted candle such that R > u > f. Now the
image will be formed in between the point C and infinity,
i.e., ∞ > v > R [Fig. A13(ii).1(d)]. Now since u < v, the candle
(object) is placed below the principal axis while the screen
is placed above the principal axis, i.e. the top of candle
and bottom of the screen lie on principal axis as shown in [Fig.
A13 (ii). 2 (b)].

13. Repeat above steps by placing the candle at F and then between
F and P. Record your observations in Table A 13 (ii).1.

Note: When candle is placed at the centre of curvature C (i.e., u = R),

this method may not be useful for locating the position of image as it
is difficult to mount both the screen and candle at the same place on
the optical bench.
200

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY 13

O
BSERVATIONS
Approximate focal length of the concave mirror =...cm
Table A 13 (ii).1: Nature, size and position of image with different
positions of object

Position Position Size Position Size of Nature of Relative size

Sl.
of of of flame of image on the image image of image
No.
mirror (cm) candle (cm) (cm) screen (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
--
6

R ESULT
Observation on the nature, size and position of image shows that
1. The image moves away from the focus as the object is moved
towards the focus.
2. The size of the image increases as it moves away from the mirror.
3. If the object is placed between infinity and F the image formed by
a concave mirror is real and inverted.
4. If the object is placed between F and pole, the image is formed
behind the mirror and it is virtual, erect and enlarged.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where
no direct light reaches (preferably in a dark room) otherwise the
images may not be distinctly visible.
2. While estimating the rough value of focal length f of the mirror
by focusing the Sun, do not look at the Sun through the mirror
as it may hurt your eyes.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image
formed will not be distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
image being formed on the screen.
201

24/04/2018
LABORATORY MANUAL

6. An error may arise in the observations if the top of optical bench

is not horizontal.
7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench
experiments must be taken care of.
8. The concave mirror should be front-coated. Otherwise multiple
reflections coming from the reflecting surface of the mirror will
confuse the accurate position of the image.

D ISCUSSION
1. You cannot exactly observe the characteristics of the image
formed when the object is between focus and pole of the mirror.
You can only check by moving the screen in front of it that the
image is not formed in front of the mirror. By drawing ray
diagram it can be seen that the virtual image is formed behind
the mirror.
2. The inferences corresponding to u= ∞ and u=f also be elicited by
the trends you observe and drawing ray diagrams, because, the
object and image (respectively) are situated outside the range of
optical bench.
3. The situation corresponding to u= 2f, may also be difficult to locate
because you have to place the candle and the screen at the same
position.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. The focal length of a concave mirror is 20 cm, what is its radius of
curvature?
2. When an object is placed at 30 cm in front of a concave mirror, image
of the same size is formed. What is the focal length of the mirror?
3. Focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm. What will be the
characteristics of the image formed, when the object is placed at a
distance of 40 cm in front of the mirror?
4. What is the effect on the size and intensity of the image formed
when the lower half of the concave mirror is painted black?
5. Is it possible to get a virtual image on the screen? If so, how?
6. In a similar experiment using lenses, the images look a little
coloured, unlike this experiment. What is the reason for this?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Using a plane mirror and a single pin determine the focal length of a given
convex lens.
202

24/04/2018
 ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 14
AIM
To obtain a lens combination with specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A set of convex lenses of known powers, optical bench with uprights
and screen, a source of light providing a parallel beam of light (a
collimator).

P RINCIPLE
A parallel beam of light
parallel to principal axis Combination of Screen
lenses L1 and L2
after refraction through a Collimator Slit
lens either focus at a point
or appears to diverge from
a point on the principal
axis called the focus point.
The distance from the
optical centre to the focal
point is called the focal F
length.
Power of lens
The ability of a lens to
converge or diverge the Fig. A 14.1 (a) Focal length of combination of lenses
rays passing through it
is called the power of the lens
1
Power =
focal length ( f )

Its SI unit is Dioptre. Power of a convex lens is taken as positive. Two

or more lenses, placed in contact together to have a common principal
axis, form a lens combination. If f1, f 2, ... fn be the focal length of
individual lens and F be the focal length of the combination, then
203

24/04/2018